Unit 3: Precipitation

ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

UNIT III
PRECIPITATION: SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION

Introduction
Water may take a number of different forms in the atmosphere. These forms are
collectively termed ‘PRECIPITATION’, which includes rain, drizzle, sleet (partly melted
snowflakes, or rain and snow falling together), snow, and hail. The intensity and duration of
precipitation are extremely variable in most areas of the world. The source of precipitation is
water vapor, which is always present in the atmosphere in varying amounts, although it makes
up less than 1% by volume. However, the water vapor in the air must be cooled to allow water
to be condensed into cloud droplets. These droplets then grow to form precipitation particles.
The mass of water in the atmosphere in both liquid and vapor forms is around 1.3×1016 kg,
compared with the mass of water in the oceans of around 1.3×1021kg. Nevertheless, this water
is distributed very unevenly and is transported by the circulation of the atmosphere.

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:
1. Understand the different types of precipitation
2. Ability to differentiate forms and variations of precipitations
3. Ability to select appropriate measurements and instruments based on the characteristics
of the precipitation events
4. Knowledge of statistical methods and data analysis used to analyze precipitation data
5. Applications of rainfall data and analysis results in various fields
 Unit 3: Precipitation
ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

Lesson 1: Types, Forms and Variation

Learning Contents

Two atmospheric processes are primarily responsible for producing precipitation. These
processes are generally referred to as 1) the collision and coalescence process and 2) the ice-
crystal process

THE COLLISION AND COALESCENCE PROCESS:

The collision and coalescence process are the means by which small water vapor droplets
(created by condensation around available nuclei) increase in size in warm clouds. The term
"warm" is relative, and refers to cloud conditions when temperatures are greater than 0° C.
Larger cloud droplets descend more quickly toward the earth's surface under the pull of gravity
than smaller droplets, and thus collisions occur as the larger droplets fall. As the water molecules
in these droplets coalesce, the droplets become larger and fall more rapidly until they attain the
size of raindrops (approximately 2 mm) and fall to the ground. The size of raindrops depends on
several factors, including the vertical velocity (upward) supporting the droplets, the depth of the
cloud, the time droplets remain suspended, and atmospheric temperature. The production of
raindrops and, consequently, the precipitation that reaches the ground is a function of these
factors plus the liquid water content of the cloud, the electric field in the cloud and of the droplets,
and the relative size of the droplets.

THE ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS:

Warm precipitation is usually restricted to tropical regions and some middle-latitude

storms in the summertime. The predominant precipitation-producing mechanism in middle and
high latitudes is the ice-crystal process. In this case, clouds extend into the atmosphere above
the 0° C level and are thus known as cold clouds. Interestingly, even though ambient
temperatures may be less than 0° C, liquid water droplets can still resist and are known as
supercooled droplets. Such droplets can exist in a liquid phase to temperatures as low as 40 ° C,
below which all water is in the form of ice particles. Between -40° and 0° C a combination of ice
particles and liquid water droplets usually exists.

The ice-crystal process is controlled by nucleation, or the formation of an ice embryo.

Homogeneous nucleation refers to the formation of an embryo from a water droplet when no
foreign material is present. In this case, the droplet freezes by the simple aggregation of water
molecules. This process is possible only when temperatures are near or below -40° C, which is
normally the case only in high, cirrus clouds and thus is not the controlling factor in producing
precipitation.

In contrast, heterogeneous nucleation occurs when foreign matter is present upon which
droplets can either form and aggregate, or with which droplets can collide and freeze
spontaneously. The larger the nucleating material, the faster will be the process of freezing,
which can occur at higher temperatures. For instance, droplets with diameters of 10 mm will
freeze at —32° C but droplets with diameters of 10,000 (will freeze at -15° C. In general, the
higher, deeper, and colder the cloud, the greater the probability that ice particles are present and
are the controlling mechanism for precipitation production.
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ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
1. DRIZZLE - a light steady rain in fine drops, about 0.5 mm, and intensity less than 1
mm/hr.
- A fine sprinkle of small and rather uniform water drops that have a diameter of less
than 0.02 inch (0.5 mm). The drops are so small that they seem to float in the air and
follow the irregularities of all the air motion. To qualify as a drizzle, the drops must
not only be small, but they must also be numerous. It usually falls from stratiform
clouds, and its intensity is generally less than 0.04 inches per hour.
2. RAIN – is the condensed water vapor of the atmosphere falling in drops (>0.5 mm,
maximum size is 6 mm) from the clouds.
- It is precipitation of liquid water in which the drops, as a rule, are larger than in drizzle.
On occasion, the drops may be of drizzle size, but they are then few and far between.
This distinguishes them from drizzle. It is usually reported in three intensities, light for
rates of fall from a trace to 0.10, moderate from 0.11 to 0.30, and heavy over 0.30
in/hr.
3. GLAZE OR FREEZING RAIN - the freezing of drizzle or rain when it comes in contact
with cold objects.
- is rain that falls into a cold layer of air and freezes when it strikes objects on the
ground
4. SLEET - the frozen raindrops that fall through the air at subfreezing temperatures.
- is rain that freezes to pellets of ice when falling through a layer of cold air.
5. SNOW - is the ice crystal resulting from sublimation; i.e., water vapor condenses to ice-
is precipitation of solid water, mainly in the form of branched hexagonal crystals (or stars)
resulting from condensation of water vapor directly to ice. Single ice crystals can reach
the ground, but usually, a number of them coalesce and fall as snowflakes. Even at
temperatures well below freezing, the crystals carry a thin coating of liquid water, and
when they collide, they stick together, becoming large flakes.
6. GRANULAR SNOW - opaque small grains falling from stratus clouds. It is the frozen
counterpart of drizzle.
7. HAIL - refers to small lumps of ice (3.5 mm diameter formed by alternate freezing and
melting, when they are carried up and down in highly turbulent air currents.
- is precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of ice over 0.2 inches in diameter, formed
by alternately freezing and melting as it is carried up and down in highly turbulent air
currents of violent storms.
8. DEW - is moisture condensed from the atmosphere in small drops upon cool surfaces
9. FROST - a feathery deposit of ice formed on the ground or on the surface of an exposed
object by dew or water vapor that has frozen.
10. FOG - a thin cloud of varying sizes formed at the surface of the earth by condensation of
atmospheric vapor, usually interfering with visibility.
11. MIST - is a very thin fog
Although water vapor in the atmosphere is a necessary factor in the formation of
precipitation, it is by no means the only requirement. The air mass containing the water vapor
must be cooled to condense the vapor into water droplets. The large-scale cooling needed for
sufficient amounts of precipitation is achieved by lifting the air. Lifting can occur in three ways
that also classify the type of precipitation.
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ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
1. CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION – typical of the tropics, this type of precipitation
results from the differential heating of air masses near the ground surface resulting in the
upward movement of warmer air masses. Convective precipitation results from the lifting
or upward movement of air that is warmer and lighter than its colder denser surroundings.
Typically, on a hot day the ground surface becomes heated, as does the air in contact
with it. This causes the air to rise, expand, and cool dynamically, causing condensation
and precipitation.

2. OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION – this type of precipitation is influenced by

topography. Moist air masses moving over mountain barriers are cooled, resulting in
condensation and precipitation. This occurs when air flows up and over a topographic
feature such as a mountain barrier. Orographic barriers often supply the lift to set off
precipitation. For this reason, precipitation is heavier on windward slopes, with rain
shadow (areas of lighter precipitation) on leeward slopes. Orographic precipitation not
associated with cyclonic or convective action tends to be of low intensity with relatively
long durations.
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3. CYCLONIC PRECIPITATION – is associated with the movement of air masses due to

differences in barometric pressure. This type of precipitation is triggered by the presence
of a low pressure into which air flow converges resulting in the lifting and subsequent
cooling of air masses. Cyclonic precipitation results from the lifting of air converging into
a low-pressure area, or cyclone. A cyclone is defined as an area of low pressure with a
counter-clockwise (Northern Hemisphere) circulation of the air around it, usually inward,
towards the center. This type of precipitation can also be classified into non-frontal and
frontal. Non-frontal precipitation can occur in any kind of barometric depression or
barometric low. The lifting of the air is caused by the horizontal convergence of air flowing
from an area of higher pressure into a low-pressure area. Frontal precipitation is the result
of the lifting of lighter warm moist air over more dense cold air.

FRONTAL STORMS result when two air masses and a cold air mass meet.
Precipitation is usually produced at the frontal or colliding boundaries of these air masses.
Warm front precipitation of longer duration and wider area coverage usually results when
warm air masses move upward over cold air masses. Less intense rainfall results when an
advancing cold front pushes back warm, moist air masses (cold front precipitation). In most
parts of the Philippines, more than 80% of the total rainfall is attributable to cyclonic
precipitation. The more common weather phenomena causing a cyclonic type of rainfall
include tropical cyclones, barometric lows during the summer months inducing the moist,
southwest monsoons, the movements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and the
southward movement of cold, high-pressure cells from temperate Asia during the winter
months.
 Unit 3: Precipitation
ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

Lesson 2: Measurement of Precipitation

Learning Contents

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL

ESTIMATION OF MISSING PRECIPITATION DATA

For longer-term totals such as seasonal and annual rainfall magnitudes, the normal-ratio
method may be used. In this method, the three nearest stations with long years of records are
chosen as index stations. If the normal precipitation in each of these three index stations is within
10% of that for the station with the missing record, a simple arithmetic average of the
precipitation totals of the index stations for the period in question will suffice. Otherwise, the
normal precipitation values at the index station are weighted as follows:
1 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = ( 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑃 )
3 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐶 𝐶

Where: P - estimated precipitation total for station x (with missing records)

NA, NB, NC - the normal precipitation totals for the index stations A, B, and C for the desired
periods
NX - normal precipitation at station x for the desired periods and,
PA, PB, PC - precipitation totals for the desired period for the three index stations

AREAL PRECIPITATION
a. Arithmetic Average. It is obtained by simply averaging arithmetically the amounts of
rainfall at the individual rain-gauge stations in the area,

∑ 𝑃1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑛
This method is fast and simple and yields good estimates in flat country if the
gauges are uniformly distributed and the rainfall at different stations does not vary very
widely from the mean. These limitations can be partially overcome if topographic
influences and aerial representativity are considered in the selection of gauge sites.

b. Thiessen Method. This method attempts to allow for the non-uniform distribution of
gauges by providing a weighting factor for each gauge. The stations are plotted on a base
map and are connected by straight lines. Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight
lines, joining adjacent stations to form polygons, known as Thiessen polygons.
Each polygon area is assumed to be influenced by the rain gauge station inside it,
i.e., if P1, P2, P3, .... are the rainfalls at the individual stations, and A1, A2, A3, .... are
the areas of the polygons surrounding these stations,

∑ 𝑃1 𝐴1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝐴1

Where ∑ 𝐴1 = 𝐴 = total area of the basin

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ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

The results obtained are usually more accurate than those obtained by simple arithmetic
averaging. The gauges should be properly located over the catchment to get regular
shaped polygons. However, one of the serious limitations of the Thiessen method is its
non-flexibility since a new Thiessen diagram has to be constructed every time there is a
change in the rain gauge network.

c. Isohyetal Method. In this method, the point rainfalls are plotted on a suitable base map
and the lines of equal rainfall (isohyets) are drawn considering orographic effects and
storm morphology, Fig. 2.11. The average rainfall between the successive isohyets taken
as the average of the two isohyetal values are weighted with the area between the
isohyets, added up, and divided by the total area which gives the average depth of rainfall
over the entire basin.

∑ 𝑃1−2 𝐴1−2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝐴1−2

Where ∑ 𝐴1−2 = area between the two successive isohyets 𝑃1 and 𝑃2

Example: Point rainfalls due to a storm at several rain-gauge stations in a basin are shown in
Fig. 2.10. Determine the mean area depth of rainfall over the basin by the three methods.

Solution:
(i) Arithmetic average method

∑ 𝑃1 1331 𝑐𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 8.87 𝑐𝑚
𝑛 15 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
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(ii) Thiessen polygon method – The Thiessen polygons are constructed as shown in Fig.
2.10 and the polygonal areas are planimeter and the mean areal depth of rainfall is
worked out below:

Station Rainfall recorded, Area of influential Product (2) x (3) Mean areal depth of
P1 (cm) polygon, A1 (km2) A1P1 (km2-cm) rainfall
1 2 3 4 5
A 8.8 570 5016
B 7.6 920 6992
C 10.8 720 7776
D 9.2 620 5704
E 13.8 520 7176
F 10.4 550 5720 ∑ 𝑃1 𝐴1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
G 8.5 400 3400 𝐴1
H 10.5 650 6828 66714
I 11.2 500 5600 =
7180
J 9.5 350 3325 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟎 𝒄𝒎
K 7.8 520 4056
L 5.2 250 1300
M 5.6 350 1960
N 6.8 100 680
O 7.4 160 1184
Total 1331 cm 7180 km2 66714 km2-cm
N=15

(iii) Isohyetal method—The isohyets are drawn as shown in Fig. 2.11 and the mean
areal depth of rainfall is worked out below:
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ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

Zone Isohyets Mean Area between Product (2) x Mean areal depth
(cm) isohyetal isohyets, A1-2 (3) of rainfall
value, P1-2 (km2) (km2-cm)
(cm)
1 2 3 4 5 6
I <6 5.4 410 2214 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒
II 6-8 7 900 6300 ∑ 𝐴1−2 𝑃1−2
=
III 8-10 9 2850 25650 𝐴1−2
IV 10-12 11 1750 19250 66714
=
V >12 12.8 720 9220 7180
VI <8 7.5 550 4120 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟎 𝒄𝒎
Total 7180 km2 66754 km2-cm

Activity: Thiessen polygons and isohyetal map are given in Fig. P 2.25 and P 2.26, respectively,
for different drainage basins. Areas and precipitation values are tabulated. Compute the average
precipitation over the basins.

Station Thiessen
Polygon area,
(km2)

A 170
B 164
C 156
D 150
E 116
F 36
G 124
H 42

Zone Area, (km2)

I 56
II 192
III 420
IV 244
V 44
VI 58
 Unit 3: Precipitation
ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION WITH GAGES

A variety of instruments and techniques have been developed for gathering

information on various phases of precipitation. Instruments for measuring the amount
and intensity of precipitation are the most important. Other instruments include
devices for measuring raindrop-size distribution and for determining the time of
beginning and ending of precipitation.
Any open receptacle that has vertical sides is a convenient rain gage, but
because of varying wind and splash effects, the measurements would not be
comparable unless the receptacles were of the same size and shape and similarly
exposed.

1. The National Weather Service standard gauge has an 8-inch diameter

collector. Rainwater passes from the collector into a cylindrical measuring tube
inside the overflow can. The measuring tube has a cross-sectional area one-
tenth that of the collector so a 0.1-inch rainfall will fill the tube to a depth of
1 inch.
2. Three types of recording gages in common use are:
a. The universal weighing-type gauge consists of a collecting bucket resting on a
weighing platform and frame, which are suspended from a spring. This gauge was
designed to obtain a continuous record not only of rain but also snow, hail, and sleet.
Precipitation collected in the bucket increases the load on the spring, which lowers the
platform, and the frame is transmitted through a system of links and levers to the pen,
which marks a graduated revolving chart. The record thus shows the accumulation of
precipitation.

b. The tipping bucket gage consists of a collector orifice, 12 inches in diameter that
funnels rainwater into a small outlet directly over a tipping bucket mechanism. The
tipping bucket is divided into two equal compartments, each holding exactly 0.01 inch
of rainfall. When one compartment fills, the bucket tips and empties into the overflow
reservoir. Simultaneously, the opposite compartment is positioned below the nozzle to
receive the incoming rainfall. Electrical impulses are transmitted to a recorder or
indicator, each impulse representing0.01 inch of rainfall.
 Unit 3: Precipitation
ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

c. A float–type gauge measures rainfall in a chamber that has a lightweight float into
which the rainwater is funneled. The vertical movement of the float as the level of the
water rises is then transmitted, by a suitable mechanism, into the movement of the
pen on the chart. By adjusting the dimensions of the receiving funnel, float, and float
chamber, any desired scale value on the chart can be obtained.

PRECIPITATION – GAGE NETWORK

A network for the gathering of hydrologic data is not always designed as a result of
scientific planning. The number of gages necessary to determine the depth of precipitation in an
area depends on (1) the size of the area, (2) prevailing storm type, (3) the form of
precipitation, (4) topography, (5) aspect, (6) season, and (7) the uses for which the
precipitation data are intended. Where prevailing storms are cyclonic, a sparse network may
be adequate. A denser network will be required where storms are predominately convective and
characterized by thunderstorms that have high intensities and uneven distribution. Mountainous
areas that create orographic-type storms may require more gages. Generally, more gages are
needed where precipitation is variable.
The objectives of the study are important in determining the number of gages required.
A relatively sparse network of stations would suffice for studies of large general storms or for
determining annual averages over large areas of level terrain. A dense network is required to
determine the rainfall pattern in thunderstorms. Because of the large number of factors involved,
the range of adequate network requirements is broad. Specifying the required density of
hydrology stations on a unit–area basis is particularly difficult.
 Unit 3: Precipitation
ABE 211 Hydrometeorology

REMOTE SENSING MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATIONS

1. Photogrammetric Measurement of Snow
The area of snow coverage is relatively easy to determine from aircraft or satellite
visual and near-infrared imagery. The depth of snow or the snow water equivalent cannot
be readily determined from this type of analysis without knowledge of priority relationships
between snow-covered areas and snow properties or runoff volume.

2. Terrestrial Gamma Radiation Snow Measurement

The water equivalent of a snowpack can be accurately determined by measuring
the attenuation of naturally occurring gamma radiation emitted from potassium, uranium,
and thorium isotopes in the upper 20 cm of soil. Water mass (not necessarily liquid) in
soil and in snow attenuates the gamma radiation so that differences in the radiation
emitted from bare ground and from snow-covered ground can be used to determine the
snow-water equivalent.

3. Estimation of Precipitation with Radar

Weather radar is used extensively for qualitative assessment of precipitation and
has significant potential for quantitative measurement. Radar information typically has a
resolution of about 5 km on a 5- to 15-minute time scale over a fairly large area and the
information is available in real-time in a convenient form at a central location.
The primary advantage of radar as a precipitation measurement system is that it
provides spatial and temporal patterns, whereas gages only provide point measurements.
The locations, boundaries, and intensities of the radar echoes, and their changes with
time, are accurately determined either visually or digitally with radar.

4. Area-Time Integral for Precipitation Estimation

This method is used to estimate the area-averaged rain-rate distribution and the
rainfall volume over an area from radar or from satellite infrared (IR) data. In most cases,
the method was implemented over regions or test areas with an assumed homogeneous
climatic character, that is, without a strong spatial variation of the rain regime throughout
the test area. Doneaud et al. (1984b) named their method the area time integral (ATI)
and defined ATI in discrete form as the product of the area and the time increment at
each time step. For the lifetimes of individual storms, correlation coefficients were 0.98
between rain volume and ATI.

5. Visible and Infrared Estimation of Precipitation from Satellite Imagery

Earth satellites with sensors operating in the visible to near-infrared, thermal
infrared, and microwave windows of the atmosphere have numerous capabilities for
precipitation measurement. The advantages and special attributes of satellite systems are
as follows.
a) Satellite systems provide complete high-resolution global coverage typically
on the scale of a few kilometers for visible and infrared and tens of kilometers
for passive microwave.
b) Satellite systems yield spatially continuous data, which contrasts strongly
with irregular networks with different sensors and exposures
c) Satellites can investigate the distributions of selected elements much more
homogeneously than in situ observing networks with large numbers of
instrument packages.
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d) A high temporal frequency on the scale of minutes or hours is provided for

equatorial to temperate areas with geostationary satellites. The temporal
frequency on the scale of hours is provided for high-latitude areas with polar-
orbiting satellites. Systems of polar orbiters provide daily coverage of
equatorial areas.
e) Satellites provide a view of the atmosphere and earth's surface from above
rather than from within. They do not modify the environment of the measured
precipitation elements.
f) Satellite data have different physical bases than surface-based data; therefore,
they add new sources of information.
g) Satellite data are available for large areas, in convenient digital form, at central
locations for processing, analysis, and archiving. Remote sensing from
satellites for data-sparse areas is cost-effective.

Consequently, a number of techniques for precipitation measurement from

satellite sensor systems are in operational use by national agencies. Satellite-based
techniques provide precipitation estimates for areas, typically 1500 km2 or more, where
other sources of data are limited or when data comparability is a concern.

6. Passive Microwave Snow Measurement

Snowpack properties are also measured operationally with passive microwave
radiometers on earth-orbiting satellites. Passive microwave radiation is independent of
solar radiation, so day and night data sets can be combined. The atmospheric influence
on emitted radiation is negligible except when very large cloud water droplets or raindrops
are present. Ice clouds and most layered clouds are essentially transparent. The antenna
diameter is limited for Earth satellites, so the typical footprint diameter for a passive
microwave radiometer is in the range of 10 to 50 km. The radiation received at the
antenna is integrated over the footprint, so small-scale variations are averaged. The
maximum utility for snowpack determination with passive microwave radiometry is for
large, relatively flat areas such as prairies and steppes.

7. Passive Microwave Measurement of Rainfall

Information available from passive microwave measurements is directly related to
precipitation, without significant influence from non-precipitating clouds such as jet stream
or anvil cirrus. Stratiform and frontal precipitation can be measured with passive
microwave data, but not easily (if at all) from visible and infrared observations.

Lesson 3: Analysis of Precipitation

Learning Contents

PROCESSING PRECIPITATION DATA

Precipitation record processing normally refers to the data reduction methods employed
for obtaining reliable data from the "raw" instrumental record. In the past, data processing
was very time-consuming compared with today's computerized procedures; however, it is
important to review some of the basic types of precipitation data processing techniques to gain
a better understanding of how each technique may influence data records. Hanson and Wight
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(1986 as cited in Hydrology Handbook) give examples where incorrect data were entered into the
record. They suggest some suspicion of a record until it is closely examined.

1. Personal Observation
Personal observation remains one of the more common techniques for
precipitation measurement and involves volunteers who, because of their location and
consistency, remain dedicated to making measurements on a routine agenda.
All of the precautions and standards for consistent data collection and processing
minimize problems; however, complications do occur, usually when an observer deviates
from the standards or fails to notice irregularities. Some examples include:
a) Shortened measuring stick—the measuring stick being used is slightly
shorter than it should be, resulting in consistently high readings
b) Consistently incorrect readings from the measuring stick—the operator uses
the wrong end of the stick or consistently misreads the hundredths marking.
c) The operator uses the previous year's data due to being absent at observation
time.
d) The operator relocates the precipitation gauge without notifying anyone.
e) Incorrect dates and values are recorded.
f) A different, untrained individual replaces the operator without noting it on the
data form.
These types of errors are difficult to detect without careful examination of the field data
forms.

2. Chart Recorders
Chart recorders (using pen traces) have been the standard recording device for
many years, even when mounted in a universal tipping bucket gauge. Chart processing
requires meticulous manual reduction or can be automated using computer-aided drafting
(CAD) programs and digitizing tablets. Generally, a technician examines the overall
quality of the trace to see if any major quality control problems may have occurred (such
as insects, birds, small animals, wind, snow capping, etc.).
The technician locates an event, marks the lowest pen trace to represent 0-depth,
and marks successive points on the trace at the appropriate time intervals. These marks,
showing depth and time, are then transferred to the record which can then be used to
compute storm amount, storm intensity, etc.

3. Digital Recorders
The computer has provided an entirely different form of data recording and
processing called digitizing. Digital recorders use magnetic storage devices or computer
chips (Random Access Memory, RAM) to hold information generated by the analog
weighing or tipping instrument. The analog information is transformed into digital data
with transducers so the information can be stored as a binary signal. The digital recorder
can be set at a variety of time-increment recording rates depending on the desired
resolution. The advantages of digital records include ease of use, reliability, and speed of
data processing. The disadvantage of digital recorders over analog recorders can be an
inadequate recording time interval and the inability to see the instrument trace while
conducting field maintenance; however, most newer recorders are programmed to
increase the reading rate at the initiation of an event.
Such recorders decrease data processing time significantly and increase the
amount of storage available over conventional fixed-time digital recorders. Portable
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computers can be used in the field to examine digital information graphically. Therefore,
it is difficult to identify significant disadvantages of digital recording equipment. As with
analog recorders, precipitation recording systems using digital recorders require a very
good quality control program to be successful. Frequent inspection of the equipment is
required to maintain consistent data and minimize loss of records.

REFERENCES

Colier, C. G., (2016). Hydrometeorology [e-book]. Retrieved from http://pdfdrive.com

Task Committee on Hydrology Handbook of Management Group D of the American

Society of Civil Engineers (1996). Hydrology Handbook (2nd ed) [e-book]. Retrieved
from http://pdfdrive.com

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, (n.d.), Hydrology Training Series

Module 102 – Precipitation[e-book]. Retrieve from
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1082990.pdf