Handbook of Social Resource Theory Theoretical Extensions,

Empirical Insights, and Social Applications

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Editors
Kjell Törnblom Ali Kazemi
Center for Social Justice Research Center for Social Justice Research
University of Skövde University of Skövde
Skövde Skövde
Sweden Sweden

ISSN 1572-1906
ISBN 978-1-4614-4174-8 ISBN 978-1-4614-4175-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4175-5
Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012947400

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012

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Foreword

I was enormously impressed when I first read Foa and Foa’s Resource Theory
of Social Exchange in 1980. It seemed to me that it opened up an area in
social psychology which had largely been ignored. It shed new light on an
important aspect of social interaction – the resources being exchanged – and
it formulated many interesting, testable hypotheses. As I read their writings,
I had various quibbles with it. For example, I did not think their list of catego-
ries of resources was exhaustive. I also thought “negative resources” was not
simply the opposite of “positive resources” in kind or the reactions they
would elicit, etc. Nevertheless, I thought it was an important and valuable
theory, but I ignored it even though I now realize it was an important comple-
ment to some of the theoretical ideas I had developed (presented in Deutsch
1982; reprinted in Coleman 2011). Other social psychologists also largely
neglected it. So I am delighted to see this rich volume of papers, by distin-
guished contributors, that take the Foa and Foa theory as the jumping off
point for revising, amplifying, or absorbing into larger theories.
I will briefly indicate how my theoretical work on interdependence and
psychological orientation could have benefitted from the work of Foa and
Foa. My theoretical work here had two key aspects: characterizing the dimen-
sions of social relations and characterizing the nature of psychological orien-
tations. It postulated that one’s psychological orientation had to fit the social
relations one is in, and a lack of fit would produce change in the relation and/
or one’s psychological orientation. Thus, your psychological orientation
when you are involved in love-making with your spouse is quite different
than when you are bargaining with a used car salesman, and unless you
change your psychological orientation as you move from one situation to the
other, you will produce radical changes in the new situation.
I characterized social relations in terms of their location on five dimen-
sions: cooperation-competition, power equality, task-oriented versus social-
emotional, formal-informal, and importance. In my view, a psychological
orientation was composed of the following interrelated components: cogni-
tive, motivational, moral, and action. For details, see my paper in Coleman
(2011). If you take a social relationship that is cooperative, equal, social-
emotional, informal, and important, it is likely that the resource of love will
be dominant in the interaction. On the other hand, if in the prior listing you
change “social-emotional” to “task-oriented,” information will be dominant.
In preparing this foreword, and renewing my interest in the ideas of Foa and
Foa, I have found that their ideas could have been an important contribution to

v
vi Foreword

my work. In the many excellent chapters in this book, you will learn of the
scholars who have been influenced by their work and the far-reaching implica-
tions of their ideas.

References
Coleman, P. (2011). Conflict, interdependence, and justice: The intellectual legacy of
Morton Deutsch. New York: Springer.
Deutsch, M. (1982). Interdependence and psychological orientation. In V. Derlaga & J.L.
Grzelek (Eds.), Cooperative and helping behavior: Theories and research (pp. 15–42).
Academic Press.
Foa, E. B., & Foa, V. G. (1980). Resource theory: Interpersonal behavior exchange. In K.
J. Gergen, M. S. Greenberg, & R. H. Willis (Eds.), Social exchange: Advances in theory
and research. New York: Plenum.

E.L. Thorndike Professor Emeritus of Psychology Morton Deutsch

Teachers College, Columbia University
New York, NY, USA
Contents

1 Introduction. Social Resource Theory: Yesterday, Today,

and Tomorrow ............................................................................. 1
Kjell Törnblom and Ali Kazemi

Part I The Basic Framework

2 Resource Theory of Social Exchange ........................................ 15

Edna B. Foa and Uriel G. Foa
3 Some Conceptual and Theoretical Issues in Resource
Theory of Social Exchange ......................................................... 33
Kjell Törnblom and Ali Kazemi

Part II Conceptual and Theoretical Developments

4 Toward an Expansion of Resource Exchange Theory:

A Facet Approach ....................................................................... 67
Clara Sabbagh and Shlomit Levy
5 Formalizing Foa’s Social Resource Theory of Exchange ........ 81
Barry Markovsky and Ali Kazemi
6 Social Exchange Theory, Exchange Resources,
and Interpersonal Relationships: A Modest Resolution
of Theoretical Difficulties ........................................................... 99
Marie S. Mitchell, Russell S. Cropanzano,
and David M. Quisenberry
7 Attribution of Friendship: The Influence of the Nature
and Comparability of Resources Given and Received............. 119
Kjell Törnblom and Eva M. Fredholm
8 Understanding Status as a Social Resource .............................. 133
Kevin R. Binning and Yuen J. Huo
9 Moral Resources.......................................................................... 149
Robert Folger
10 The Structural Bases of Resource Distribution ........................ 161
Jonathan H. Turner

vii
viii Contents

Part III Theoretical Integrations

11 Towards Integrating Distributive Justice, Procedural Justice,

and Social Resource Theories .................................................... 181
Kjell Törnblom and Riël Vermunt
12 Resource Types and Fairness Perceptions
in Social Dilemmas ...................................................................... 199
Barry Markovsky and Nick Berigan
13 Goods, Bads, and the Foa Resources: Analyzing Their
Operation in the New Unified Theory of
Sociobehavioral Forces ............................................................... 215
Guillermina Jasso
14 The Complementary Natures of Resource Theory
and Interpersonal Evaluation Theory ....................................... 223
Robert Gifford and Michael Cave
15 A Biosocial Approach to Resource Theory ............................... 237
J. Scott Lewis and Jeffrey A. Houser

Part IV Organizational, Institutional, Societal,

and Inter-cultural Issues

16 The Emergence of Social Meaning: A Theory of Action

Construal ..................................................................................... 255
John Adamopoulos
17 Some Hypotheses on Cross-Cultural Differences in the
Impact of Resource Type on the Preferred Principle
of Distributive Justice ................................................................. 273
Anna Baumert and Manfred Schmitt
18 Cultural Differences in Resource Exchange
at the Workplace: A Sino-US Comparison ............................... 283
Justin Kraemer and Chao C. Chen
19 The Positive, Sustaining, and Protective Power of Resources:
Insights from Conservation of Resources Theory .................... 301
Lisa Stines Doane, Jeremiah A. Schumm, and Stevan E. Hobfoll
20 Initiating Customer Loyalty to a Retailer:
A Resource Theory Perspective ................................................. 311
Michael J. Dorsch and Colby L. Brooks
21 Resources and Transactions in the Organization’s
Underworld: Exchange Content and Consequences ............... 333
Dan S. Chiaburu, Zinta S. Byrne, and Janet Weidert
Contents ix

Part V Justice Conceptions and Processes in Resource Exchange

22 Limitations on Structural Principles of Distributive Justice:

The Case of Discrete Idiosyncratic Goods ................................ 351
Richard F. Galvin and Charles Lockhart
23 Predicting Reactions to Procedural Injustice via Insights
from Resource Theory ................................................................ 373
Ali Kazemi, Maedeh Gholamzadehmir, and Kjell Törnblom
24 Resource Theory and Restoration: What is Restored
in Restorative Justice? ................................................................ 383
Ronald L. Cohen
25 The Salience of Outcome and Procedure in Giving
and Receiving Universalistic and Particularistic Resources ... 397
Riël Vermunt, Ali Kazemi, and Kjell Törnblom
26 Evaluating the Distribution of Various Resources
in Educational Settings: The Views of Jewish
and Arab Teachers in Israel ....................................................... 407
Clara Sabbagh and Hila Malka
27 Factorial Survey Methods for Studying Goods, Bads,
and the Foa Resources ................................................................ 423
Guillermina Jasso

Part VI Envoi

28 Where Do We Stand and Where Do We Need to Go? ............. 435

Elaine Hatfield and Richard L. Rapson

Author Index........................................................................................ 453

Subject Index ....................................................................................... 463

About the Contributors

John Adamopoulos is professor of psychology at Grand Valley State

University in Michigan (USA). He has also taught at the University of Illinois
and Indiana University at South Bend. He was born in Thessaloniki,
Greece, and received his undergraduate degree in psychology from Yale
University and his Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Illinois. His
research focuses on the emergence of interpersonal meaning systems across
cultures and historical periods, with a special emphasis on the structure of
behavior. In addition, he is interested in the cultural basis of intention forma-
tion, and in the critical analysis of theoretical systems that connect culture
and psychological processes. He was a member of the Executive Council of
the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology for a number of
years, editor of the Cross-Cultural Psychology Bulletin (1990–1994) and
associate editor of the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (1997–2001).
He has edited, with Yoshi Kashima, the volume Social Psychology and
Cultural Context (Sage Publications, 1999).

Anna Baumert completed her Ph.D. in psychology in 2009 at the University

of Koblenz-Landau. She is presently postdoctoral researcher in the research
group for personality and psychological assessment led by Prof. Manfred
Schmitt at the University of Koblenz-Landau. Her research interests include
personality-congruent information processing, justice sensitivity, moral emo-
tions, and social conflict.

Nick Berigan received his Ph.D. from the University of South Carolina and
currently teaches at East Tennessee State University. His research uses both
experimental and applied settings to study how trust, fairness, and interper-
sonal motives affect strategic behavior.

Kevin R. Binning is a senior researcher in the Center for Research on

Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing at the University of California,
Los Angeles (UCLA), and a visiting scholar in the Department of Psychological
and Brain Sciences at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He received
a Ph.D. in psychology from UCLA and completed postdoctoral training at the
Stanford Graduate School of Business.

Colby L. Brooks is a graduate of Clemson University where she was a recipi-

ent of the University’s premier academic scholarship, the Clemson National

xi
xii About the Contributors

Scholars Program. She obtained a bachelor’s degree in marketing and now

works for one of the world’s largest consulting firms. The firm has been
named the top consultancy for three consecutive years by CRM Magazine. As
a functional consultant, Colby helps clients achieve business transformation
by implementing Customer Relationship Management strategies, best prac-
tices, and systems. Colby’s experience spans industries; her clients have
included the world’s most recognized financial services brand, the largest
single supplier of blood in the United States, North America’s leading pro-
vider of integrated environmental solutions, and some of Europe’s leading
providers of telecommunications services. She has helped these clients revo-
lutionize their businesses by implementing Oracle-based CRM systems,
strategies, and business processes.

Zinta S. Byrne is a tenured associate professor of psychology at Colorado

State University. Her research interests include employee engagement, com-
puter-mediated work environments, and organizational attitudes such as jus-
tice and politics. Her work has been published in the Journal of Occupational
Health Psychology, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Journal of Applied
Psychology, and Journal of Business and Psychology, among others.

Michael Cave is a graduate at the University of Victoria, Canada, and has

collaborated with Dr. Robert Gifford during the last years.

Chao C. Chen is a professor of management and global business at Rutgers

University. His research interests include rewards and compensation, organi-
zational justice, leadership, networking, trust, and cross-cultural manage-
ment. He has published in leading management journals such as Academy of
Management Journal, Academy of Management Review, Administrative
Science Quarterly, Journal of Applied Psychology, and Organization
Science.

Dan S. Chiaburu is assistant professor of management in the Mays Business

School at Texas A&M University. He received his Ph.D. in business adminis-
tration from Pennsylvania State University. His current research examines
prosocial and proactive work behaviors and coworker exchanges and rela-
tionships. His recent work appeared in the Journal of Applied Psychology,
Journal of International Business, and Group & Organization Management.

Ronald L. Cohen (Ph.D., University of Michigan) is professor of psychol-

ogy at Bennington College, where he served as dean for 9 years, and has
taught since 1971. His research interests focus primarily on everyday under-
standings of justice and silence, and the links between them. He is coauthor
of Political Attitudes over the Life Span: The Bennington Women after 50
Years, and editor of three books on justice. His work has been published in a
range of professional journals. He has been a guest professor at the universi-
ties of Mannheim and Utrecht, and at Koc University in Istanbul. He was for
many years an associate editor of Social Justice Research, and has served as
a panelist for the National Endowment for the Humanities. He has served on
About the Contributors xiii

the Bennington County Reparative Board, a restorative justice program

administered by the State of Vermont’s Department of Corrections, since
1997. He is a fellow of the American Psychological Association and The
Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI), and received
SPSSI’s 2007 Undergraduate Teaching Award.

Russell S. Cropanzano is Professor of organizational behavior at the

University of Colorado’s Leeds School of Business. Dr. Cropanzano’s pri-
mary research areas include perceptions of organizational justice as well as
the experience and impact of workplace emotion. He has edited four books,
presented over 100 papers, and published over 100 scholarly articles and
chapters. Dr. Cropanzano has coauthored two books. The first, Organizational
Justice and Human Resources Management, won the 1998 Book Award from
the International Association of Conflict Management. The second, Social
Justice and the Experience of Emotion, was released in November of 2010.
Dr. Cropanzano was also a winner of the 2000 Outstanding Paper Award
from the Consulting Psychology Journal, as well as the 2007 Best Paper
Award from Academy of Management Perspectives. He is a past editor of the
Journal of Management, and a fellow in the Society for Industrial/
Organizational Psychology and the Association for Psychological Science.

Morton Deutsch is E. L. Thorndike Professor and director emeritus of the

International Center for Cooperation and Conflict Resolution (ICCCR) at
Teachers College, Columbia University. He studied with Kurt Lewin at MIT’s
Research Center for Group Dynamics, where he obtained his Ph.D. in 1948.
He is well-known for his pioneering studies in intergroup relations, coopera-
tion-competition, conflict resolution, social conformity, and the social psy-
chology of justice. His books include Interracial Housing, Research Methods
in Social Relations, Preventing World War III: Some Proposals, Theories in
Social Psychology, The Resolution of Conflict, Applying Social Psychology,
and Distributive Justice. His work has been widely honored by the Kurt
Lewin Memorial Award, the G. W. Allport Prize, the Carl Hovland Memorial
Award, the AAAS Socio-Psychological Prize, APA’s Distinguished Scientific
Contribution Award, SESP’s Distinguished Research Scientist Award, and
the Nevitt Sanford Award. He is a William James fellow of APS. He also
received lifetime achievement awards for his work on conflict management,
cooperative learning, peace psychology, and applications of psychology to
social issues. In addition, he has received the Teachers College Medal for his
contributions to education, the Helsinki University Medal for his contribu-
tions to psychology, and the doctorate of humane letters from the City
University of New York. He has been president of the Society for the
Psychological Study of Social Issues, the International Society of Political
Psychology, the Eastern Psychological Association, the New York State
Psychological Association, and several divisions of the American
Psychological Association.

Lisa Stines Doane is a licensed clinical psychologist and assistant professor

in the Department of Psychology at Cleveland State University. She earned
xiv About the Contributors

her Ph.D. in clinical psychology at Kent State University in 2005, after com-
pleting her clinical internship at the National Crime Victims Center at the
Medical University of South Carolina, where she specialized in treating child
and adult survivors of physical and sexual abuse. Dr. Doane completed a
postdoctoral fellowship at Case Western Reserve University, where she served
as program coordinator of the PTSD Treatment and Research Program, and
co-investigator on a federally funded randomized clinical trial comparing the
effectiveness of psychotherapy versus medication for adults with PTSD. She
has received funding from the National Institute of Mental Health to study
changes in trauma-related beliefs during treatment for PTSD. Her current
research focuses on examining the process of change in therapy, patient pref-
erences for treatments, as well as expanding access to empirically supported
treatments for trauma survivors.

Michael J. Dorsch (Ph.D. Arkansas) is a professor of marketing at Clemson

University, which is located in Clemson, South Carolina, USA. His honors
include receiving several Best Journal Article Awards, multiple Outstanding
Journal Reviewer Awards, and recognition for quality teaching. With respect
to his research, Mike examines issues related to services marketing, customer
loyalty, marketing relationships, and research methodology. His research has
been published in journals such as the Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, Journal of Business Research, The Journal of Advertising, the
Journal of Services Marketing, the Journal of Personal Selling and Sales
Management, the Journal of Macromarketing, the European Journal of
Marketing, The Services Industry Journal, and the Journal of Travel Research,
among others. He has also given numerous presentations at national and
international conferences. Mike is also a former chair of SERVSIG, a special
interest group sponsored by the American Marketing Association, a former
editor of the Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, and a regular reviewer
for marketing journals. He has also been an expert witness and occasionally
serves as a business consultant.

Edna B. Foa, Ph.D., is a professor of clinical psychology in psychiatry at the

University of Pennsylvania and director of the Center for the Treatment and
Study of Anxiety. She received her Ph.D. in clinical psychology and person-
ality from the University of Missouri, Columbia, in 1970. Dr. Foa devoted her
academic career to study the psychopathology and treatment of anxiety dis-
orders, primarily obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) and is currently one of the world leading experts in
these areas. Dr. Foa was the chair of the DSM-IV Subcommittee for OCD.
Dr. Foa has published several books and over 350 articles and book chapters
and has lectured extensively around the world. Her work has been recognized
with numerous awards and honors. Among them are: Distinguished Scientific
Contributions to Clinical Psychology Award from the American Psychological
Association, Lifetime Achievement Award presented by the International
Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 2009 Lifetime Achievement Award pre-
sented by the Association for Behavior and Cognitive Therapies, TIME 100
most influential people of the world, 2010 Lifetime Achievement in the Field
About the Contributors xv

of Trauma Psychology Award from American Psychology Association, and

Outstanding Career Achievement Award presented by the International OCD
Foundation.

Uriel G. Foa (February 25, 1916–January 15, 1990), born in Italy, was a
professor and professor emeritus of psychology, 1971–1990, at Temple
University, Philadelphia. He received his Ph.D. from the Hebrew University
of Jerusalem and prior to his tenure at Temple University he taught at the
universities of Bar Ilan, Israel (1958–1965), Illinois-Urbana (1965–1967) and
Missouri-Columbia (1967–1971). His many publications in professional
journals and books covered a broad variety of topics in personality, social
psychology, and methodology. The first paper of Professor Foa’s resource
theory of social exchange was published in Science 1971. He continued to
develop this theory and conducted studies to examine its empirical validity
with his wife Edna B. Foa. This work was culminated in a book entitled
Societal Structures of the Mind they coauthored and published in 1974. This
book is one of the most frequently quoted books in social psychology.
Professor Foa founded the Israel Institute of Applied Social Research, and
was its executive director until 1965 when he moved to the USA. Dr. Foa
received several awards for his work, and he was a fellow of the American
Psychological Association, the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, and the New York Academy of Science.

Robert Folger is the distinguished alumni endowed professor of business

ethics in the management department of the College of Business at the
University of Central Florida. He is a fellow of the Academy of Management,
the American Psychological Association, the Society for Personality and
Social Psychology, and the Society of Industrial and Organizational
Psychology (from whom he received a Distinguished Scientific Contributions
Award). His honors and awards include the New Concept Award and the Best
Paper Award from the Organizational Behavior Division of the Academy of
Management. Folger has over 100 publications, including articles in the
Academy of Management Journal, The Academy of Management Review,
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Journal of Applied
Psychology, Psychological Bulletin, and Psychological Review. He has been
on the editorial boards of the Journal of Management, the Journal of
Organizational Behavior, The Academy of Management Review,
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, and Social Justice
Research. He edited The Sense of Injustice (1984) and coauthored
Controversial Issues in Social Research Methods (1988). The International
Association for Conflict Management named his coauthored Organizational
Justice and Human Resources Management as its 1998 “Book of the Year.”

Eva M. Fredholm received her Ph.D. in Sociology from University of

Gothenburg, Sweden. She has coauthored articles published in Social
Psychology Quarterly and Human Relations, among others. After her gradu-
ation she worked as the senior vice president for Bylock Shipping Company,
xvi About the Contributors

as personnel manager for Swedish Exhibition, and as a communication thera-

pist. She is now retired.

Richard F. Galvin is Betty S. Wright professor in applied ethics at TCU. His

recent interests are in ethics (especially Kantian ethics) and philosophy of
law. His recent publications in Kantian ethics include articles in The
Philosophical Quarterly, History of Philosophy Quarterly, Southwest
Philosophy Review and a chapter in The Blackwell Guide to Kant’s Ethics. In
ethics, more generally, he has recently published in Ethics, Policy and
Environment, and in philosophy of law he has published an article in Legal
Studies.

Maedeh Gholamzadehmir is a Ph.D. candidate in social psychology at the

Department of Psychology, Sussex University. Her research interests include
social justice, moral development, and the interaction between justice and
morality.

Robert Gifford is professor of psychology and environmental studies at the

University of Victoria and a fellow of the American Psychological Association,
the Canadian Psychological Association, and the Association for Psychological
Science. Author of over 100 refereed publications and book chapters and four
editions of Environmental Psychology: Principles and Practice, he is also the
editor of the Journal of Environmental Psychology and has served as presi-
dent of the American Psychological Association’s Population and Environment
Division and the environmental psychology division of the International
Association of Applied Psychology. Dr. Gifford is the founding director of
University of Victoria’s program in the Human Dimensions of Climate
Change. He has also been interested in the Foas’ ideas for over 25 years.

Elaine Hatfield is a professor of psychology at the University of Hawaii and

past-president of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS). In
2012, the Association for Psychological Science (APS) gave Elaine the
William James award for a Lifetime of Scientific Achievement. In recent
years, she has received distinguished scientist awards (for a lifetime of
scientific achievements) from the Society of Experimental Social Psychology,
the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, and the University of Hawaii,
and the Alfred Kinsey Award from the Western Region of SSSS. Two of her
books have won the American Psychological Association’s National Media
Award. Recently, Elaine Hatfield and Richard L. Rapson (who are husband
and wife) have collaborated on three books: Love, Sex, and Intimacy: Their
Psychology, Biology, and History (HarperCollins); Emotional Contagion
(Cambridge University Press); and Love and Sex: Cross-Cultural Perspectives
(Allyn and Bacon).

Stevan E. Hobfoll has authored and edited 12 books, including Traumatic

Stress, The Ecology of Stress, Stress, Culture, and Community, and The
Imperfect Guardian (an historical novel set in Eastern Europe at the time of
World War I). In addition, he has authored over 200 journal articles, book
About the Contributors xvii

chapters, and technical reports. He has been a frequent workshop leader on

stress, war, and terrorism, stress and health, and organizational stress. He has
received over $12 million in research grants on stress. Dr. Hobfoll is currently
the Judd and Marjorie Weinberg presidential professor and chair of the
Department of Behavioral Sciences at Rush Medical College in Chicago. He
is also a senior fellow of the Center for National Security Studies at the
University of Haifa, Israel. Formerly at Tel Aviv and Ben Gurion Universities,
and an officer in the Israeli Defense Forces, he remains involved with the
problem of stress in Israel. Dr. Hobfoll was cited by the Encyclopædia
Britannica for his contribution to knowledge and understanding for his
Ecology of Stress volume and received lifetime achievement awards for his
work on stress and health and traumatic stress from several scientific societ-
ies. He was co-chair of the American Psychological Association Commission
on Stress and War during Operation Desert Storm, helping plan for the pre-
vention of prolonged distress among military personnel and their families,
member of the US Disaster Mental Health Subcommittee of the National
Biodefense Science Board (NBSB), and a member of APA’s Task Force on
Resilience in Response to Terrorism. He has been a consultant to several
nations, military organizations, and major corporations on problems of stress
and health. His work on mass casualty intervention was designated as one of
the most influential recent contributions to psychiatry.

Jeffrey A. Houser is associate professor of sociology at the University of

Northern Colorado. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa in
1997. His research interests include the sociology of disability, and the inter-
play of status processes and emotion in group dynamics. His work with J.
Scott Lewis examines the connections between environmental and social
evolution.

Yuen J. Huo is associate professor of psychology at the University of

California, Los Angeles. Her work explores how justice concerns and social
identity processes jointly operate to influence group dynamics and intergroup
relations. Her current research interests include ethnic minorities’ reactions
to diversity policies, the psychology of respect, and moral emotions. Her
research examining the influence of group identities on ethnic conflicts in
diverse settings was recognized by the Otto Klineberg Intercultural and
International Relations Award. She is a member of SPSSI Council. She holds
B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees from the University of California, Berkeley.

Guillermina Jasso (Ph.D., Johns Hopkins University) is Silver Professor and

professor of sociology at New York University. Her main research interests
are basic theory and international migration, together with inequality, proba-
bility distributions, and factorial survey methods, topics on which she has
published widely, including such papers as “How Much Injustice Is There in
the World?” “A New Unified Theory of Sociobehavioral Forces,” “Two Types
of Inequality,” and “Migration and Stratification.” Dr. Jasso’s contributions
(some with coauthors) include a mathematical formula for the sense of jus-
tice, a justice index with poverty and inequality components, two new distri-