Introduction to PELC Writing

What is Writing?

Writing is a way to gain control over your ideas and get them
down on a paper. Moreover, it is a form of written
communication.

Or: Writing is a process through which the writer discovers,

organizes, and communicates his ideas to the readers.
Capitalization
Capitalization (or capitalisation) is writing a word with its first
letter as a majuscule (upper-case letter) and the remaining letters
in minuscules (lower-case letters).
The systematic use of capitalized and uncapitalized words in
running text is called "mixed case".
In the study of capitalization, we shall progress from the more
familiar to the less familiar.
The rules are grouped under general headings to facilitate ready
reference to them.
Rules for Capitalization:
Rule 1. Capitalize a proper noun used anywhere in a sentence.
e.g. Ali studies at KELC.
We met Ahmad yesterday at the library.
We went to Kabul last year.
Note: Proper nouns includes the followings:
Chapter 1
Capitalization &
Punctuation
1- A given name in surname of a persons.
e.g. Ali Ahmadzai, Shahid Afridi, Sharukh Khan

2- Names of a particular organizations.

A: Literature ➔ Academy of Arts and Letters
B: Religious ➔ Islamic Students’ Federation, Sunni Muslim
Brotherhood
C: Political ➔ Demarcate, Farmer, Labor
D: Civic ➔Young Men’s Islamic Association, Red Crescent of Iran
E: Social ➔ Mason, Knights of Columbus, Tanzeem Muhsleen

3- Names of places ranging from the small street to a continent.

A: Location ➔ Broad Way, Times Square, University Town
B: Buildings ➔ Empire State, City Towers, Cinema Pamir
C: Cities ➔ Kabul, India, Chicago, Peshawar
D: Countries ➔ America, Australia, Canada, Swaziland
E: Continents ➔ America, Asia, Europe, Africa, Australia, Antarctica
Rule 2: Capitalize the first word of every sentence.
e.g. Art is long; life is short.
We learn English at KELC.

Rule 3: Capitalize the first word in every line of poetry.

e.g. A funny thing about a chair
You hardly ever think it’s there
To know a chair is really it
You sometimes have to go and sit

Rule 4: Capitalize the first word of a quotation from someone.

This is called a direct quotation.
e.g. Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) said, “Live
together, do not turn against each other, make things easy for
others and do not put obstacles in each other’s way”
”The believer in God is he who is not a danger to life and
property of any other.”
Rule 5: Capitalize the first and last words (and every other
important word) in a title.
For the sake of appearance in modern printing style, it is permissible
to capitalize in a title every long word – even every word of four or
more letters, regardless of its function or importance.
e.g. Beauty and the Beast.
Ineffective Reading Habits.
The Farmer and the Cobra.
Honesty and Love Versus Money.
Note: Unimportant words in a title are not capitalized.
These are Three kinds: Conjunctions (and, or, but), articles (the, a,
an), and prepositions (on, of, from etc).
An easy way to remember these exceptions is the memory device,
“Don’t cap the ‘caps’.” The word “caps” is composed of the first
letter of each of the unimportant words (plus the S as plural).
C is for Conjunctions; A for Articles P for Prepositions. (Long
conjunctions or prepositions may be capitalized.)
Rule 6: Capitalize days of the week, months of the year and other
holidays.
e.g. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday etc.
January, February, March etc.
Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Adha,

Rule 7: Always capitalize the pronoun “I”.

e.g. I am tired today.
Who am I?.

Rule 8: Capitalize those abbreviations and acronyms which are

formed from proper nouns.
e.g. N. Y. , U.S. , U.N., K.E.L.C. , K.F.C. , A.I.D.S. etc.
KELC, AIDS, PELC, NUML, IELTS, TOFEL etc.
Rule 9: Capitalize the first word and all nouns in the salutation of
a letter.
e.g. To Whom It May Concern:, Dear Sir, Dear Madam,
Gentlemen etc.
Note: In a three word salutation the word “dear” is not
capitalized.
e.g. My dear Madam, My dear Sir etc.
Rule 10: To express formality in English letters, only capitalize the
first word of complementary closing.
e.g. Yours very truly,
Sincerely yours,
Rule 11: Capitalize honorary titles, civil, military and religious,
when they are used with the names ofpeople who own them.
e.g. President Hamid Karzai
Professor Dr. Zain Yousafzai
Do not capitalize the followings:
Rule 1: The names of college classes.
e.g. freshman
sophomore
junior
senior
Rule 2: The names of sciences and college studies.
e.g. chemistry logic
physics history
biology economic
trigonometry English literature
Rule 3: Do not capitalize the names of the seasons of the
year.
e.g. spring, summer, fall, winter
Punctuation:
Punctuation is the system of adding appropriate
punctuation marks or signs to your writing segment in order
to make the meaning clear. Moreover, these written signs
represent a speaker’s way of conveying his or her meaning,
and they also guide readers as to the way that written
material should be read so that they can be read fluently in
order to understand the meaning as they go along.
1: Prefatory (Principle) Marks:
These Punctuation Marks are used to indicate stops and pauses in
our written sentences and sentence structures. Moreover, these
marks can be most often seen in our writing segments.

e.g.
1: Full Stop (.) 4: Question Mark (?)
2: Comma (,) 5: Colon (:)
3: Semicolon (;) 6: Exclamation Mark (!)
7: Quotation Marks (“ ”) 8: Apostrophes (’s/s’)
1: Prefatory (Principle) Marks

1: Full Stop (.): It is also called sometimes Full point or End

Mark or Period especially in British English. Moreover, it
represents falling tone, the biggest or longest pause that
comes on the completion of a statement to mark the end of
sentence. It is stronger than both Comma and Semicolon.

Usages of Full Stop

1: We use a full stop at the end of a Declarative or
Assertive, Imperative and Optative sentences.
e.g. Love is flowerlike.
Bring me a glass of water.
May you live long.
2: Always use a full stop at the end of an Indirect Statement as it is
originally called Noun Clause.
e.g. I don’t know what she meant.
She wanted to know if I could help her with her math
assignment.

3: Use a full stop to avoid the common error of combining two Main
clauses with a comma. Moreover, it is used when the thought is flowing
on into the second sentence.
e.g. I always get up early. I like to work before breakfast.
I always get up early, I like to work before breakfast. Wrong
4: Use full stops more especially for clarity after those words that have
been shortened or abbreviated.
e.g. Dr. Zain , A.D. , B.C. , E.G. , A. M. , P. M. , Mr. Fardin Safi
Note: In modern English especially British English, it is possible to write
the abbreviated words without full stops.
e.g. Dr. A. Q. Khan, AD , BC , EG , A M , P M , Mr. Fardin Safi
5: A reliable principle is to add full stops to smaller-letter
abbreviations and to those that start with a capital letter if
the last letter is not included in the abbreviation.
e.g. adj. , adv. , prep. , conj. , 12th-cent. , approx. , max. ,
min. , chap. , vol. , Jan. , Feb. , Mon. , Tues.

6: Use full stops to make the readers clear that the

abbreviation is not pronounced as a word.
e.g. K.E.L.C, N.A.T.O, U.S.A, U.N.O, A.E.L.C, E.F.L, E.S.L,
E.U, V.O.A, B.B.C, C.N.N
Don’t use full stops in the following areas

1: Never use full stops with abbreviations that are written

wholly in capital letters when they are pronounced as if they
were words. More especially they are called Acronyms.
Acronyms: Some abbreviations are in the form of words
composed of the first one or more letters of the words that
make up the full.
e.g. AIDS (Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome),
KELC (Kabul English Language Center)
NATO (National Atlantic Treaty Organization),
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving)
SADD (Students Against Drunk Driving),
CAT (Chartered Accountant Technician)
2: Never use full stops with Degrees, Qualifications, Titles, and
Awards as it is increasingly famous in British English.
e.g. MBA, BBA, Bsc, MA, Msc, M Phil etc

3: We never use full stops with abbreviations of ordinal numbers.

e.g. 1st September, 2nd October, 3rd November, 4th December
Note: But date, in fact, are very often simply written 1
September, 2 October, 3 November and 4 December, and so on,
especially in formal context.

4: We do not use full stops abbreviations of Metric Measurement

and Chemical Symbols.
e.g. 21 cm, 6km, 10 g, 5kg, 20 dl, 30 ml Metric Measurement
Al (aluminum), Ca (calcium), Mg (magnesium), O (oxygen), Ra
(radium) Chemical Symbols
2: Comma (,):
It is used to show the grammatical structure of a sentence.
Moreover, it is makes the bigger pauses, to show emphasis, and
to clarify. It is weaker than both Semicolon and Full Stop.
Moreover, using a comma is not a matter of guesswork. If you
follow some very simple rules and use commas only when you
know the rules, you will be able to use comma correctly.

Usages of Comma

1: We used comma in Compound Sentences before

Co-ordinating Conjunctions such as And, So, But, yet, Or, Nor,
For. Moreover, this particularly happens in two cases:
A: If the subject is repeated, or there is a new subject in the
second clause.
Nazia missed the last bus, for Shazia got late to bus stop.
B: If the second clause is a longer sentence containing more than
three words.
e.g. She was already running late, and she didn’t want to
miss the last train.
I went to have lunch by myself, for Sarwar wasn’t in his
office during lunch time.
Note: Sometimes when the thought runs continuously from one
clause to the next or if the second clause is a shorter sentence
containing two to three words, using a comma before a Co-
ordinate Conjunction is not needed, but the comma is
customarily used.
e.g. I didn’t study hard so I failed.
She didn’t study nor did she pass.
Note: Sometimes when the thought runs continuously from one clause
to the next or if the second clause is a shorter sentence containing two
to three words, using a comma before a Co-ordinate Conjunction is not
needed, but the comma is customarily used.
e.g. I didn’t study hard so I failed.
She didn’t study nor did she pass.

Note:
1: In longer sentences, comma should be used if not used, it is still
right.
e.g. She was already running late, and she didn’t want to miss
the last train. Best way
She was already running late and she didn’t want to miss
the last train. Still Right
2: In short sentence, comma shouldn’t be used if used, it is still right.
e.g. Sarwar wasn’t feeling well today so he went home. Best Way
Sarwar wasn’t feeling well today, so he went home. Still Right
Rule 2: Comma is most often used and is very common in
Complex Sentences when the Adverb Clause precedes the main
clause as it is called a periodic way of using the Adverb Clause.
Structure: Adverb Clause + Comma + Main Clause
e.g. When you fall in love, the lose of wisdom occurs first.
If you want to reach the highest, you have to get started
at the lowest.

Note No.1: Sometimes the thought continues from Adverb

Clause to Main Clause and the subject doesn’t change so that the
speaker makes no pause then a comma is neither necessary nor
wanted.
e.g. When you fall in love the loss of wisdom occurs first.
If you want to reach the highest you have to get started
at the lowest.
Note No.2: If the Adverb Clause follows the Main Clause as it is
called Loose of using the Adverb Clause, comma isn’t necessary
to be used.

Structure: Main Clause + No Comma + Adverb Clause

e.g. The loose of wisdom occurs first when you fall in love.
You have to get started at lowest if you want to reach the
highest.
Rule 3: Comma is most often not important with a Noun Clause,
but when the verb in the Main Clause and the Noun Clause are
the same, a comma is used between both verbs to avoid
confusion.
e.g. Whoever fights, fights in vain.
What it is, is none of your business.

Rule 4: Comma is used to set the Non-restrictive Adjective Clause

or Phrase off from the rest of the Main Clause.
Note: In Embedded Way, we use two commas both before and
after the Adjective Clause and Adjective Phrase, while in
Unembedded way, only one comma is used before the Adjective
Clause or Phrase.
e.g. KELC, which is the best English Language Center, renders
quality education.
KELC, the best English Language Center, renders quality
education.
Rule 5: Comma is used before and after or only after an
Appositive, which is made from the reduction of an Adjective
Clause. Appositive is a noun with its modifier that renames and
modifies another noun.
e.g. Shafiq, the doctor, is reckoned as one of the best doctors
in Afghanistan.
The doctor, Shafiq is reckoned as one of the best doctors in
Afghanistan.
Rule 6: Two commas are always used with Accompaniment or
Prepositional Phrases that can appear the subject to plural, but
these phrases can’t alter the noun, subject.
With, Along with, To gather with, Accompanied by, As well as, In addition to,
Besides
e.g. My uncle, accompanied by his sons, daughters and wife, is
coming to our house.
Shah Rukh Khan, along with Salman Khan and Fardin
Khan, acts in one movie.
Rule 7: One comma and sometimes two commas are used with
Transitions to set it them off from the rest of the sentence.
e.g. Some students don’t have time to study. However, they
still pass with good marks.
Some students don’t have time to study. They, however, still
pass with good marks.
Some students don’t have time to study. They still pass with
good marks, however.
Rule 8: Commas are used to separate three or more items in a series
when used in a parallel structure. A series can be made up of Nouns,
Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, Verbs, Phrases, Gerunds, Infinitive,
Dependent Clauses and Independent Clauses.
e.g. Most Americans have hamburger, French fries, and a milk shake
for lunch.
What that girl does, where she goes, and whom she meets is
none of our business.
Rule 9: We use a comma is used after or before Repoting Speech in
Direct or Quoted Speech.
e.g. Sarwar said, “Love for all is love for none.”
“Love for all is love for none,” Sarwar said.
“Love for all is love for none,” said Sarwar.
Note: If the Reporting Speech is used before, comma is used out of
Quotation Marks, and if the Reporting Speech is used after, comma
is used inside Quotation Marks.

Rule 10: We use a comma after and before a noun if it is used in

vocative case.
e.g. Sarwar, concentrate on your studies. e.g. Concentrate on
your studies, Sarwar
3: Semicolon (;):
It is used between two Main Clauses that can really stand as
sentences on their own. Use a Semicolon to link them more
closely or to show close relationship between two ideas.
Moreover, it is stronger than Comma, but weaker than Full Stop.

Usages of Semicolon

Rule 1: We use a Semicolon between two Main Clauses to show

their close relationship to each other. Moreover, it does the same
job as Co-ordinate Conjunctions.

e.g. I have lost my luggage; I don’t know what to do.

I have lost my luggage, and I don’t know what to do.
She felt really ill yesterday; she feels better today.
She felt really ill yesterday, but she feels better today.
Rule 2: We use a Semicolon instead of a Comma before a Co-
ordinate Conjunction to show further proximity of two ideas in
case the subjects of two clauses are different.

e.g. She failed to get better grades, yet her father isn’t sad
about it.
She worked hard; so the teacher decided to award her the
first prize.

She was seriously ill, so the doctor confined her to bed for
10 days.
She was seriously ill; so the doctor confined her to bed for
10 days.
Rule 3: We use Semicolon with clauses or after the first clause
that contains Transitions.

e.g. I didn’t study hard; nevertheless, I got the highest marks

on the test.
I didn’t study hard; I, nevertheless, got the highest marks
on the test.
I didn’t study hard; I got the highest marks on the test,
nevertheless.
4: Question Mark (?): The question mark is primarily used to
indicate that a question is being asked.

Usages of Question Mark

Rule 1: This punctuation mark is used to indicate that a direct

question being asked.
e.g. What time does the show start?
Are you studying at KELC?
Warning: The question mark is not used at the end of an indirect
question or where a Noun Clause is used.
e.g. He asked what time the show starts.

Rule 2: When used in dialogue, the question mark is placed

inside the quotation marks and takes the place of a period or a
comma.
e.g. Karen asked, “Will you be able to arrange the meeting?"
Rule 3: If the question mark does not form part of the
quotation, it is placed out of the quotation marks.
e.g. Did Jane say, “The meeting will start earlier because of the
game, or end earlier because of the game”?

Rule 4: We use a Question Mark at the end of a Declarative

Question, which is statement but has a question intonation and
indicates surprise and has a rising intonation.

e.g. Ali won a million dollars?

Rule 5: Sometimes a question is broken into several small parts,

so each of these parts has a Question Mark.

e.g. Are you man? Or devil? Or spirit? Or just the figment of my

own imagination?
5: Colon (:):
Colon is one of the principle symbols or marks of punctuation
used in writing segments.
Usages of Colon

Rule 1: We use a colon to introduce a list of items that ends a

sentence.
e.g. You will have to order several accessory components:
chargers, cases, cords, cables, and speakers.
Rule 2: We use a colon to introduce an extract or quotation that
follows an introductory sentence.
e.g. As Author, Erica Jong, stated: “If you don’t risk anything, you
risk even more.”
Rule 3: We use a colon in the salutation of a formal Business Letter.
e.g. Dear Sir: Dear Madam: To Whom It May Concern:

Rule 4: Between figures denoting hours and minutes.

e.g. 4:30 a.m. 6:20 p.m.
6: Exclamation Mark (!): Restraint should be exercised when using
the exclamation punctuation mark in writing, for when it is used
liberally it will lose its impact.

Usages of Exclamation Mark

Rule 1: We use exclamation mark to indicate a strong and emotional
response.
e.g. We are going to hold a party to celebrate this great success!

Rule 2: We use exclamation mark to emphasize a strong command.

e.g. Call an ambulance!

Note: Double exclamation marks should be avoided in business

correspondence.
7: Quotation Marks (“ ”):
Quotation Marks which can be single quotation or double
quotation marks are called Inverted / Double commas or Speech
Marks.

Usages of Quotation Marks

Rule 1: We use Quotation Marks to indicate the exact words of a
speaker in direct speech.

e.g. “Will you have them send over the contracts now
please?” asked Mr. Jones.
Mahmood said, “I am too tired to work.”
1) If the question mark does not form part of the quotation, it is
placed outside of the Quotation Marks.
e.g.
Did Jane say, “The meeting will start earlier because of the
game, or end earlier because of the game”?

Rule 2: Use Quotation Marks within a quotation.

Use single Quotation Marks to enclose a quotation within a
quotation.

e.g.
“I specifically remember he asked, ‘Which lever will slow it
down?’ when I showed him how to operate the machine,”
said Joe.
Rule 3: We Use Quotation Marks to indicate ironical use of words.
e.g. Everyone at the barbeque party “borrowed” my sunscreen
lotion until it was all used up.
2. Apostrophe (’S, S’):
The proper use of Apostrophes in writing is important to maintain
the writer’s precise meaning.

Usages of Apostrophe (’S, S’)

Rule 1: In this rule a noun is used with Apostrophe (‘S) or (S’)

Apostrophe to show ownership, possession and relationship.

Usage of (‘S)
1: With singular noun.
e.g. Ali’s car, Teacher’s mobile, Laila’s purse , The girl’s
dress was purple. (singular - referring to only one girl)
2: With singular and plural irregular nouns.
e.g. Child’s diaper, Children’s diaper, Man’s duty, Men’s duty etc…
3: With words having no plural forms to form their plural form.
EX: But’s, and’s, for’s , marketing Seven P’s, Business
Communication 7 C’s
4: Nouns ending with S or SS can either take apostrophe (‘S) or
(S’) apostrophe.
e.g. Hari’s, Haris’s, bos’s duty, boss’s duty etc…

Usage of (S’)
1: With regular plural nouns.
e.g. Teachers’ room, Boys’ college, Girls’ hostel, All the girls’
dresses were purple (plural - referring to more n than one girl)
2: With names of family.
e.g. Afridis’ house, Ahmadzais’ property, Logans’ etc…
Kinds of Possessive. It has Two kinds.
Joint possessive.
• In joint possessive ’S is used with last noun combined by and.
e.g. Ali and Ahmad’s car.

Separate possessive.

• In separate possessive ’S is used with both nouns combined by

and.
e.g. Ali’s and Ahmad’s car.

Rule 2: We use Apostrophe to indicate contractions:

e.g. it’s (it is) don’t (do not) o’clock (on the clock)
Chapter 2
Paragraph &
Its Types
Paragraph & Its Types

Paragraph

Paragraph: Is derived from a Latin word “Paragraphos,” which

means a line or stroke upon which ideas fall.
Or: The word Paragraph is made up of two words Para, which
means writing and graph, which means picture, so Paragraph
means Picture of Writing.

Paragraph is a series of sentences that develops an idea. That

idea is usually stated in a general form in one sentence, called the
Topic Sentence. The rest of the sentences in the paragraph
provide the reader with specific explanation or proof (evidence,
support) of the general Topic Sentence. The Supporting
Sentences help the reader understand more clearly what the
writer means and show that the topic sentence is valid.
Or: Paragraph is a unit of thought that has several or many
sentences in it about one topic is called Paragraph.

Or: A group of related sentences that develops one main idea or

topic is called Paragraph.

Qualities of Paragraph:
A successful paragraph should have the followings:

1: Completeness/ Developed:
A paragraph must include enough information to give the reader
a clear picture or a full discussion of its main idea. A paragraph
without details or examples is vague and unconvincing. A
paragraph that doesn’t have enough information is called
incomplete or undeveloped.
2: Logical or Sensible Order:
All the supporting sentences should be in clear and logical order.

3: Unified:
A paragraph should be unified and all the sentences should relate
to the topic sentence.

4: Coherence:
Is the way all the sentences should be clearly connected to each
other. Without connecting words, phrases, supporting ideas may
be hard to follow and may even seem unrelated to the topic
sentence and to each other. A paragraph that lacks connecting
words and phrases sounds like a list.
Paragraph Writing Process: It almost has the same process as
writing process. It mainly contains the following Three processes
namely:

1: Pre-writing
2: During Writing
3: Post-writing

A: Choosing a topic A: Topic Sentence A: Reading

B: Brainstorming/ Clustering B: Supporting Sentences B: Revising
C: Outlining C: Using Transition C: Editing
D: Organizing/order lines D: Using a Clincher D: Final
Drafting
Main Parts of Paragraph: Almost all paragraphs in English have
three main parts that are interrelated in beginning, developing
and concluding one idea.
1: Topic Sentence
2: Supporting Sentences
3: Concluding Sentence
Starter Sentence
A number of follow- up sentences
A clincher sentence
1: Topic Sentence: This vital sentence commits the writer to
explain or illustrate the central main idea or simply it introduces
the topic to the readers. It serves as a key to the rest of the
paragraph. An effective Topic Sentence also serves to state an
idea or an attitude about the topic. Moreover, this idea or
attitude about the topic is called the Controlling Idea.
It has Two parts namely:
1: A Topic: It contains a key word or phrase.

2: A Direction or general word: It contains a conclusion, an

opinion, or a statement about the topic.
e.g. Listening to the news each day keeps people informed about
current events.
Topic Direction

2: Supporting Sentences: These are all the other sentences in the

paragraph that relate to and develop the controlling idea.

3: Concluding Sentence: This is clincher sentence or restatement

that reminds not only writers not to finish the paragraph
suddenly but also the readers of the general topic.
Using the right Transitions Words the right Way
Transitional words and phrases provide the glue that holds ideas
together in writing. They provide coherence (that hanging together,
making sense as a whole) by helping the reader to understand the
relationship between ideas, and they act as signposts that help the
reader follow the movement of the discussion. Transitional
expressions, then, can be used between sentences, between
paragraphs, or between entire sections of a work.
Transitions of logic consist of words or phrases that convey "logical
intent" – that is, they show the logical connection between two ideas.
Since there are several possible logical connections (such as time,
purpose, contrast), there are several categories of transitions of logic.
The table below lists many of these transitions, arranged by category
and listed as milder or stronger. Some hints for use:
Be careful not to use too many strong transitions.
Transitions become stronger when they are the first word in a
sentence, milder when they are moved a few words into the sentence.
Keep this list handy while you write, until the words come
automatically.
Kinds of Paragraph: It has Four main kinds namely:

1: Narrative Paragraph
2: Descriptive Paragraph
3: Expository Paragraph
4: Persuasive Paragraph

1: Narrative Paragraph:
In this kind of paragraph, the writer tries to narrate or tell a
fictional or non-fictional story the readers.
Steps of Writing:

1: Topic sentences are less important in story paragraph than in

other compositions.
2: Write sentences to get readers interested at the beginning of the
story and to keep up that interest all the way. (Once upon a time,
Long long ago)
3: Let your readers know the characters, the time, and the place
(Who? When? Where?) , make characters and actions come to
alive, and try to build up suspense.
4: Finish the story quickly and the concluding sentences of a story
should provide a satisfying ending and should lead the readers to a
climax, which is the most interesting part of the story.

5: Narrative paragraph presents the sequence of events in a story in

a Chronological Order. Moreover, don’t include any events that do
not belong only add details to fill in any gaps in your story.

6: The topic sentence most often comes late or at last.

 Samples of Narrative Paragraph

Peddling On My Own

Learning how to ride a bike for the first time was a nerve
racking independent moment. I was about five years old
when my sister informed me that I was too old to still be
riding a bike with training wheels. That was the time I
decided not to depend on them anymore. Even though I
had some doubt, my sister and I went outside and started
to take the little wheels off my bike. After my bike went
through the transformation, I was now ready for the big
moment. With butterflies in my stomach, I slowly got on
the bike, and with my shaky hands, I gripped the handles
tightly.
Meanwhile my sister was holding on to me to help keep my
balance. I was so afraid the she would let go, yet I was
determined to ride this bike on my own. Next with a little
push from her, I started to peddle. The faster my bike went
the faster my heart raced. Finally I looked back nervously
and noticed that my sister let go of my bike a long time ago.
I was so excited that I accomplished freedom on my bike
that I forgot to peddle. The next step I remember, I was lying
on the ground, yet I did not care because of the adrenaline
rush. I will never forget the exhilarating moment and
growing up stage of riding a bike without training wheels.
2: Descriptive Paragraph: In this kind of paragraph, the writer
tries to present a word picture of a person, place or thing.
Steps of Writing Descriptive Paragraph:
1: Be exact and specific and try to avoid vagueness.
2: Use language that makes your picture come to life.
3: Make comparisons by means of speech. (Fahad is purring
kitten for his family, but he howls like a police- car siren when I
am baby- sitting)
4: Appeal to all of the human senses:
(1: Sight 2: Hearing 3: Smell 4: Taste 5: Touch) (As Sadia sits down
at a big family dinner, she enjoys the chattering voices, the shinny
dishes on the table, the spicy smells, and the first crisp, salty bite
into a cracker.)
5: For greater effect in a short description, stress those details
that build up one impression. (For a lake at night, the mood of
calmness; for a playground, the appearance of widespread
activity)
6: In describing a scene, you should look for a chance to view it from
a particular position that is fixed or moving. (Tell how a city appears
from a hill overlooking it. Describe a lunchroom as it looks to a
person coming through the door, getting in line for food, and then
moving to a table.)

Some of the arrangements used in Descriptive Paragraph are the

followings:
1: From top to bottom
2: From bottom to top
3: From left to right
4: From right to left
5: From far away to close up
6: From close up to far away
7: From most important to least important
8: From least important to most important
 Sample of Descriptive Paragraph
Snap Shot
Back in 1999 this fearless athlete posed in this football picture. In
the far distance below the cloudless sky stands an off-white
stadium. Embedded in the center is large, cracked, blue, painted,
letters that spell out BISON. Beneath the old stadium are rows of
worn-out bleachers which are completely empty. Up in front
stands the competitor down on one knee. As you observe more,
the sport player is wearing a blue Bison jersey sporting the
number 60. To the left above the freshly trimmed green grass
that engulfs this player’s figure lays a football. In the center of the
picture, you see her pale white face and dark brown eyes. Around
these features you can not help but notice the bronzed hair;
which appears to be pulled back around this slender face. Her
stern look shows how proud she is; nonetheless, all the
confidence she carries on her padded up shoulders. This unique
woman is not only elegant and brave; she is my sister, Margaret
Eva Hoyt.
3: Expository Paragraph: In this kind of paragraph, the writer
tries to explain information, direction, and instruction. Moreover,
sometimes it tells what happens in the steps of process or why
things happen the way they do.

Note: Details in an Expository Paragraph should be informative,

clear, and carefully arranged so as the readers can understand
the subject.

Steps of Writing Expository Paragraph:

1: Think whether you have enough information to explain the

subject or you need more information before you write.

2: Choose the information you want to give about your topic.

3: Arrange the information in a logical order, but chronological
order is the best order for expository paragraph, for it gives step-
by- step instructions.

4: State your topic clearly in a topic sentence at the beginning of

the paragraph. The best way to introduce the topic in an
Expository Paragraph is to ask two or three questions before
stating the topic sentence.

5: Present the information in the way you have chosen and also
use transitions to connect the sentences in the paragraph.

6: Don’t let the paragraph end suddenly instead remind the

readers of the general topic by using a clincher statement or
restatement at the end.
 Samples of Expository Paragraphs
My Most Favorite Dish, You Can Make It Too

Today we are going to be making chicken primavera. Before

you get started you will need the following things: two or more
skinless, boneless chicken breasts; two cans of Cream of
Mushroom soup; two cans of Cream of Chicken soup; milk;
butter; vegetable oil, spaghetti noodles (or any noodle of you
choice); and finally one very large sized frying pan. First you
want to start the water and about 1 tablespoon of vegetable
oil boiling for the noodles (they take the longest), and then
while you have that going, start dicing you chicken breast into
about 1 inch cubes. After you get all of your chicken cut up you
want to start heating up your pan. Always start on high heat
and then once the ingredients are added the heat will get
turned down.
Once your frying pan is hot put 1 tablespoon of butter into the
frying pan, let that melt a little bit, and then add your chicken.
You want to make sure that the chicken is browned on all
sides, and if you were to cut a cube in half that the middle is
white. Any time while you are cooking you chicken, if the
water is boiling, then you can start boiling you noodles. When
your chicken is done all the way through then we make the
sauce. Right there in the same pan that you cooked you
chicken in, add your two cans of Cream of Mushroom soup and
your two cans of Cream of Chicken soup. After dumping the
soup into the pan, you will then need to guess on the amount
of milk that you put into the sauce. The more milk that is
added the thinner the sauce will be, and the less milk that is
added will give you a nicer creamier sauce. It depends on how
thick or thin you like your sauces.
Make sure to keep stirring the noodles through out their
cooking process, or they will all be stuck together. While
finishing cooking the noodles turn the heat down on the sauce
so that all it is going to do is warm up. You don’t want the
sauce to boil or else it will take longer to thicken up even if the
amount of milk was small. It only takes about 3-5 minutes for
the sauce to warm all the way through. Once the noodles are
done then you can strain the water off of them. Add about 1
tablespoon of butter to the drained noodles and stir them
really good to get that butter mixed in, this will keep the
noodles from sticking together until they can be served.
Finally, all you need to do now is dish up your plate of chicken
primavera and enjoy. This recipe will feed between 8-10
people in one sitting. If you need to make more than that, just
double the recipe and follow the same instructions. I hope that
this meal was as quick, easy, and delicious for you as it was for
me.
4: Persuasive Paragraph: In this kind of paragraph, the writer
tries to convince the readers to accept his or her opinion or point
of view.
Note: The opinion is supported by with factual, logical reasons or
details.
Steps of Writing Persuasive Paragraph:
1: Decide on your opinion whether you have enough information
to explain it or you need more information before you write.

2: State your topic clearly in a topic sentence at the beginning of

the paragraph.
3: Give two or three factual, logical reasons in support of your
opinion.
4: Give your best reason last.

5: Don’t let your paragraph sound like a list; combine the

sentences in the paragraph by transitions.

6: Don’t let the paragraph end suddenly instead remind the

readers of the general topic by using a clincher sentence or
restatement at the end.
 Samples of Persuasive Paragraph
Reasons Why Marijuana Should Be Legal

People of the United States should push for the legalization

of marijuana. The first reason being the amount of money
that our government spends every year on the “war on
drugs”. The government’s money could be spent in so many
other ways. The second reason it should be legalized is to
limit the amount of people that get put in jails for marijuana,
when there are far worse people out there that need to be
put in jail. Marijuana arrests in the United States doubled
between 1991 and 1995. In 1995, more than one-half-million
people were arrested for marijuana offenses. Eighty-six
percent of them were arrested for marijuana possession.
Tens of thousands of people are now in prison or marijuana
offenses. An even greater number are punished with
probation, fines, and civil sanctions, including having their
property seized, their driver's license revoked, and their
employment terminated. Despite these civil and criminal
sanctions, marijuana continues to be readily available and
widely used. (Fact Sheet) A third reason is that marijuana is
not as harmful as alcohol, which causes 50% of all traffic
accidents a year. In 1972, after reviewing the scientific
evidence, the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug
Abuse concluded that while marijuana was not entirely safe,
its dangers had been grossly overstated. Since then,
researchers have conducted thousands of studies of
humans, animals, and cell cultures. None reveal any findings
dramatically different from those described by the National
Commission in 1972.
In 1995, based on thirty years of scientific research editors of the
British medical journal Lancet concluded that "the smoking of
cannabis, even long term, is not harmful to health." (Fact Sheet)
And yet another reason why marijuana should be legal is because
is helps all sorts of people with medical problems. Marijuana has
been shown to be effective in reducing the nausea induced by
cancer chemotherapy, stimulating appetite in AIDS patients, and
reducing intraocular pressure in people with glaucoma. There is
also appreciable evidence that marijuana reduces muscle
spasticity in patients with neurological disorders. A synthetic
capsule is available by prescription, but it is not as effective as
smoked marijuana for many patients. Pure THC may also produce
more unpleasant psychoactive side effects than smoked
marijuana. Many people use marijuana as a medicine today,
despite its illegality. In doing so, they risk arrest and
imprisonment. (Fact Sheet) With all of these great things that can
be done with marijuana, why keep it away from those who could
use it?
Chapter 3
LETTERS & ITS
TYPES
Letter & Its Types

LETTER
A Letter is a written or printed message addressed to a person or
company/organization, usually sent by post or messenger.
It is an addressed document of legal, formal or informal kind for
various purposes.
Or: A Letter is complete document containing a particular
message for the readers.
Things to Consider While Writing Letter
1: Do not offer misleading information.
2: Do not make promises which you do not have authority to
keep.
3: Do not make untrue, damaging or allegation because a Letter is
a permanent record and proof of intention.
Types of Letter

1: Informal Letters. Tone and style is relaxed. It is written to

relatives, friends, etc

2: Formal Letters. Tone is formal such as Business Letters

3: Semi-Formal Letters. Tone and style is formal and meant for

relatives such as Invitation Letters

Definition:
Informal Letters are also called Social, Friendly or Personal
Letters.
Such letters really have the nature of friendly chat. They are
written informally and the language used in such letters differs
from person to person and the layout may vary from writer to
writer.
Parts of Friendly or Personal Letters

Personal letters normally have Five Parts.

1. The Heading: This includes the address, line by line with the
last line being the date, placed right at the top right corner. Skip a
line after the heading. The heading is indented to the middle of
the page. If using preaddressed stationery, add just the date.

Warning: Never write your name in the Heading of the letter.

Note: Friendly letters do not require an inside address and the

writer’s printed name. Closing is also informal.
2. The Greeting:
The greeting always ends with a comma. The greeting may be
formal, beginning with the word "dear" and using the person's
given name or relationship, or it may be informal if appropriate.
Formal: Dear Uncle Jim, Dear Mr. Wilkins,
Informal: Hi Joe, Greetings,
(Occasionally very personal Greetings may end with an
exclamation point for emphasis.)

3. The Body:
Also known as the Main Text. This includes the message you want
to write. Normally in a friendly letter, the beginning of paragraph
is indented. If not indented, be sure to skip a space between
paragraphs. Skip a line after the Greeting and before the closing.
4. The Complimentary Close:
This short expression is always a few words on a single line. It
ends in a comma. It should be indented to the same column as
the Heading. Skip one to three spaces (two is usual) for the
Signature Line.

5. The Signature Line:

Type or print your name. The handwritten signature goes above
this line and below the close. The signature line and the
handwritten signature are indented to the same column as the
Close. The signature should be written in blue or black ink. If the
letter is quite informal, you may omit the signature line as long as
you sign the letter.
Postscript: If your letter contains a Postscript, begin it with P.S.
and end it with your initials. Skip a line after the signature line to
begin the postscript.

Format for a Friendly or Personal Letter

The following pictures show what a one-page friendly or personal
letter should look like.
Note: Full Block format is easy to set and by for the most formal
layout or format for Business Letters.
It is less often used for Social or Friendly letters.

Commas in Letter Writing

Use commas after the salutations (also called the Greeting) in a

personal letter and after the complimentary closing in all letters.

Salutations:
Dear Fred,
My dearest Emmeline,

Closing:
Sincerely,
Truly yours,
Capital Letters in Letters
There are two additional rules for capitalizing when writing
letters.
1. Capitalize the first word and all nouns in the salutations (or
greetings).
Correct:
Dear Sir:
My dearest Aunt,
Greetings!
2. Capitalize the first word in the complimentary closing.
Correct:
Sincerely,
Truly yours,
With best wishes,
Kinds of social letters are as the followings:

1. Letter of Thanks
2. letter of Condolence
3. Letters of Invitation
4. Love Letter
5. Letter of Congratulation
6. Letters of Apology
Business Letters

Definition: A Business Letter has really the nature of serious chat

that is written by individuals to organization and from
organization to its customers.
A Business Letter is a formal kind of letter written to talk about
various business situations.

Purposes of Business Letters: A Business Letter is written to talk

about the following purposes.
1: To Apply for Job
2: To Place an order
3: To make a complaint
4: To register for a class
5: To request information or service
Four C’s of Business Letters: Talks about those four qualities that
begin with the letter “C”.

1: Complete
2: Clear
3: Concise
4: Courteous

Standard Parts of Business Letter: Standard parts are those parts

of a letter that we must use to develop a complete Business
Letter. They are;

1: Heading/Date 2: Inside Address 3:

Greetings/Salutations
4: Body/Massage 5: Complimentary Close 6: Signature
and Writer’s Identification
1: The Heading (The Return Address) or Letterhead
Companies usually use printed paper where heading or
letterhead is specially designed at the top of the sheet. It bears
all the necessary information about the organization’s identity.
Most often business letter headings are placed at the top left
corner but they maybe place at the top right corner.

Date - Date of writing. The month should be fully spelled out and
the year written with all four digits October12, 2011 (12 October
2005 - UK style). The date is aligned with the return address. The
number of the date is pronounced as an ordinal figure, though
the endings st, nd, rd, th, are often omitted in writing. The article
before the number of the day is pronounced but not written. In
the body of the letter, however, the article is written when the
name of the month is not mentioned with the day.
2: The Inside Address

In a business or formal letter you should give the address of the

recipient after your own address. Include the recipient's name,
company, address and postal code. Add job title if appropriate.
Separate the recipient's name and title with a comma. Double
check that you have the correct spelling of the recipient’s name.
The Inside Address is always on the left margin. If an 8 1/2" x 11"
paper is folded in thirds to fit in a standard 9" business envelope,
the inside address can appear through the window in the
envelope.
3: The Greeting

Also called the salutation. The type of salutation depends on your

relationship with the recipient. It normally begins with the word
"Dear" and always includes the person's last name. Use every
resource possible to address your letter to an actual person. If
you do not know the name or the sex of your receiver’s address
write Dear Madam/Sir (or Dear Sales Manager or Dear Human
Resources Director). As a general rule the greeting in a business
letter ends in a colon (US style). It is also acceptable to use a
comma (UK style).
4: The Body Paragraphs

The body is where you explain why you’re writing. It’s the main
part of the business letter. Make sure the receiver knows who
you are and why you are writing but try to avoid starting with "I".
Use a new paragraph when you wish to introduce a new idea or
element into your letter. Depending on the letter style you
choose, paragraphs may be indented. Regardless of format, skip a
line between paragraphs.
5: The Complimentary Close

This short, polite closing ends always with a comma. It is either

at the left margin or its left edge is in the center, depending on
the Business Letter Style that you use. It begins at the same
column the heading does.
The traditional rule of etiquette in Britain is that a formal letter
starting "Dear Sir or Madam" must end "Yours faithfully", while a
letter starting "Dear” must end "Yours sincerely". (Note: the
second word of the closing is NOT capitalized)
6: Signature and Writer’s Identification

The signature is the last part of the letter. You should sign your
first and last names. The signature line may include a second line
for a title, if appropriate. The signature should start directly
above the first letter of the signature line in the space between
the close and the signature line. Use blue or black ink.

Optional Parts of Business Letters: Optional parts are those parts

of a letter that we use when required. They are;

1: Attention Line 2: Subject Line 3: Enclosure Notation

4: Copy Notation

5: File or Account Number 6: Mailing Notation

7: Postscript 8: Reference Section
1: Attention Line
Attention line is used to forward a letter to a particular person or title
or department. When the letter is addressed to a company, attention
line is usually placed between the inside address and salutation. A
blank line is left before and after it.

2: Subject Line
Subject line shows the main idea of your message. It is very helpful for
the reader. He can understand the whole idea of your letter from the
subject line. You can use the word subject before the line or may omit
it. It is usually placed on the second line below the salutation. It can be
in the center or on the left margin. The Subject Line (optional) - Its
inclusion can help the recipient in dealing successfully with the aims of
your letter. Normally the subject sentence is preceded with the word
Subject: or Re: Subject line may be emphasized by underlining, using
bold font, or all capital letters. It is usually placed one line below the
greeting but alternatively can be located directly after the "inside
address," before the "greeting.“
3: Enclosure Notation or Attachments
Enclosure notation shows that you have enclosed one or more
documents with your letter. An enclosure can be anything in the
envelope other than the message itself. If you want to enclose
more than one item, you should indicate the number as
Enclosure 4 or Enclosure 5. For attachment you should use the
word attached. When enclosures are very important, you must
mention the names of the documents. Enclosure notation is
placed below Reference Section.

4: Copy Notation
When you want other persons to receive a copy of the letter, the
names of those persons arranged in order of importance or in
alphabetical order should be typed in a copy notation. It is placed
just below the enclosure notation. Type "cc" before the receivers'
name if you are sending them a carbon copy, "pc" for photocopy
and "bpc" for blind photocopy.
5: File or Account Number
Sometimes file or account number is typed above the body of the
letter in a prominent place. It is very helpful for the sender's and
the reader's company. Both can easily check their record.

6: Mailing Notation
Mailing notation are the words such as Special Delivery, Certified
or Registered Mail. They are placed a double space below the
date line and a double space before the inside address. They can
also be placed a double space under the reference initials.

7: Postscript
Postscript is an after thought that you want to add in your letter.
If you forget to mention a point in the body, you may write it in
the postscript. It is written at the end of the letter below
everything. You can write 'ps' before the postscript line.
8: Reference Section
Initials are to be included if someone other than the writer types the
letter. If someone other than yourself typed the letter you will include
your initials in capital letters followed by the typist's initials in lower
case in the following format; AG/gs or AG:gs.

Letter Layout or Formats

The format (layout) is the visual organization of a business letter. You
can follow many different formats when you create business letters. Be
aware that there are often differences depending upon location. The
main business letter formats are:

1: Full-Block Style
All the elements are aligned to the left margin and there are no
indented lines. This is a standard block-style format that is accepted by
most businesses. Moreover, it is the most formal among all the formats
especially preferred for the Business Letters.
The following pictures show what a one-page business letter should
look like. There are three accepted styles.
Full Block Style
2: Modified Block Style
The return address, date, closing and signature start just to the right
of the center of the page or may be flush with the right margin. All
body paragraphs begin at the left margin.
Note: The Complimentary Closing and Signature can be placed on
either the left or right side.

Modified Block Style

3: Indented or Semi - Block Style
Similar to the modified block business letter style except that the
first line of each paragraph is indented.
Note: The Complimentary Closing and Signature can be placed on
either the left or right side.

Indented or Semi-Block Style

 Samples of Business Letter

Arbab Landi, Khotla

Mohsin Khan, Javeed Abad
Peshawar, Pakistan
October 15, 1996

Ajmal Rasooly (Project Director)

Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
Orakzai Plaza, Total Gas Station,
Saheen Town, University Road,
Peshawar, Pakistan

To Whom It May Concern:

Subject: Application for the post of ESL Instructor

I am applying for the position of ESL Instructor, which I have heard through some reliable sources, lying vacant under your prestigious observation at
your well-reputed center. Since the position, for which I am applying, requires some teaching experience, I am sending a set of my credentials to you
and to your representatives of the respective center. This is particularly exciting position as I would be able to use my knowledge of English Language,
which would not only enhance the effectiveness of my English Language instruction but also let me do something for the home-deprived, Afghans.

The paramount experience that has influenced my decision to apply for this position, however, is your providing people with more opportunities and
doing a great service of providing quality education in the field of English Language to not only Pakistanis but also Afghans, war-afflicted, through
well-qualified staff, innovative, and up-to-date methods of teaching.

If I am given a chance, I will do my level best to further enlighten the name and fame of your organization and at the same time, I will feel great
pleasure working in such challenging environment.

Looking forward to hearing a positive reply and being called for an interview with you at your convenience in no time.

Very truly yours,

Ahmad Fawad

Enclosures: Curriculum Vitae

Letters of Recommendation from four former employers
Two certificates of Excellence and a letter of “Grade Promotion”
Fortune Goods
317 Orchard Road Singapore
20 December 2011

Attn: Mr David Choi

Sales Manager
Everlong Batteries
171 Choi Hung Road
Hung Hom, Hong Kong

Dear Mr Choi:

Re. Order No. 768197

I am writing to inform you that the goods we ordered from your company have not been supplied correctly.

On 13 December 2011 we placed an order with your firm for 12,000 ultra super long-life batteries. The consignment arrived
yesterday but contained only 1,200 batteries.

This error put our firm in a difficult position, as we had to make some emergency purchases to fulfill our commitments to all our
customers. This caused us considerable inconvenience.

I am writing to ask you to please make up the shortfall immediately and to ensure that such errors do not happen again.
Otherwise, we may have to look elsewhere for our supplies.

I look forward to hearing from you by return.

Yours sincerely,

J. Wong
Purchasing Officer
65 Market Street
Val Haven, CT 95135

June 30, 2004

Customer Service
Cool Sports, LLC
8423 Green Terrace Road
Asterville, WA 65435

Dear Sir or Madam:

I have recently ordered a new pair of soccer cleats (item #6542951) from your website on June 21. I received
the order on June 26. Unfortunately, when I opened it, I saw that the cleats were used. The cleats had dirt all
over it and there was a small tear in front of the part where the left toe would go. My order number is
AF26168156.

To resolve the problem, I would like you to credit my account for the amount charged for my cleats; I have
already went out and bought a new pair of cleats at my local sporting goods store so sending another would
result in me having two pairs of the same cleats.

Thank you for taking the time to read this letter. I have been a satisfied customer of your company for many
years and this is the first time I have encountered a problem. If you need to contact me, you can reach me at
(555) 555-5555.

Sincerely,

Ken Thomas
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Contact Number
Email Id
Date

To,
Employer's Name
Company's Name
Company's Address

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am interested and would like to apply for the post of an English Teacher, with reference to your advertisement
published in the Times Newspaper dated 11-03-2010.

I have completed my Masters Degree in English language and literature, from the University of Nevada in the
year 2009. I have also completed a professional degree of 1 year in teaching. Moreover, I have good
communication skills and excellent knowledge of the English Language. I am cool-minded, and capable of
explaining the subject as many times being asked. I am an expert in my subject, and can assure you that I can be
a very good teacher in English language and literature.

I would appreciate an opportunity, if I get a chance to meet you in person, so that we could discuss about my
candidacy. If you feel so, you can revert back with a call on my given contact number, or send me an email
informing the same. Please find my attached resume with this cover letter.

Yours sincerely,

Name
Chapter 4
MEMO WRITING
Memo Writing

Memo Writing
Memo or Memorandum is singular form, while memorandums
and Memoranda or Memos is the plural form.
It is derived from a Latin word Memorandus, which means to
record.
A Memo is a brief, usually one page, written communication
between workers within the same office or company.
Memos are used within organizations to communicate everything
from routine details to complete proposals and reports. Memos
are often only a few short paragraphs, but they can be much
longer, depending on their purpose.

Purposes of Business Memorandums: A Memo is written to talk

about the following purposes.
Memorandum Objectives
An effective Memorandum has the following objectives:
To convey a formal message in written form within a particular
organization
departments or parties.
To inform receivers or readers about particular information new
or changed policies,
procedures and organizational details.
To communicate basic information such as meeting agenda,
meeting time, meeting
date, etc.
To keep a written record of a particular formal event in
organization frame.
To present made decisions in written form.
To transmit written documents.
To apply formalities within the organization.
More informal in appearance and tone than a letter, a memo is
set up in a special format. Headings, lists, tables, or graphs are
often used to make the information more readable.

Parts of Memo: the heading and the body. The heading indicates
who is writing to whom when, and why. The heading should
include the following parts:
To
Lists the names of everyone who will receive the memo
Includes the first and last name and titles or departments of the
recipients for formal memos, memos to superiors, or if everyone
on the list does not know each other
If all recipients know each other's names and
Can be listed alphabetically or by rank
If it is not possible to fit all the names in the To: area, use the
phrase "See distribution list"
At the end of the memo add the word "Distribution" and then list
the names of the people who will receive a copy of the memo
Arrange the names by rank, department or alphabetically
From
lists the name of the writer(s) in the same way as the name(s) of
the recipient(s)
there is no complimentary close or signature line, but authors
initial their names on the From: line

Date
lists the month, date, and year the memo was written
do not use abbreviations
avoid using numbers for months and days
Re: or Subject
indicates the main subject of the letter
should be as specific and concise as possible

Cc or c
lists those readers who should have a copy of the memo for their
information or reference but are ' not expected to carry out the
same action as the recipients listed in the To: line "cc" can also be
placed at the end of the memo below the distribution list (if
used)
The body of the memo conveys the message and generally
consists of four parts:

Introduction:
States the general problem or main idea

Statement of facts
States the facts or discusses the problem or issue

Argument:
Explains importance or relevance of facts.

Conclusion:
Summarizes the main idea, suggests or requests action.
Memos do not have a complimentary close or signature line.
Memos end with a call to action.
Qualities of Memo

1: Concise: Make your sentences, paragraph, and overall memo

as brief and as focused as possible.

2: Clear: Get your purpose straight before you start, then plan
what you want to say and in what order. Use your memo layout
to help your reader (headings, bulleted lists, white space, as
appropriate).

3: Direct: Speak directly to your reader, as you would in person or

on the phone. Do not pad your ideas with unnecessary details.
Think of what questions your reader wants answered, and then
answer them.
4: Clean: Reread, revise, copyedit, and proofread.
 Memorandum
To: All Instructors and students

From: The Office of KELC Date: November 4th, 2010

Subject: Eid-Ul-Adha Holidays

Dear Instructors:

This official memorandum serves to inform all the venerated instructors that office of (KELC) will remain closed on Saturday,
November 5th, 2011 due to the observances of pilgrimage.
Moreover, the office of Kabul English Language Center (KELC) announces Eid-Ul-Adha Holidays from Monday, November 7th, 2011
to Saturday, November 12th, 2011.

This Festival of Sacrifice is an important religious holiday celebrated by Muslims worldwide to commemorate the willingness of
Hazrat Ibrahim (A.S) to sacrifice his son Hazrat Ismail (A.S) as an act of obedience to Allah, the almighty.

We, the working, teaching, governing, and the administrative bodies of Kabul English Language Center (KELC), have the pleasure to
particularly congratulate, and wish our warm Eid greetings to our entire staff, students and in general all the Muslim Umma on this
upcoming Eid.

Last but not the least, it really values to be mentioned that all venerated Instructors are requested to inform and encourage their
students to be present on Monday, November 14th, 2011 so as all the classes can be resumed on the same day.

Wishing you all a very blissful EID

Thanking you in anticipation,

______________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
To: The Instructors of KELC Date: August 20 th, 2010
From: The Office of KELC

Subject: KELC Publication (Intermediate and Advanced Learner’s English Grammar)

Dear EFL Instructors:
This Massive serves to inform all the staff of Kabul English Language (KELC) that the office of KELC has always tried to provide its
students with quality education in all concerns. Moreover, KELC Management has always felt profound pride to have qualified and
hard working staff since its inception.

The fact that all the working staff of KELC is committed to render their services and do a great job of helping not only Afghan but
also Pakistani brothers can be best seen by its publication of the Grammar book (Intermediate and Advanced Learner’s English
Grammar), which has really proved to be useful in enhancing the linguistics skills of both teachers and students.

To further ameliorate the understanding level of students, the Management of KELC strongly expects its respectable Instructors to
encourage their students to purchase the mentioned book. Furthermore, it is imperative that every teacher tell the importance of
this very book and make sure that every on of his students purchase the book.

Features of the Book

Full explanation of the daily used grammatical structures
Clear examples and diagrammatical illustration
Extensive exercises
Contents of the Book
Sentences
Parts of Speech
Clauses and their kinds
Active and Passive
Direct and Indirect Speech
Gerund and Infinitive

Thanking you in anticipation,

___________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
To: All Instructors

From: The Office of KELC Date: June7th, 2010

Subject: General Staff Meeting

Dear Instructors,

After a carefully assessment of the current performance of the instructors, KELC office came to a
verdict that a compulsory staff meeting shall be held for the betterment of KELC , the purpose of which is to
discuss some academic and administrative issues of KELC and to distribute grades accordingly.

The circulated date and time is tomorrow Tuesday 8th June -2010 at 11:00 am

It is vital to mention that the meeting will conducted by the Deputy Director of SDO; therefore, it is benevolently
requested that all teachers must be present at this vary meeting.
Otherwise a severe penalty will be given to those who make any absenteeism.

Your cooperation will be highly valued with high status meditation.

With Regards,

_____________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
From: KELC Office

To: All Teachers Date:

th
February 15 , 2011
Subject Line: Eid-e-Milad-Un-Nabi

Dear EFL Instructors:

Allahuma salli ala Muhammadin wa - ala - Ale Muhammad

O Allah! Shower thy blessings on Muhammad (PBUH) and the descendents of Muhammad (PBUH)

This official communiqué is issued to inform all the respected instructors that the Management Kabul English Language Center
(KELC) has decided to remain closed on Wednesday, February 16th, 2011 owing to Eid-e-Milad-Un-Nabi.

It is time to remember the teachings of the Prophet (PBUH), follow the mission the Prophet (PBUH) dedicated all his life to, and
adopt his teachings in our every walk of life so as to be prosperous in this world and hereafter. .

Moreover, Eid-e-Milad is both, a time to rejoice and a time to mourn, since the Prophet (PBUH) was born on the twelfth day of
Rabi-ul-Awwal passed away on the same day. .

Last but not least, it merits mentioning that all the teachers should inform their students to be back for their classes right on
Thursday, February 17th, 2011 in order that their classes can be resumed as usual.

Wishing you all Eid-e-Milad-Un-Nabi and may the blessing of this Holy Day shower upon
all of us.

Looking forward to your arrival back on duty,

_____________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
From: KELC Office

To: All Teachers Date: December 2nd , 2011

Subject Line: Muharram-Ul-Haram

This official communiqué is issued to inform all the respected instructors that the Management of Kabul English Language Cent er
(KELC) has decided to remain closed on Monday and Tuesday, coinciding with the 5th and 6th of December 2011 owing to
Muharram-Ul-Haram.

The following are some of the desirable acts one should do on the day of Ashurah:
1. To observe fast on this day.
2. To give as much charity as you can afford.
3. To perform Nafl Salat prayers.
4. To recite Surah Ikhlas 1000 times.
5. To visit and be in the company of pious Ulema.
6. To place a hand of affection on an orphan’s head.
7. To give generously to one’s relatives.
8. To put surma in one’s eyes.
9. To take a bath.
10. To cut one’s nails.
11. To visit the sick.
12. To establish friendly ties with one’s enemies.
13. To recite Dua-e-Ashurah
14. To visit the shrines of Awliyas and the graves of Muslims.

Last but not least, it is worth mentioning that all the teachers should inform their students to be back for their classes ri ght on
Wednesday, December 7th, 2011 in order that their classes can be resumed as usual.

Looking forward to your arrival back on duty,

_____________________
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
Memorandum

To: All EFL Instructors

From: The Office of KELC Date: December 31st, 2010

Subject: Security Measures

Dear EFL Instructors:

This memorandum is issued to inform all the respected Instructors that as everyone knows that the situation of Pakistan has r eally
gotten so critical and secutrity is for the most major of concern everywhere.

We, therefore, strongly inform every single member of our organization to make sure that every student is on the look out so as
security measures can be strengthen within the premises of (KELC).

All the teachers are kindly instructed to keep such areas strictly under their consideration:

1: Inform their students not to bring any extra baggage to center

2: Tell their students to inform KELC Office if any suspicious looking person is observed

3: Inform himself the office of more precautionary measures

4: Instruct guards to keep an eye on all those people who come to KELC

Last but not the least, every single member working at KELC is morally bound to make sure that working condition is safe and
everyone feels fully protected.

Looking forward to your cooperation

With Regards,
Fardin Safi
Academic Manager
Kabul English Language Center (KELC)
Chapter 5
ESSAY WRITING
Essay Writing Chapter 5

What is an Essay?

The word “Essay” is derived from the Latin verb “Exigere”, which
means to:
Examine
Test
Drive out

It is an organized piece of writing that focuses on a single topic or

theme. Moreover, it is organized around a general idea or thesis.
Or: Essay is a short piece of writing on a particular subject,
especially one done by students as part of the work for a course.
Why Write an Essay?
Writing an essay helps you express your ideas more clearly and
effectively
It helps you to convey much information in a small amount of
space
They can be entertaining by recounting interesting stories about
ourselves and others.
A required part of almost all college courses.

Parts of an Essay
There are Three Parts of an Essay
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Introduction
Consists of one paragraph
Address the topic in the first sentence
Present three examples or ideas to support your opinion

Body
Consists of three paragraphs
1st paragraph details on example one
2ndparagraph details on example two
3rd paragraph details on example three
Each paragraph should have three to five sentences
Use transitional words and phrases to strengthen the organization
Indent to show where a new paragraph begins
Conclusion
Consists of one paragraph
Restates the introduction

In Review
The Three Parts of an Essay will organize into five paragraphs:
1st Introduction
Address the topic
Present three examples

2nd Details on example one

3rd Details on example two
4th Details on example three
5th Conclusion
Restate the introduction

Thesis develops from all the main ideas in the supporting

paragraphs
Paragraphs that develop the thesis are the body of the essay
Begins with an introduction
Ends with a concluding paragraph

The following compares the elements of Paragraphs and Essays

Paragraph
Organized around main idea
Introductory sentence
Developed by supporting details
Concluding sentence
Essay
Organized around a thesis
Introductory paragraph
Developed by supporting body paragraphs
Concluding paragraph

Types of Essays
There are the great number of types of essays used in colleges
and schools today. All of them have their specific particular
purpose and reason. The most popular kinds of essays are:

1: Evaluation Essay
In an Evaluation Essay, you make judgments about people, ideas,
and possible actions. You make your evaluation based on certain
criteria that you develop. Organize the essay by discussing the
criteria you used to make your judgment.
2: Explanation Essay
In an Explanation Essay, you explain how or why something
happens or has happened. You need to explain different causes
and effects. You should organize the essay by explaining each
individual cause or effect.

3: Choice Essay
In a Choice Essay, you need to choose which object, idea, or
action that you prefer. You organize the essay by describing each
option and then giving your opinion.

4: Sequence Essay
In a Sequence Essay, you are writing to describe a series of events
or a process in some sort of order. Usually, this order is based on
time. You organize the essay by writing about each step.
5: Compare and Contrast Essay
In a Compare and Contrast Essay, you write about the similarities
and differences between two or more people, places, or things.
You can organize the essay by writing about one subject first and
then comparing it with the second subject.

6: Description Essay
Description Essay In a description essay, you write about what a
person, place, or thing looks like. You organize the essay by
describing different parts or aspects of the main subject.
7: Classification Essay
In a Classification Essay, you separate things or ideas into specific
categories and discuss each of them. You organize the essay by
defining each classification and by giving examples of each type.

8: Definition Essay
In a Definition Essay, you take a term or an idea and write about
what it is. Often, definitions are combined with classification or
other forms of organization in the essay.

9: Narrative Essay: The narrative essay tells a story. It can also be

called a "short story." Generally the narrative essay is
conversational in style, and tells of a personal experience. It is
most commonly written in the first person (uses I). This essay
could tell of a single, life-shaping event, or simply a mundane
daily experience.
Essay on Education
Education is a term which is more easily understood than
defined. It has been derived from the Latin word "educatum"
which means the act of teaching or training.
According to some, it has also come from another Latin term
"educare" which means "to bring up", "to raise". Some also
believe that it has been originated from the Latin word "educere"
which means "to lead forth" or "to come out".
Thus education is regarded as "a process of drawing out from
within". That is why, Gandhijee meant" By education I mean an
all-round drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind
and spirit".
Education is thus a process of self-expression. An
individual expresses himself through education. These innate
powers and potentialities are developed and drawn out through
education. It is a means of adjustment of an individual with the
society.
It is a process by which he is brought into proper relationship
with the ideas and Meals, customs and traditions of the society.
The child is weak, helpless and ignorant at birth. But he gradually
grows and develops. He acquires knowledge and skills. He
realizes thoughts into actions and satisfies his needs. He changes
his behavior according to his environment. Such changes, growth
and development of the individual are his education this is the
result of his learning and maturation.
Learning is living. Learning is the modification of behavior.
Thus education is the process by which the knowledge, character
and behavior of an individual are formed and modified. One's
conduct and behavior are changed and refined according to the
desired standard of the society. This is the result of education.
 Essay on Eid-ul-Fitr

Eid-ul-Fitr is the most important of all the Muslim

festivals. It is celebrated at the end of the holy month of Ramzan,
the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, during which all adult
Muslims all over the world observe a month-long fast and they
have their meal only at night. It is celebrated on the first day of
the tenth lunar month of the Islamic calendar.

Fitr is said to be derived from the word Tatar' which

means 'breaking' or 'fitrah' meaning alms. It is an occasion of
feasting and rejoicing. Family get-togethers and feasts are the
major highlights of the celebrations of Eid-ul-Fitr.

People exchange greetings 'Id Mubarak'. Traditionally,

'Eidi' in the form of presents of money and gifts are given to the
youngsters by the elders and are conveyed blessings.
 Special delicious dishes like seviyan are prepared in this
festival. It is a time to forget all past differences and grievances.

It is believed that it was during the month of Ramzan that

the holy book of the Muslims, the Quran came into existence and
Prophet Mohammad was chosen by God as his messenger to
compile the sacred book.

The last ten days of Ramzan are of great significance for

the Muslims because during this period the revelation of the book
to the Prophet was completed.
 Essay Friendship
Friendship is a feeling of love and affection of one person
for another. This feeling of love must be reciprocated. Otherwise
friendship cannot be possible. Friendship does not exist where
tastes, feelings and sentiments are not similar.
The famous essayist Bacon has warned against the
friendship between a very rich person and a very poor person.
Economic disparity damages friendship. Thus friendship is a
feeling of affection between two likeminded persons of uniform
status.
It is said that a friend in need is a friend in deed. There
may be many friends at the time of prosperity. But most of them
desert at the time of adversity. We can examine the sincerity of a
friend during our time of hardship and trouble. Only a sincere
and faithful friend remains with us at the time of our trouble. All
others leave us. It is very painful when our friends turn traitors.
 Money is an enemy of friendship. Everybody has an
attraction for money. When lending or borrowing of money is done
between two friends, there is great risk. Friendship may be affected.
So it is wise for true friends to avoid monetary transaction. Vanity is
another element which breaks friendship. Everybody has self-
respect. When a person tries to criticize his friend, their friendship is
affected. So friendship must be treated very delicately.

Very often some hypocrites pretend to be friends. They are

more dangerous than avowed enemies. By telling soft words they
bring enormous ruin to us. A true friend never exploits. He rather
surrenders. But at present, the meaning of friendship has changed.

There are many fair-weathered friends. They terminate their

friendly tie as soon as their interests are fulfilled.
 It is very difficult to find a true friend today. It is better to
establish true friendship with either a dog or an elephant. Both
these beasts will remain faithful to their human friends. Today,
friendship between two persons is short-lived.

Good friends exercise good influence. They always help their

friends, in distress and inspire them to walk on the right path. But
evil friends ruin us completely.
 If I were a king
Ah, if I were a king! I am a poor child, born in a middle-class
family. My life may look monotonous, because every day I am
engaged in attending the same type of work, such as reading,
writing, going to school, and playing with friends and brothers and
sisters; yet I fell that my life is simple, and I cannot say that I am
unhappy.
But if I were born a prince in a royal family, my lifestyle would have
been completely different from what I am today in this village, lying
in a mud house under the thatched roof with my poor parents who
live from hand to mouth.
In a royal family, I would have many servants, always busy to
look after my comforts. They were on their toes, just to listen to my
orders and comply with my wishes.
And when I would grow up, I would ascend the throne and become
a king. As a good king, I would be required to shoulder many
responsibilities.
 I would try to become an ideal ruler. I would have levied
taxes according to the financial capacity of my subjects, and not
beyond their means.

As a tax-collector, it would be my duty to look after their

safety and protection. After keeping a reasonable portion of the
total taxes for the expenditures of administration, I would have
spent the remaining part for the welfare of my subjects, by way
of building new roads, bridges, schools and colleges, hospitals
and similar other charitable institutions which would be used by
my subjects.
As a king, I would have no desire to expand my kingdom,
and hence would not go for a war with any other country. I would
try to maintain good relation with my neighboring countries. And
if necessary, I would sign a treaty of peace for the better
existence of all of us. As an ideal king, I would do anything that is
necessary for the welfare of my kingdom.
 But at the moment, I feel that it is better not to become a
king who has to shoulder so many responsibilities and perform so
many important duties in honor of the crown. So I think, it is
better to remain as I am here in a poor family with my loving
parents, brothers, and sisters, and also the affectionate teachers
of my school, and lead a simple life among the simple and
common folk around me.
Chapter 6
REPORT WRITING
Report Writing

Long/ Formal Report

Report:

It is a factual piece of writing that is based on the research that

someone has conducted. A Long Report is simply an expression of
a shorter report. Major differences in the long report involve
greater length and depth of discussion of more complex
problems.
Formal Reports are prepared in detail and pertain to complex
problems. They are problem solving or question-answering
reports. When an enterprise has to take or make a major
decision, and requires being on safe side, a report is prepared
containing the definition, nature and analysis of the situation and
recommendations to get over the unwanted situation.
Long Reports Demand:
Long Report demand more preliminary collecting, sorting,
interpreting, writing, and editing and creation of visuals than
short report.
Formal Report:
A Long Report may also called "Formal" but not formal in the
sense of language usage.
What to do first when asked to complete a report:

a) Recognize clearly what is expected of you: issue, problems,

purpose, and scope.
b) Resize who your audience or readers will be.
c) Get an idea of sources to which you may turn.
d) Understand when the report is to be completed.
e) Be sure of financial and time constraints cost, travel, release
from work.
f) Ask if the authorizer wants progress reports.
Parts of the Formal Report:

A Formal Report has many formalities, embellishments, and

requirements, which must be completed. The embellishments,
formalities, and requirements of a Formal Report may be divided
in Three major divisions whose details are given below:
A. Prefatory Parts:
They are important for the development of a long formal report.
a) Cover and External Title
b) Title Fly and Internal Title
c) Title Page
d) Letter of Authorization
e) Letter of Transmittal
f) Table of Contents
g) Synopsis or Abstract
h) Preface (if the letter of transmittal is ignored)
B. Body of the Report

a) Introduction
b) Text
c) Terminal section

C. Supplemental Parts

a) Bibliography
b) Appendix
c) Glossary
d) Index

A. Prefatory Parts of the Formal Report:

The details of the Prefatory Parts of the Formal Report are as
follows:
a) Covers an External Title:
Many reports combine the cover page and title page as the first
page. You can even purchase professionally produced covers that
have space for a title. Oars are some reports submitted to the
president of United States, the cover may be leather with the title
embossed directly in the cover. Some reports have simple hard
cover, with the title typed on the gummed label. Even large
companies have reports printed with special visually appealing
covers.

b) Title Fly:
Title Fly is the cover of the report containing (1) the title of the
report, (2) the name of the receiver of the report, and (3) the
name of the writer that is placed after the Cover and External
Title. You should use a sturdy, light cardboard or paperback cover.
The cover should bear the title of the report in the upper center,
the name of the receiver in the middle center, and the name of
the writer in lower center.
c) Title Page:
The Title Page is next to Title Fly. It has more information than
the Title Fly. It bears:
1. Title of the report, name of the receiver, his designation, and
the name of his company.
2. The name of the writer, his designation, and the name of his
company.
3. The date of the submission of the report.

d) Letter of Authorization:
It is also known as Letter of Commissioning. In it the individual or
the management authorizes the report writer to prepare the
report. It also serves as an appointment letter issued to the
writer. The Authorization Letter helps the writer get the company
data and take officials and interviews necessary for study. In this
sense it is an introduction letter, the authorization letter appears
immediately after title page.
e) Letter of Transmittal:
This letter comes immediately after the Letter of Authorization
and is bound as part of the letter. It is a covering letter because it
transmits the report. The transmittal letter may include the
followings:

1. Authorization of the receiver.

2. Acknowledgement to those who helped with the report.
3. Unexpected findings, major conclusions, and special
suggestions.
4. Emphasis on follow up research.
5. Personal comments not included in the body of report.
6. Urging the reader to take action.
It is important to know that in the presence of Letter of
Transmittal, Preface is not at all required because the letter also
serves as Preface.
f) Table of Contents:
The table bears major and subdivisions of the report and then
respective appearance in the report. The numbering of the
contents is marked by Roman number (I, II, III), Alphabet (A, B, C)
and Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3) etc.

g) Executive Summary, Synopsis or Abstract:

The Executive Summary, Synopsis or Abstract is a highly
compressed paragraph summarizing the purpose of the report
and the general character of its conclusions or recommendations.
Its function is to give the busy reader quickly a good idea of what
he may expect to find in the report even before he/she has read
the probably much longer introduction.
h) Preface:
Preface is the foreword talked by the writer. Through it he
addresses the reader of the report. He offers his thanks to the
people who cooperated with him in the making of the report. The
function of the Preface may be performed by the Letter of
Transmittal. Therefore, Preface is not included if the Transmittal
Letter is inserted in the report.

B. Parts of the Body Formal Business Reports:

The body of a formal report has the following parts:
a) Introduction
b) Text
c) Terminal Section

Tell them what you are going to tell them (Introduction). Then tell
them (Text). Then, tell them what you have told them (Summary,
Conclusion).
a) Introduction part of the report:
Introduction acquaints the reader with the better understanding
of report.

b) Text:
The text contains the actual details of the report. It is the main
and crucial part of the body. This part explains findings and data.
The content, organization, language, style, and visual aid should
be trimmed to the type of the reader.

c) Terminal Section:
Terminal section of the body of the report may comprise one or
all of the following elements.
1. Summary
2. Conclusions
3. Recommendations
1. Summary:
This section summarizes the findings of the investigation.

2. Conclusions:
It interprets facts explained. It does not give the writer’s personal
opinion. The opinion should be unbiased and, should not base on
personal likes and dislikes.

3. Recommendations:
This section suggests a plan of action based on findings and
conclusions. If recommendations run through the report, it will
include only summary of recommendations. Now it is up to
management whether to follow suggested course of action or
not.

C. Supplemental parts of the formal report:

They are not important for the development of a report.
The following is some information about the Supplemental parts
of The Formal Business Report.

a) Bibliography:
It refers to the sources from where the data have been collected.
The sources may be books, newspapers, magazines, government
publications or its statistical departments, public associations,
chambers of commerce and yearbooks.

b) Appendix: (Plural: Appendices)

In the Appendix, you may include tables, pictorials, graphs, charts
or some additional information. It appears immediately after the
last page of the body.
c) Glossary:
A Glossary is an alphabetical listing of special terms and words
with their meaning and definitions. It is useful for both technical
and non-technical readers. You should mention Glossary in the
table of contents.
d) Index:
It includes the list of topics, their divisions and subdivisions with
their location in the report. The order of the items listed in the
Index is alphabetical.

Kinds of Report

The word Report covers a variety of communication forms that

fulfill many purposes. Companies issue annual reports to keep
their shareholders informed on the progress and financial
condition of the company. Nurses conscientiously enter notations
of a patient’s condition on the medical report. We read news
reports in the daily papers and consult the weather report or surf
report to plan our weekend activities. In science classes you are
expected to submit laboratory reports, and in English classes
book reports.
In business, industry, government and education, reports are
important form of communication. A letter to a client detailing
the repairs needed to a rental property is a letter report, while a
memo from the property manager to head office on the same
topic would also be considered a report. Some reports require a
single page to complete their aim, while others require several
volumes.

Some reports follow a clearly prescribed format, while other

informal reports can be designed to suit their individual purpose.
To help learn more about the art of report writing, it is useful to
classify reports into two broad functional categories: Descriptive
Reports And Analytical Reports.
Descriptive Reports: are a presentation of factual information or
expert opinion, organized logically, and written in an objective
and unbiased style. Their function is to give others the
information they need to make an informed decision when they
do not have the time or the expertise to collect the information
themselves.

Analytical Reports: also present facts and opinions, but the

writer draws on professional expertise to examine and evaluate
these data and make recommendations. Their function is to give
professional advice to others to guide them in solving their
business, technical or personal problems.
As well as these broad functional categories, reports can also be
classified according to functional style.
Some Other Kinds of Report

1. Formal Reports: are frequently required in the business world.

They follow a structured format so that readers can expect to find
prescribed information in the appropriate locations in the report.
The purpose of these reports may vary from presentation of sales
or financial data to an investigation of pollution in urban
waterways. They may be written for a specialist readership or
they may be designed for a wider audience.

2. Technical or Scientific Reports: also follow a structured format.

Since the purpose of these reports is often to methodically
document an experiment or investigation so that others can
replicate or verify it, they must be written with care. Tables of
results, graphs, and detailed drawings are often included.
3. Documentary Reports or ‘Eyewitness Reports’: describe an
event or situation in detail. They may be required when informing
the police of a road accident, or making an insurance claim. They
provide the basis for evidence in court cases and arbitration.
Since this type of report requires accuracy and clarity, the use of
diagrams, graphics and photographs may also be required.

4. Informal Reports: could include a variety of purposeful

documents which need not follow any prescribed layout, but
which still fulfill the function of supplying accurate information to
aid in making decisions.
5. Standardized Reports: are designed for situations which
require a large number of similar reports. School report cards are
familiar to all of us, and progress, sales and maintenance reports
can also be streamlined so that a simple check in the appropriate
column can save hours of writing.

6. Short Reports: often restricted to one typed page are required

by many organizations. Their function is to streamline the
information flow by including only the essential data. Each
organization will have its own preferred format, but it is usually
appropriate to use headings to focus on the key elements which
should include the objective, results, conclusions and
recommendations.
Chapter 7
PERPOSAL
WRITING
Proposal Writing

Proposal Writing

The general purpose of any Proposal is to persuade the readers

to do something, whether it is to persuade a potential customer
to purchase goods and/or services, or to persuade your employer
to fund a project or to implement a program that you would like
to launch.
Any Proposal offers a plan to fill a need, and your reader will
evaluate your plan according to how well your written
presentation answers questions about “What” you are proposing,
“How” you plan to do it, “When” you plan to do it and “How
Much” it is going to cost. To do this you must ascertain the level
of knowledge that your audience possesses and take the
positions of all your readers into account.
You must also discern whether your readers will be members of
your technical community, of your technical discourse
community, or of both, and then use the appropriate materials
and language to appeal to both. You might provide, for those
outside of your specific area of expertise, an executive summary
written in non-technical language, or you might include a glossary
of terms that explains technical language use in the body of the
proposal or attach appendices that explain technical information
in generally understood language.
Kinds of Proposals:

Consider the situations in which Proposals occur. A company may send out a
public announcement requesting Proposals for a specific project. This public
announcement called a request for proposals (RFP) could be issued through
newspapers, trade journals, Chamber of Commerce channels, or individual
letters. Firms or individuals interested in the project would then write
Proposals in which they summarize their qualifications, project schedules and
costs, and discuss their approach to the project. The recipient of all these
Proposals would then evaluate them, select the best candidate, and then work
up a contract. But Proposals come about much less formally. Imagine that you
are interested in doing a project at work (for example, investigating the merits
of bringing in some new technology to increase productivity). Imagine that you
visited with your supervisor and tried to convince him of this. He might
respond by saying, "Write me a Proposal and I'll present it to upper
management." As you can see from these examples, proposals can be divided
into several categories:
Proposals are sales presentations easily classified into Two kinds.
Research Proposals
Business Proposals
Research Proposal
Is usually academic in nature. Professors in schools and university
departments often submit request for Research Proposal.

Business Proposal
In length, Proposals may be similar to other reports short or long
and formal. Also, like reports, Proposals may be Solicited or
Unsolicited. An organization often knows in advance those
individuals and corporations that are qualified to bid on a job or
help solve a problem.

Business Proposal is generally divided into Two types:

Solicited Proposal
Unsolicited Proposal
Solicited Proposal: If a Proposal is Solicited, the recipient of the
proposal in some way requested the proposal. Typically, a
company will send out requests for proposals (RFPs) through the
mail or publish them in some news source. But Proposals can be
solicited on a very local level; for example, you could be
explaining to your boss what a great thing it would be to install a
new technology in the office; your boss might get interested and
ask you to write up a Proposal that offered to do a formal study
of the idea.

Unsolicited Proposal: are those in which the recipient has not

requested proposals. With Unsolicited Proposals, you sometimes
must convince the recipient that a problem or need exists before
you can begin the main part of the proposal.
Parts of Proposal:
The parts of a Proposal, listed below, may be used in major
Business Proposals on sales of your company’s services,
expertise, equipment, or extensive installation facilities.

Proposal has Four main parts namely:

Front Page
Title Page
Title pages of a Proposal are similar either short or long reports.
The Title Page should include the title, the name of the person or
company to whom the proposal is submitted, the person
submitting the proposal, and the date.
 Executive Summary, Abstract, Synopsis

Even brief proposals should have an Executive Summary, because

you will be competing with others for the same opportunity;
some evaluators will initially read only the Executive Summary;
seeking to gain a quick overview. In fact the executive summary
should speak for the complete proposal. It should be able to
stand alone, and it should summarize how objectives will be met
and what procedures will be followed. Budget figures are
frequently omitted because Proposal abstracts may receive wide
distribution.
Some Proposal readers feel that the Executive Summary is one of
the most important parts of a Proposal, so give it careful time and
effort.
Draft Contract
A Draft Contract Allows the receiver to offer a counter offer. In
long Proposals a Draft Contract may be inserted after an
Executive Summary. Such as early presentation gives an
immediate overview, including financial information.

Table of Contents
Brief Proposals usually do not require a Table of Contents. Long
Proposals do require one, as well as al sit of tables, figures, and
illustrations.

Introduction
Purpose
Do not take for granted that the reader of your proposal will be
the same person who sent you a request for a Proposal. Your
purpose is often stated in infinitive form, as for example:
To recommend a format for Board of Director Reports
To bid on supplying 40 aircraft engines to Aviation Supplies
Corporation
To be the printer for the biannual defense contract audit manuals
To supply the engineering date needed to retrofit company Y’s
nuclear generating plant
Problem
In a Business Proposal, show clearly that you understand the
problem or problems. Mention difficulties that may be
encountered and consider how you propose to overcome them. If
your proposal concerns a research study, is it a community
problem, for the local area or a general area?

Scope
If your Proposal is for service or equipment you are selling, in
what areas will it serve the prospective buyer? Define the
boundaries of your project. If you are proposing a research study,
will you study one area of a community, company, and
department.
Project Team
Even in Short Reports some Proposals include a listing of the
individuals who will work on the project, including the project
director. In Long Proposals such information is a must, including a
brief vita on each individual.

Background
If your Proposal is short, the background may be omitted; in a
longer proposal, information such as the following is usually
included:
Previous work completed on identical or related projects
Possibly, literature reviews on the subject, particularly your
evaluation of them
Statements showing how your proposal will build on the already
completed projects and research
Procedures

Here you briefly state, without exaggeration, how you will meet
the requirements of your reader. A good way to review your
proposals, they will be different in each situation is to follow the
following suggestions:
Be realistic as to what your can accomplish. Avoid overextending
your capabilities and those of your company.
Be specific as to method of meeting all goals.
Be precise with the time schedule.
Be clear as to how you will evaluate your work, production, or
product.
Be exact as to the scope: What your will do and what you will not
do.
Equipment and Facilities

Show that you have thought deeply enough to realize what

facilities will be needed. If your Proposal is for your company’s
bid on an enormous construction job, probably several
departments will cooperate with you in presenting needed facts
and figures.
For a research project, state what equipment and facilities you
already have for use, and assure that you can get the rest.
Depending on the type of project, you might, for example, need
everything from an electronic blackboard to a small airplane.
Personnel
If you didn’t include brief information on the individuals involved
in the project in the introduction, a longer section is appropriate
here. Two topics should be addressed, the personnel
arrangements and the company areas involved, and their
individuals qualifications, expressed in complete biographic form.
Include also the percentages of time that personnel will devote to
the project.

Budget
Sponsors or organizations requesting proposals frequently, so
specify how the budget should be presented. Read such
specifications carefully. Not all groups allow the same costs.
While some budget sections may be in tabular or ever a form of
visual aid, it is customary to include a “Budget Justification”
section, stating in paragraph form a further rationale for your
financial figures.
Appendix
Some reviewers of Proposals leave reading of appendix to the
last, if they read them at all. Additional bulk may to the reader
represent additional padding, and could produce a negative
reaction.
The most basic composition of a Proposal, as with any other
written document, is simple; it needs a beginning (the
Introduction), a middle (the Body of material to be presented)
and an end (the Conclusion/Recommendation).

The Introduction presents and summarizes the problem you

intend to solve and your solution to that problem, including the
benefits the reader/group will receive from the solution and the
cost of that solution.
The Body of the proposal should explain the complete details of
the solution: how the job will be done, broken into separate
tasks; what method will be used to do it, including the
equipment, material, and personnel that would be required;
when the work will begin; and, when the job will be completed. It
should also present a detailed cost breakdown for the entire job.

The Conclusion should emphasize the benefits that the reader

will realize from your solution to the problem and should urge
the reader to action. It should be encouraging, confident and
assertive in tone.
Proposals are informative and persuasive writing because they
attempt to educate the reader and to convince that reader to do
something. The goal of the writer is not only to persuade the
reader to do what is being requested, but also to make the
reader believe that the solution is practical and appropriate. In
Persuasive Proposal writing, the case is built by the
demonstration of logic in the approach taken in the solution.
Facts must lead logically and inevitably to the conclusion and
solution presented. Evidence should be given in descending order
of importance, beginning with the most important evidence
leading and the least important at the end. Any questions that
the reader might pose should be anticipated and answered in a
way that reflects the position of your Proposal. It is important
that the writer, also, consider all sides of the argument providing
other alternative solutions to the problem, but showing how the
one chosen is superior to the others.
Format of Proposals
You have the following options for the format and packaging of your proposal.
It does not matter which you use as long as you use the memorandum format
for internal proposals and the business-letter format for external proposals.