TRIGONOMETRY

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Contents:

1 Trigonometric Ratios 1
1.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry...................................................................................................................2
1.2 The Unit Circle......................................................................................................................................21
1.3 Introduction to Polar Coordinates......................................................................................................... 38
1.4 The Law of Sines...................................................................................................................................45
1.5 The Law of Cosines...............................................................................................................................63

2 Trigonometric Functions and Identities 74

2.1 Graphing Trigonometric Functions....................................................................................................... 75
2.2 Using Trigonometric Identities............................................................................................................101
2.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations........................................................................................................112
2.4 Sum and Difference Formulas.............................................................................................................118
2.5 Double and Half Angle Formulas........................................................................................................126

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 CHAPTER
1 Trigonometric Ratios
Chapter Outline
1.1 RIGHT TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY
1.2 THE UNIT CIRCLE
1.3 INTRODUCTION TO POLAR COORDINATES
1.4 THE LAW OF SINES
1.5 THE LAW OF COSINES

This chapter explores trigonometric ratios in the context of problem solving in right triangles, non-right triangles
and the unit circle. Radian measure and connections to area of triangles are also explored.

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 1.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry

Objective
To develop an understanding of trigonometric ratios and to use the trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and tangent
along with their inverses to solve right triangles.
Review Queue
1. Given that P(A) = 0.8, P(B) = 0.5 and P(A ∪ B) = 0.9, determine whether events A and B are independent.
2. Events A and B are independent and P(A) = 0.6 and P(B) = 0.5, find P(A ∪ B)′.
3. Reduce the radical expressions:
√
a. 240
√ √
b. 3 48 + 5 75
√ √
c. 4 15 · 30

Pythagorean Theorem and its Converse

Objective
Discover, prove and apply the Pythagorean Theorem to solve for unknown sides in right triangles and prove triangles
are right triangles.
Guidance
The Pythagorean Theorem refers to the relationship between the lengths of the three sides in a right triangle. It states
that if a and b are the legs of the right triangle and c is the hypotenuse, then a2 + b2 = c2. For example, the lengths
3, 4, and 5 are the sides of a right triangle because 32 + 42 = 52(9 + 16 = 25). Keep in mind that c is always the
longest side.

The converse of this statement is also true. If, in a triangle, c is the length of the longest side and the shorter sides
have lengths a and b, and a2 + b2 = c2, then the triangle is a right triangle.
Proof of Pythagorean Theorem
There are many proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem and here is one of them. We will be using the concept that the
area of a figure is equal to the sum of the areas of the smaller figures contained within it and algebra to derive the
Pythagorean Theorem.

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Using the figure below (a square with a smaller square inside), first write two equations for its area, one using the
lengths of the sides of the outer square and one using the sum of the areas of the smaller square and the four triangles.

Area 1: (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

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Area 2: c2 + 4 2
ab = c 2 + 2ab
Now, equate the two areas and simplify:

a2 + 2ab + b2 = c2 + 2ab
a2 + b2 = c2

Example A
In a right triangle a = 7 and c = 25, find the length of the third side.
Solution: We can start by substituting what we know into the Pythagorean Theorem and then solve for the unknown
side, b:

72 + b2 = 252
49 + b2 = 625
b2 = 576
b = 24

Example B
Find the length of the third side of the triangle below. Leave your answer in reduced radical form.

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Solution: Since we are given the lengths of the two legs, we can plug them into the Pythagorean Theorem and find
the length of the hypotenuse.

82 + 122 = c2
64 + 144 = c2
c2 = 208
√ √ √
c = 208 = 16 · 13 = 4 13

Example C
Determine whether a triangle with lengths 21, 28, 35 is a right triangle.
Solution: We need to see if these values will satisfy a2 + b2 = c2. If they do, then a right triangle is formed. So,

212 + 282 = 441 + 784 = 1225

352 = 1225

Yes, the Pythagorean Theorem is satisfied by these lengths and a right triangle is formed by the lengths 21, 28 and
35.
Guided Practice
For the given two sides, determine the length of the third side if the triangle is a right triangle.
1. a = 10 and b = 5
2. a = 5 and c = 13
Use the Pythagorean Theorem to determine if a right triangle is formed by the given lengths.
3. 16, 30, 34
4. 9, 40, 42
5. 2, 2, 4
Answers
√ √ √ √
1. 102 + 52 = 100 + 25 = 125 = 5 5
√ √ √
2. 132 — 52 = 169 — 25 = 144 = 12
3.
162 + 302 = 256 + 900 = 1156
342 = 1156
Yes, this is a right triangle.
4.
92 + 402 = 81 + 1600 = 1681
422 = 1764
No, this is not a right triangle.
5. This one is tricky, in a triangle the lengths of any two sides must have a sum greater than the length of the third
side. These lengths do not meet that requirement so not only do they not form a right triangle, they do not make a
triangle at all.

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Problem Set
Find the unknown side length for each right triangle below.

1.

2.

3.
4. a = 6,b = 8
5. b = 6,c = 14
6. a = 12,c = 18

Determine whether the following triangles are right triangles.

7.

8.

5
 9.

Do the lengths below form a right triangle? Remember to make sure that they form a triangle.

10. 3, 4, 5
11. 6, 6, 11
12. 11, 13, 17
13. Major General James A. Garfield (and former President of the U.S.) is credited with deriving this proof of the
Pythagorean Theorem using a trapezoid. Follow the steps to recreate his proof.

(a) Find the area of the trapezoid using the trapezoid area formula: A = 21 (b1 + b2)h (b) Find the sum of the
areas of the three right triangles in the diagram. (c) The areas found in the previous two problems should be
the same value. Set the expressions equal to each other and simplify to get the Pythagorean Theorem.

Sine, Cosine, and Tangent

Objective
Define and apply the trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and tangent to solve for the lengths of unknown sides in right
triangles.
Guidance
The trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and tangent refer to the known ratios between particular sides in a right triangle
based on an acute angle measure.

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In this right triangle, side c is the hypotenuse.
If we consider the angle B, then we can describe each of the legs by its position relative to angle B: side a is adjacent
to B; side b is opposite B
If we consider the angle A, then we can describe each of the legs by its position relative to angle A: side b is adjacent
to A; side a is opposite A
Now we can define the trigonometry ratios as follows:

opposite ad jacent opposite

Sine is Cosine is Tangent is
hypotenuse hypotenuse ad jacent

A shorthand way to remember these ratios is to take the letters in red above and write the phrase:

SOH CAH TOA

Now we can find the trigonometric ratios for each of the acute angles in the triangle above.

a b
sinA = sinB =
c c
b a
cosA = cosB =
c c
a b
tanA = tanB =
b a

It is important to understand that given a particular (acute) angle measure in a right triangle, these ratios are constant
no matter how big or small the triangle. For example; if the measure of the angle is 25◦, then sin 25◦≈ 0.4226 and
ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse is always 0.4226 no matter how big or small the triangle.
Example A
Find the trig ratios for the acute angles R and P in ∆PQR.

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Solution: From angle R, O = 8; A = 15; and H = 17. Now the trig ratios are:

8 15 8
sinR = ; cos R = ; tanR =
17 17 15
From angle P, O = 15; A = 8; and H = 17. Now the trig ratios are:

15 8 15
sinP = ; cosP = ; tanP =
17 17 8
Do you notice any patterns or similarities between the trigonometric ratios? The opposite and adjacent sides are
switched and the hypotenuse is the same. Notice how this switch affects the ratios:

1
sinR = cosP cosR = sinP tanR =
tanP
Example B
Use trigonometric ratios to find the x and y.

Solution: First identify or label the sides with respect to the given acute angle. So, x is opposite, y is hypotenuse
(note that it is the hypotenuse because it is the side opposite the right angle, it may be adjacent to the given angle but
the hypotenuse cannot be the adjacent side) and 6 is the adjacent side.
To find x, we must use the given length of 6 in our ratio too. So we are using opposite and adjacent. Since tangent is
the ratio of opposite over adjacent we get:

x
tan35◦ =
6
x = 6tan35◦ multiply both sides by 6
x ≈ 4.20 Use the calculator to evaluate-type in 6TAN(35) ENTER

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NOTE: make sure that your calculator is in DEGREE mode. To check, press the MODE button and verify that
DEGREE is highlighted (as opposed to RADIAN). If it is not, use the arrow buttons to go to DEGREE and press
ENTER. The default mode is radian, so if your calculator is reset or the memory is cleared it will go back to radian
mode until you change it.
To find y using trig ratios and the given length of 6, we have adjacent and hypotenuse so we’ll use cosine:

6
cos35◦ =
y
cos 35◦ 6
= set up a proportion to solve for y
1 y
6 = ycos35◦ cross multiply
6
y= divide bycos 35◦
cos 35◦
y = 7.32 Use the calculator to evaluate-type in 6/TAN(35) ENTER

Alternatively, we could find y using the value we found for x and the Pythagorean theorem:

4.202 + 62 = y2
53.64 = y2
y ≈ 7.32

The downside of this method is that if we miscalculated our x value, we will double down on our mistake and
guarantee an incorrect y value. In general you will help avoid this kind of mistake if you use the given information
whenever possible.
Example C
Given ∆ABC, with m/ A = 90◦,m/ C = 20◦ and c = 9, find a and b.
Solution: Visual learners may find it particularly useful to make a sketch of this triangle and label it with the given
information:

To find a (the9hypotenuse) we can use the opposite side and the sine ratio: sin 20◦ = 9 , solving as we did in Example B
◦ = 9,
we get a = ≈ 26.31 To find b a
sin20◦ (the adjacent side) we can use the opposite side and the tangent ratio: tan 20 b
solving for b we get b = tan920◦ ≈ 24.73.
Guided Practice
1. Use trig ratios to find x and y:

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2. Given ∆ABC with m/ B = 90◦,m/ A = 43◦ and a = 7, find b and c.
3. The base of a playground slide is 6 ft from the base of the platform and the slide makes a 60◦ angle with the
ground. To the nearest tenth of a foot, how high is the platform at the top of the slide?

Answers
1. For x:
5
cos62◦ =
x
5
x= ≈ 10.65
cos 62◦

For y:
y
tan62◦ =
5
y = 5tan62◦ ≈ 9.40

2. For b:
7
sin43◦ =
b
7
b= ≈ 10.26
sin 43◦

For c:
7
tan43◦ =
c
7
c= ≈ 7.51
tan 43◦

3.
h
tan60◦ =
6
h = 6tan60◦ ≈ 10.39

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, so the height of the platform is 10.4 ft
Problem Set
Use you calculator to find the following trigonometric ratios. Give answers to four decimal places.

1. sin35◦
2. tan72◦
3. cos48◦
4. Write the three trigonometric ratios of each of the acute angles in the triangle below.

Use trigonometric ratios to find the unknown side lengths in the triangles below. Round your answers to the nearest
hundredth.

5.

6.

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 7.

For problems 8-10 use the given information about ∆ABC with right angle B to find the unknown side lengths. Round
your answer to the nearest hundredth.

8. a = 12 and m/ A = 43◦
9. m/ C = 75◦ and b = 24
10. c = 7 and m/ A = 65◦
11. A ramp needs to have an angle of elevation no greater than 10 degrees. If the door is 3 ft above the sidewalk
level, what is the minimum possible ramp length to the nearest tenth of a foot?

12. A ship, Sea Dancer, is 10 km due East of a lighthouse. A second ship, Nelly, is due north of the lighthouse. A
spotter on the Sea Dancer measures the angle between the Nelly and the lighthouse to be 38◦. How far apart
are the two ships to the nearest tenth of a kilometer?

Inverse Trig Functions and Solving Right Triangles

Objective
Use the inverse trigonometric functions to find the measure of unknown acute angles in right triangles and solve
right triangles.
Guidance
In the previous concept we used the trigonometric functions sine, cosine and tangent to find the ratio of particular
sides in a right triangle given an angle. In this concept we will use the inverses of these functions, sin—1, cos—1 and
tan—1, to find the angle measure when the ratio of the side lengths is known. When we type sin 30◦ into our calculator,
the calculator goes to a table and finds the trig ratio associated with 30◦, which is 12. When we use an inverse function

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we tell the calculator to look up the ratio and give us the angle measure. For example: sin—1 1 = 30◦. On your
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calculator you would press 2NDSIN to get SIN—1( and then type in 1 , close the parenthesis and press ENTER. Your
2
calculator screen should read SIN—1 12 when you press ENTER.
Example A
Find the measure of angle A associated with the following ratios. Round answers to the nearest degree.

1. sinA = 0.8336
2. tanA = 1.3527
3. cosA = 0.2785

Solution: Using the calculator we get the following:

1. sin—1(0.8336) ≈ 56◦
2. tan—1(1.3527) ≈ 54◦
3. cos—1(0.2785) ≈ 74◦

Example B
Find the measures of the unknown angles in the triangle shown. Round answers to the nearest degree.

Solution: We can solve for either x or y first. If we choose to solve for x first, the 23 is opposite and 31 is adjacent
so we will use the tangent ratio.

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x = tan—1 ≈ 37◦.
31

Recall that in a right triangle, the acute angles are always complementary, so 90◦ — 37◦ = 53◦, so y = 53◦. We can
also use the side lengths an a trig ratio to solve for y:

31
y = tan—1 ≈ 53◦.
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Example C
Solve the right triangle shown below. Round all answers to the nearest tenth.

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Solution: We can solve for either angle A or angle B first. If we choose to solve for angle B first, then 8 is the
hypotenuse and 5 is the opposite side length so we will use the sine ratio.

5
sinB =
8
5
m/ B = sin—1 ≈ 38.7◦
8

Now we can find A two different ways.

Method 1: We can using trigonometry and the cosine ratio:
5
cosA =
8
5
m/ A = cos—1 ≈ 51.3◦
8

Method 2: We can subtract m/ B from 90◦: 90◦— 38.7◦ = 51.3◦ since the acute angles in a right triangle are always
complimentary.
Either method is valid, but be careful with Method 2 because a miscalculation of angle B would make the measure
you get for angle A incorrect as well.
Guided Practice
1. Find the measure of angle A to the nearest degree given the trigonometric ratios.
a. sinA = 0.2894
b. tanA = 2.1432
c. cosA = 0.8911
2. Find the measures of the unknown angles in the triangle shown. Round answers to the nearest degree.

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3. Solve the triangle. Round side lengths to the nearest tenth and angles to the nearest degree.

Answers
1. a. sin—1(0.2894) ≈ 17◦
b. tan—1(2.1432) ≈ 65◦
c. cos—1(0.8911) ≈ 27◦
2.

13 13
x = cos—1 ≈ 49◦; y = sin—1 ≈ 41◦
20 20

3.

17 17 √
m/ A = cos—1 ≈ 63◦; m/ B = sin—1 ≈ 27◦; a = 382 — 172 ≈ 34.0
38 38

Problem Set
Use your calculator to find the measure of angle B. Round answers to the nearest degree.

1. tanB = 0.9523
2. sinB = 0.8659
3. cosB = 0.1568

Find the measures of the unknown acute angles. Round measures to the nearest degree.

4.

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 5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Solve the following right triangles. Round angle measures to the nearest degree and side lengths to the nearest tenth.

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 10.

11.

12.

Application Problems

Objective
Use the Pythagorean Theorem and trigonometric ratios to solve the real world application problems.
Guidance
When solving word problems, it is important to understand the terminology used to describe angles. In trigonometric
problems, the terms angle of elevation and angle of depression are commonly used. Both of these angles are always
measured from a horizontal line as shown in the diagrams below.

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Example A
An airplane approaching an airport spots the runway at an angle of depression of 25◦. If the airplane is 15,000 ft
above the ground, how far (ground distance) is the plane from the runway? Give your answer to the nearest 100 ft.
Solution: Make a diagram to illustrate the situation described and then use a trigonometric ratio to solve. Keep in
mind that an angle of depression is down from a horizontal line of sight-in this case a horizontal line from the pilot
of the plane parallel to the ground.

Note that the angle of depression and the alternate interior angle will be congruent, so the angle in the triangle is
also 25◦.
From the picture, we can see that we should use the tangent ratio to find the ground distance.

15000
tan25◦ =
d
15000
d= ≈ 32, 200 f t
tan25◦

Example B
Rachel spots a bird in a tree at an angle of elevation of 30◦. If Rachel is 20 ft from the base of the tree, how high up
in the tree is the bird? Give your answer to the nearest tenth of a foot.
Solution: Make a diagram to illustrate the situation. Keep in mind that there will be a right triangle and that the
right angle is formed by the ground and the trunk of the tree.

Here we can use the tangent ratio to solve for the height of the bird

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 h
tan30◦ =
20
h = 20tan30◦ ≈ 11.5 f t

Example C
A 12 ft ladder is leaning against a house and reaches 10 ft up the side of the house. To the nearest degree, what angle
does the ladder make with the ground?
Solution: In this problem, we will need to find an angle. By making a sketch of the triangle we can see which
inverse trigonometric ratio to use.

10
sinx◦ =
12
—1 10 ◦
sin ≈ 56
12

Guided Practice
Use a trigonometry to solve the following application problems.
1. A ramp makes a 20◦ angle with the ground. If door the ramp leads to is 2 ft above the ground, how long is the
ramp? Give your answer to the nearest tenth of a foot.
2. Charlie lets out 90 ft of kite string. If the angle of elevation of the string is 70◦, approximately how high is the
kite? Give your answer to the nearest foot.
3. A ship’s sonar spots a wreckage at an angle of depression of 32◦. If the depth of the ocean is about 250 ft, how
far is the wreckage (measured along the surface of the water) from the ship, to the nearest foot.
Answers
1.
2
sin20◦ =
x
2
x= ≈ 5.8 f t
sin20◦

2.
x
sin70◦ =
90
x = 90 sin70◦ ≈ 85 f t

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3.
250
tan32◦ =
x
250
x= ≈ 400 f t
tan32◦

Vocabulary

Angle of Elevation
An angle measured up from a horizontal line.

Angle of Depression
An angle measured down from a horizontal line.

Problem Set
Use the Pythagorean Theorem and/or trigonometry to solve the following word problems.

1. A square has sides of length 8 inches. To the nearest tenth of an inch, what is the length of its diagonal?
2. Layne spots a sailboat from her fifth floor balcony, about 25 m above the beach, at an angle of depression of
3◦. To the nearest meter, how far out is the boat?
3. A zip line takes passengers on a 200 m ride from high up in the trees to a ground level platform. If the angle
of elevation of the zip line is 10◦, how high above ground is the tree top start platform? Give your answer to
the nearest meter.
4. The angle of depression from the top of an apartment building to the base of a fountain in a nearby park is
57◦. If the building is 150 ft tall, how far away, to the nearest foot, is the fountain?
5. A playground slide platform is 6 ft above ground. If the slide is 8 ft long and the end of the slide is 1 ft above
ground, what angle does the slide make with the ground? Give your answer to the nearest degree.
6. Benjamin spots a tree directly across the river from where he is standing. He then walks 27 ft upstream and
determines that the angle between his previous position and the tree on the other side of the river is 73◦. How
wide, to the nearest foot, is the river?
7. A rectangle has sides of length 6 in and 10 in. To the nearest degree, what angle does the diagonal make with
the longer side?
8. Tommy is flying his kite one afternoon and notices that he has let out the entire 130 ft of string. The angle his
string makes with the ground is 48◦. How high, to the nearest foot, is his kite at this time?
9. A tree struck by lightning in a storm breaks and falls over to form a triangle with the ground. The tip of the
tree makes a 18◦ angle with the ground 21 ft from the base of the tree. What was the height of the tree to the
nearest foot?
10. Upon descent an airplane is 19,000 ft above the ground. The air traffic control tower is 190 ft tall. It is
determined that the angle of elevation from the top of the tower to the plane is 15◦. To the nearest mile, find
the ground distance from the airplane to the tower.
11. Why will the sine and cosine ratios always be less than 1?

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 1.2 The Unit Circle

Objective
To understand the concept of angles of rotation, co-terminal angles, reference angles and to find the exact value
trigonometric ratios for angles that are multiples of 30 and 45 degrees given in degrees and radians.
Review Queue
1. Find the m/ A given the ratio.
a. sinA = 0.9371
b. tanA = 3.2191
c. cosA = 0.7145
2. Solve the triangle.

3. A 20 ft ladder leaning against the side of a building makes an angle of 75◦ with the ground. How high up the
building does it reach?

Introduction to Angles of Rotations, Coterminal Angles and Reference Angles

Objective
Understand the concept of an angle of rotation in the coordinate plane, identify coterminal and reference angles and
find trigonometric ratios for any angle measure.
Guidance
Angles of rotation are formed in the coordinate plane between the positive x-axis (initial side) and a ray (terminal
side). Positive angle measures represent a counterclockwise rotation while negative angles indicate a clockwise
rotation.

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Since the x and y axes are perpendicular, each axis then represents an increment of ninety degrees of rotation. The
diagrams below show a variety of angles formed by rotating a ray through the quadrants of the coordinate plane.

An angle of rotation can be described infinitely many ways. It can be described by a positive or negative angle of
rotation or by making multiple full circle rotations through 360◦. The example below illustrates this concept.

For the angle 525◦, an entire 360◦ rotation is made and then we keep going another 165◦ to 525◦. Therefore, the
resulting angle is equivalent to 525◦ — 360◦, or 165◦. In other words, the terminal side is in the same location as the
terminal side for a 165◦ angle. If we subtract 360◦ again, we get a negative angle,— 195◦. Since they all share the
same terminal side, they are called coterminal angles.
Example A
Determine two coterminal angles to 837◦, one positive and one negative.
Solution: To find coterminal angles we simply add or subtract 360◦ multiple times to get the angles we desire.
837◦ —360◦ = 477◦, so we have a positive coterminal angle. Now we can subtract 360◦ again to get 477◦—360◦ =
117◦.

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More Guidance
A reference angle is the acute angle between the terminal side of an angle and the x –axis. The diagram below
shows the reference angles for terminal sides of angles in each of the four quadrants.
Note: A reference angle is never determined by the angle between the terminal side and the y –axis. This is a
common error for students, especially when the terminal side appears to be closer to the y –axis than the x –axis.

Example B
Determine the quadrant in which —745◦ lies and hence determine the reference angle.
Solution: Since our angle is more than one rotation, we need to add 360◦ until we get an angle whose absolute value
is less than 360◦: —745◦ + 360◦ = —385◦, again —385◦ + 360◦ = —25◦.
Now we can plot the angle and determine the reference angle:
Note that the reference angle is positive 25◦. All reference angles will be positive as they are acute angles (between
0◦ and 90◦).

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Example C
Give two coterminal angles to 595◦, one positive and one negative, find the reference angle.
Solution: To find the coterminal angles we can add/subtract 360◦. In this case, our angle is greater than 360◦ so it
makes sense to subtract 360◦ to get a positive coterminal angle: 595◦ — 360◦ = 235◦. Now subtract again to get a
negative angle: 235◦ — 360◦ = —125◦.
By plotting any of these angles we can see that the terminal side lies in the third quadrant as shown.
Since the terminal side lies in the third quadrant, we need to find the angle between 180◦ and 235◦, so 235—◦ 180◦ =
55◦.

Guided Practice
1. Find two coterminal angles to 138◦, one positive and one negative.
2. Find the reference angle for 895◦.
3. Find the reference angle for 343◦.
Answers
1. 138◦ + 360◦ = 498◦ and 138◦ — 360◦ = —222◦
2. 895◦ — 360◦ = 535◦, 535◦— 360◦ = 175◦. The terminal side lies in the second quadrant, so we need to determine
the angle between 175◦ and 180◦, which is 5◦.
3. 343◦ is in the fourth quadrant so we need to find the angle between 343◦ and 360◦ which is 17◦.
Problem Set
Find two coterminal angles to each angle measure, one positive and one negative.
◦
1. — 98
2. 475◦
◦
3. — 210
◦
4. 47
5. —1022◦
Determine the quadrant in which the terminal side lies and find the reference angle for each of the following angles.

6. 102◦
◦
7. — 400
◦
8. 1307
◦
9. — 820
◦
10. 304
11. Explain why the reference angle for an angle between 0◦ and 90◦ is equal to itself.

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Introduction to the Unit Circle and Radian Measure

Objective
Understand the concept of a unit circle, the meaning of one radian and to convert between radians and degrees.
Guidance
The unit circle is the circle centered at the origin with radius equal to one unit. This means that the distance from
the origin to any point on the circle is equal to one unit.

Using the unit circle, we can define another unit of measure for angles, radians. Radian measure is based upon the
circumference of the unit circle. The circumference of the unit circle is 2π (2πr, where r = 1). So a full revolution,
or 360◦, is equal to 2π radians. Half a rotation, or 180◦ is equal to π radians.
One radian is equal to the measure of θ, the rotation required for the arc length intercepted by the angle to be equal
to the radius of the circle. In other words the arc length is 1 unit for θ = 1 radian.
We can use the equality, π = 180◦ to convert from degrees to radians and vice versa.
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by 180π ◦ .
180◦
To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by π .

25
Example A
a. Convert 250◦ to radians.
b. Convert 3π to degrees.
Solution:

180 = ◦18 .
a. To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by 180π ◦ . So, 250π 25π
180◦ 180
b. To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by . So, 3π × = 3 × 180◦ = 540◦.
π π
Example B
Find two angles, one positive and one negative, coterminal to 5π
3 and find its reference angle, in radians.
Solution: Since we are working in radians now we will add/subtract multiple of 2π instead of 360◦. Before we can
add, we must get a common denominator of 3 as shown below.

5π + 2π = 5π 6π 11π and 5π 5π 6π π
+ = — 2π = — = —
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Now, to find the reference angle, first determine in which quadrant 5π lies. If we think of the measures of the angles
on the axes in terms of π π 3
and more specifically, in terms of 3 , this task becomes a little easier.
Consider π is equal to 3π and 2π is equal to 6π as shown in the diagram. Now we can see that the terminal side of
3 3
5π
3
lies in the fourth quadrant and thus the reference angle will be:

6π 5π π
— =
3 3 3

26
Example C
Find two angles coterminal to 6 , one positive
7π
and one negative, and find its reference angle, in radians.
Solution: This time we will add multiples of 2π with a common denominator of 6, or 2π
1
× 66 = 12π
6
. For the positive
12π
angle, we add to get 6 + 6 = 6 . For the negative angle, we subtract to get 6 —
7π 12π 19π 7π
6 = 6.
5π

In this case π is equal to 6π and 2π is equal to 12π as shown in the diagram. Now we can see that the terminal side
6 6
of 7π
6 lies in the third quadrant and thus the reference angle will be:

7π 6π π
— =
6 6 6

Guided Practice
1. Convert the following angle measures from degrees to radians.
a. —45◦
b. 120◦
c. 330◦
2. Convert the following angle measures from radians to degrees.
a. 5π
6
b. 13π
4

27
c. — 5π
2
3. Find two coterminal angles to 11π
4 , one positive and one negative, and its reference angle.
Answers
1. a. —45◦ × π
◦ = —π
180 4
π
b. 120 × 180
◦
◦ = 3
2π

π
c. 330◦ × 180 ◦ = 6
11π

◦
2. a. 5π6 × 180
π = 150
◦

180◦ ◦
b. 13π
4 × π = 585
180◦
c. — 5π
2 × π = —450
◦

3. There are many possible coterminal angles, here are some possibilities:
positive coterminal angle: 11π
4 + 8π4 = 19π
4 or 11π
4 — 8π
4 = 4,
3π

negative coterminal angle: 11π4— 16π4 = — 5π4 or 11π4 — 24π4 = — 13π

4
Using the coterminal angle, 3π , which is π from 4π . So the terminal side lies in the second quadrant and the reference
4 4 4
angle is π4 .
Problem Set
For problems 1-5, convert the angle from degrees to radians. Leave answers in terms of π.

1. 135◦
2. 240◦
◦
3. — 330
4. 450◦
5. —315◦

For problems 6-10, convert the angle measure from radians to degrees.

6. 7π
3
13π
7. — 6
8. 9π
2
9. 3π
— 4
10. 5π
6

For problems 11-14, find two coterminal angles (one positive, one negative) and the reference angle for each angle
in radians.

11. 8π
3
11π
12. 4
13. — π6
4π
14.
3

Trigonometric Ratios on the Unit Circle

Objective
Determine exact value of trigonometric ratios for multiples of 0◦, 30◦ and 45◦ (or 0, π , π radians).
6 4

28
Guidance
√
Recall special right triangles from Geometry. In a (30◦ — 60◦ — 90◦) triangle, the sides are in the ratio 1 :
3 : 2.
√
In an isosceles triangle (45◦ — 45◦ — 90◦), the congruent sides and the hypotenuse are in the ratio 1 : 1 : 2.

√
In a (30◦ — 60◦ — 90◦) triangle, the sides are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 2.

Now let’s make the hypotenuse equal to 1 in each of the triangles so we’ll be able to put them inside the unit circle.
Using the appropriate ratios, the new side lengths are:

29
Using these triangles, we can evaluate sine, cosine and tangent for each of the angle measures.

√ √
2 3 1
sin45 = √
◦ sin60◦ = sin30◦ =
2 2 2
2 1 √
3
cos 45 = 2
◦ cos60◦ = cos30 =
◦
2
√ 2 √
3 √ 1
3
tan 45◦ =1 tan60 = ◦ 2
1 = 3 tan30◦ = √2 =
3 2
2 2

These triangles can now fit inside the unit circle.

Putting together the trigonometric ratios and the coordinates of the points on the circle, which represent the lengths of
the legs of the triangles, (∆x, ∆y), we can see that each point is actually (cosθ, sinθ), where θ is the reference angle.
√
For example, sin 60◦ = 23 is the y –coordinate of the point on the unit circle in the triangle with reference angle
60◦. By reflecting these triangles across the axes and finding the points on the axes, we can find the trigonometric
ratios of all multiples of 0◦, 30◦ and 45◦ (or 0, π6, π4 radians).

30
Example A
Find sin 3π
2.
Solution: Find 3π2 on the unit circle and the corresponding point is (0, —1). Since each point on the unit circle is
(cosθ, sinθ), sin 3π2 = —1.
Example B
Find tan 7π
6.
Solution:
√ This time we need to look at
√the ratio cosθ.
sinθ
We can use the unit circle to find sin 7π = — 1 and cos 7π =
3 1
3 6 2 6
—
— 2 . Now, tan 7π = √23 = √1 = 3 .
6 —
3
2

More Guidance
Another way to approach these exact value problems is to use the reference angles and the special right triangles.
The benefit of this method is that there is no need to memorize the entire unit circle. If you memorize the special
right triangles, can determine reference angles and know where the ratios are positive and negative you can put the
pieces together to get the ratios. Looking at the unit circle above, we see that all of the ratios are positive in Quadrant
I, sine is the only positive ratio in Quadrant II, tangent is the only positive ratio in Quadrant III and cosine is the only
positive ratio in Quadrant IV.
Keeping this diagram in mind will help you remember where cosine, sine and tangent are positive and negative. You
can also use the pneumonic device - All Students Take Calculus, or ASTC, to recall which is positive (all the others
would be negative) in which quadrant.
The coordinates on the vertices will help you determine the ratios for the multiples of 90◦ or π2.

Example C
Find the exact values for the following trigonometric functions using the alternative method.
a. cos 120◦
b. sin 5π3
c. tan 7π
2
Solution:
a. First, we need to determine in which quadrant the angles lies. Since 120◦ is between 90◦ and 180◦ it will lie in
Quadrant II. Next, find the reference angle. Since we are in QII, we will subtract from 180◦ to get 60◦. We can use
the reference angle to find the ratio, cos60◦ = 21 . Since we are in QII where only sine is positive, cos120◦ = —2 1 .

31
b. This time we will need to work in terms of radians but the process is the same. The angle 5π
3 lies in QIV and the
√ √
reference angle is π3
. This means that our ratio will be negative. Since sin π3
= 23 , sin 5π3 = — 23 .
c. The angle 7π represents more than one entire revolution and it is equivalent to 2π+ 3π . Since our angle is a multiple
2 2 sinθ 7π 1
π
of 2 we are looking at an angle on an axis. In this case, the point is (0, —1). Because tanθ = cos θ , tan 2 = 0 , which
is undefined. Thus, tan 7π
2 is undefined.
Guided Practice
Find the exact trigonometric ratios. You may use either method.
1. cos 7π3
2. tan 9π2
3. sin405◦
4. tan 11π
6
5. cos 2π3
Answers
1. 7π has a reference angle of π
in QI. cos π = 1 and since cosine is positive in QI, cos 7π = 1 .
3 3 3 2 3 2
sin 9π
2. 9π
which has coordinates (0, 1). So tan =
is coterminal to π 9π
2 = which is undefined.
1

2 2 √ 2 cos 9π
2 0 √
3. 405 has a reference angle of 45 in QI. sin 45 =
◦ ◦ ◦ 2 and since sine is positive in QI, sin 405 = 2 .
◦
2 2
√ √
4. 11π
6 is coterminal to π
6 in QIV. tan π
6 = 3
3 and since tangent is negative in QIV, tan 11π
6 = — 3
3 .
5. is coterminal to in QII. cos = and since cosine is negative in QII, cos = .
2π π π 1 2π 1
3 3 3 2 3 2
Problem Set
Find the exact values for the following trigonometric functions.

1. sin 3π
4
2. cos 3π2
3. tan300◦
4. sin150◦
5. cos 4π3
6. tanπ
7.
cos — 15π4
8. sin225◦
9. tan 7π
6
10. sin315◦
11. cos450◦
12.
13. sin —7π 2
cos 17π
6
14. tan270◦
15. sin(—210◦)

Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions

Objective

32
Determine the ratios of the reciprocal trigonometric ratios cosecant, secant and cotangent for angles that are multiples
of 0◦, 30◦ and 45◦ (or 0, π6 , π4 radians) without a calculator and evaluate the reciprocal trigonometric functions for all
other angles using the calculator.
Guidance
Each of the trigonometric ratios has a reciprocal function associated with it as shown below.
The reciprocal of sine is cosecant: 1 = cscθ, so cscθ = H (hypotenuse over opposite)
sinθ O
The reciprocal of cosine is secant: 1 = secθ, so secθ = H (hypotenuse over adjacent)
cosθ A
The reciprocal of tangent is cotangent: 1
= cotθ, so cotθ = A
(adjacent over opposite)
tanθ O
Example A
Use your calculator to evaluate sec 2π
5.
Solution: First, be sure that your calculator is in radian mode. To check/change the mode, press the MODE button
and make sure RADIAN is highlighted. If it is not, use the arrow keys to move the cursor to RADIANS and press
enter to select RADIAN as the mode. Now we are ready to use the calculator to evaluate the reciprocal trig function.
Since the calculator does not have a button for secant, however, we must utilize the reciprocal relationship between
cosine and secant:

1 2π 1
Since secθ = , sec = = 3.2361.
cosθ 5 cos 5
2π

Example B
Use you calculator to evaluate cot 100◦.
Solution: This time we will need to be in degree mode. After the mode has been changed we can use the reciprocal
of cotangent, which is tangent, to evaluate as shown:

1 1
Since cotθ = , cot 100◦ = ≈ —0.1763.
tanθ tan100◦

Example C
Find the exact value of csc 5π3 without using a calculator. Give your answer in exact form.
Solution: The reciprocal of cosecant is sine so we will first find sin 5π Using either the unit circle or the alternative
√ 3
3 ◦
method, we can determine that sin 3 is — 2 using a 60 reference angle in the fourth quadrant. Now, find its
5π
√
reciprocal: 1√ = — √2 = — 2 3 3 .
— 23 3
Guided Practice
Use your calculator to evaluate the following reciprocal trigonometric functions.
1. csc 7π
8
2. cot 85◦
Evaluate the following without using a calculator. Give all answers in exact form.
3. sec225◦
4. csc 5π6
Answers

33
1. csc 7π = 1
= 2.6131
8 sin 7π8

2. cot85◦ = 1
tan85◦ = 0.0875
3. sec 225◦ is the reciprocal of cot 225◦, a 45◦ refer e√nce angle in quadrant three where cosine is negative. Because
cos45◦ = √1 ,cos225◦ = — √1 , and sec225◦ = — 2.
2 2
4. csc 5π is the reciprocal of sin 5π6 , a π6 or 30◦ reference angle in the second quadrant where sine is positive. Because
6 5π 1 5π
sin π = 1 , sin = 2 , and csc = 2.
6 2 6 6

Problem Set
Use your calculator to evaluate the reciprocal trigonometric functions. Round your answers to four decimal places.

1. csc95◦
2. cot 278◦
3. sec 14π
5
4. cot(—245◦)
5. sec 6π
7
6. csc 23π
13
7. cot 333◦
8. csc 9π
5

Evaluate the following trigonometric functions without using a calculator. Give your answers exactly.

9. sec 5π
6
10. csc — 32π
11. cot 225◦
12. sec 11π
3
13. csc 76π
14. sec270◦
15. cot 5π
3
16. csc315◦

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Objective
Determine the angle(s) given the exact value trigonometric ratios for angles that are multiples of 0◦, 30◦ and 45◦ (or
0, π , π radians).
6 4
Guidance
Earlier in the unit we learned how to find the measure of an acute angle in a right triangle using the inverse
trigonometric ratios on the calculator. Now we will extend this inverse concept to finding the possible angle measures
given a trigonometric ratio on the unit circle. We say possible, because there are an infinite number of possible angles
with the same ratios. Think of the unit circle.◦ Forπ which angles does sinθ = 1 ? From the special right triangles,
2
we know that the reference angle must be 30 or 6 . But because sine is positive in the first and second quadrants,
the angle could also be 150◦ or 5π . In fact, we could take either of these angles and add or subtract 360◦ or 2π
6
1
to it any number of times and still have a coterminal angle for which the sine ratio would remain 2 . For problems
in this concept we will specify a finite interval for the possible angles measures. In general, this interval will be
0 ≤ θ < 360◦ for degree measures and 0 ≤ θ < 2π for radian measures.
Inverse Trigonometric Ratios on the Calculator
34
When you use the calculator to find an angle given a ratio, the calculator can only give one angle measure. The
answers for the respective functions will always be in the following quadrants based on the sign of the ratio.

TABLE 13.1:
Trigonometric Ratio Positive Ratios Negative Ratios
0 ≤ θ ≤ 90 or 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 —90 ≤ θ ≤ 0 ◦or —π2 ≤ θ ≤ 0
π π
Sine
Cosine 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90 or 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90 < θ ≤ 180 or < θ ≤ π
2 2
π
Tangent 0 ≤ θ ≤ 90 or 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
2 —90 ≤ θ < 0 or — 2 ≤ θ < 0

Example A
Use your calculator to find all solutions on the interval 0 ≤ θ < 360◦. Round your answers to the nearest tenth.
a. cos—1(0.5437)
b. tan—1(—3.1243)
c. csc—1(3.0156)
Solution: For all of these, we must first make sure the calculator is in degree mode.
a. Type in 2ndCOS, to get cos—1( on your calculator screen. Next, type in the ratio to get cos—1(0.5437) on the
calculator and press ENTER. The result is 57.1◦. This is an angle in the first quadrant and a reference angle. We
want to have all the possible angles on the interval 0 ≤θ < 360◦. To find the second angle, we need to think about
where else cosine is positive. This is in the fourth quadrant. Since the reference angle is 57.1◦, we can find the angle
by subtracting 57.1◦ from 360◦ to get 302.9◦ as our second angle. So cos—1(0.5437) = 57.1◦, 302.9◦.
b. Evaluate tan—1(—3.1243) on the calculator using the same process to get —72.3◦. This is a 72.3◦ reference
angle in the fourth quadrant. Since we want all possible answers on the interval 0 ≤θ < 360◦, we need angles with
reference angles of 72.3◦ in the second and fourth quadrants where tangent is negative.
2nd quadrant: 180◦ — 72.3◦ = 107.7◦ and 4th quadrant: 360◦ — 72.3◦ = 287.7◦
So, tan—1(—3.1243) = 107.7◦, 287.7◦
c. This time we have a reciprocal trigonometric function. Recall that sinθ = 1
. In this case, cscθ = 3.0156
cscθ
1 1
so sinθ = 3.0156 and therefore csc—1(3.0156) = sin—1 3.0156 = 19.4◦ from the calculator. Now, we need to find
our second possible angle measure. Since sine (and subsequently, cosecant) is positive in the second quadrant,
that is where our second answer lies. The reference angle is 19.4◦ so the angle is 180◦ —19.4◦ = 160.6◦. So,
csc—1(3.0156) = 19.4◦, 160.6◦.
Example B
Use your calculator to find θ, to two decimal places, where 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
a. secθ = 2.1647
b. sinθ = —1.0034
c. cotθ = —1.5632
Solution: For each these, we will need to be in radian mode on the calculator.
1
a. Since cosθ = secθ
1
, sec—1(2.1647) = cos—1 2.1647 = 1.09 radians. This is a first quadrant value and thus the
reference angle as well. Since cosine (and subsequently, secant) is also positive in the fourth quadrant, we can find
the second answer by subtracting from 2π: 2π — 1.09 = 5.19.
Hence, sec—1(2.1647) = 1.09, 5.19
b. From the calculator, sin—1( —0.3487) = —0.36 radians, a fourth quadrant reference angle of 0.36 radians. Now
we can use this reference angle to find angles in the third and fourth quadrants within the interval given for θ.

35
3rd quadrant: π + 0.36 = 3.50 and 4th quadrant: 2π — 0.36 = 5.92
So, sin—1(—0.3487) = 3.50, 5.92
1
c. Here, tanθ = cotθ
1
, so cot—1(—1.5632) = tan—1 — 1.5632 = —0.57, a fourth quadrant reference angle of 0.57
radians. Since the ratio is negative and tangent and cotangent are both negative in the 2 nd and 4th quadrants, those
are the angles we must find.
2nd quadrant: π — 0.57 = 2.57 and 4th quadrant: 2π — 0.57 = 5.71
So, cot—1(—1.5632) = 2.57, 5.71
Example C
Without using a calculator, find θ, where 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
√
a. sinθ = — 3
√2
b. cosθ = 2
2
√
c. tanθ = — 3
3

d. cscθ = —2
Solution: √
a. From the special right triangles, sine has the ratio 3 for the reference angle π . Now we can use this reference
2 3
angle to find angles in the 3rd and 4th quadrant where sine is negative.
3rd quadrant: π + π = 4π and 4th quadrant: 2π — π = 5π
3 3 3 3
So, θ = 4π , 5π .
3 3 √
b. From the special right triangles, cosine has the ratio 2
2 for the reference angle 4. Since cosine is positive in the
π
π th π 7π π 7π
first and fourth quadrants, one answer is 4 and the second√answer (4 quadrant) will be 2π — 4 = 4 . So, θ = 4 , 4 .
c. From the special right triangles, tangent has the ratio 3 for the reference angle π . Since tangent is negative in
3 6
the second and fourth quadrants, we will subtract π
6 from π and 2π to find the angles.
π —6π = 5π
6 and 2π —6π = 11π
6 . So, θ = 6 , 6 .
5π 11π

d. First, consider that if cscθ = —2, then sinθ = —21 . Next, from special right triangles, we know that sine is 12 for a
π π
6 reference angle. Finally, find the angles with a reference angle of 6 in the third and fourth quadrants where sine is
negative. π + π = 7π and 2π — π = 11π . So, θ = 7π , 11π .
6 6 6 6 6 6
Guided Practice
1. Use your calculator to find all solutions on the interval 0 ≤ θ < 360◦. Round your answers to the nearest tenth.
a. sin—1(0.7821)
b. cot—1(—0.6813)
c. sec—1(4.0159)
2. Use your calculator to find θ, to two decimal places, where 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
a. cosθ = —0.9137
b. tanθ = 5.0291
c. cscθ = 2.1088
3. Without using a calculator, find θ, where 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
√
a. cosθ = — 23

36
 √
b. cotθ = 3
3
c. sinθ = —1
Answers
1. a. 51.5◦ and 180◦ — 51.5◦ = 128◦
1
b. cot—1(—0.6813) = tan—1 — 0.6813 = —55.7◦, 180◦ — 55.7◦ = 124.3◦ and 360◦ — 55.7◦ = 304.3◦
1
c. sec—1(4.0159) = cos—1 4. 0159 = 75.6◦ and 360◦ — 75.6◦ = 284.4◦
2. a. cos—1(—0.9137) = 2.72 and π + 2.72 = 30.34
b. tan—1(5.0291) = 1.37 and π + 1.37 = 4.51
1
c. csc—1(2.1088) = sin—1 2.1088 = 0.49 and π — 0.49 = 2.65
√
3. a. cos—1 3 = π , since the ratio is negative, θ = π — π = 5π and π + π = 7π
2 6 6 6 6 6
√ √
b. cot—1 3 = tan—1 3 = π , θ = π , and π + π = 4π
3 3 3 3 3

c. sin (—1) =
—1 3π
,θ = 3π
2 2
Problem Set
For problems 1-6, use your calculator to find all solutions on the interval 0 ≤ θ < 360◦. Round your answers to the
nearest tenth.

1. cos—1( — 0.2182)
2. sec—1(10.8152)
3. tan—1( — 20.2183)
4. sin—1(0.8785)
5. csc—1( — 6.9187)
6. cot—1(0.8316)

For problems 7-12, use your calculator to find θ, to two decimal places, where 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

7. sinθ = — 0.6153
8. cosθ = 0.1382
9. cotθ = — 2.8135
10. secθ = — 8.8775
11. tanθ = 0.9990
12. cscθ = 12.1385

For problems 13-18, find θ, without using a calculator, where 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

13. sinθ = 0 √
14. cosθ = — 22
15. tanθ = —1 √
16. secθ = 2 3
3
17. sinθ = 12
18.
19. cotθ = undefined
cosθ = — 1
√2
20. cscθ = √2
21. tanθ = 3
3

37
 1.3 Introduction to Polar Coordinates

Objective
Understand the concept that points in the coordinate plane can be identified using Cartesian or (x, y) coordinates, or
using their distance from the origin and angle of rotation, as polar coordinates.
Review Queue
Evaluate the following trigonometric ratios. Give your answers exactly.
1. csc 7π
6
2. tan 3π
2
3. secπ
Find all solutions for θ on the interval θ ≤ θ < 2π.
√
4. cosθ = 3
2
5. √
sinθ = — 22
√
6. cotθ = 3
3

Trigonometric Ratios of Points on the Terminal Side of an Angle

Objective
Determine the equivalent Polar coordinates for a point given as an ordered pair in Cartesian form. In other words,
determine to angle of rotation and radius (distance from the origin) of any point in the rectangular coordinate plane.
Guidance
Any point in the coordinate plane can be represented by its angle of rotation and radius, or distance from the origin.
The point is said to lie on the terminal side of the angle. We can find the measure of the reference angle using right
triangle trigonometry. When the point is identified in this manner we call the coordinates Polar coordinates. They
are written as (r, θ), where r is the radius and θ is the angle of rotation. The angle of rotation can be given in degrees
or radians.
Example A
Find the angle of rotation (in degrees) and radius (distance from the origin) of the point (—3, 6).
Solution: First, make a sketch, plot the point and drop a perpendicular to the x-axis to make a right triangle.

38
From the sketch, we can see that tan—1 — 63 = 63.4◦ is the reference angle so the angle of rotation is 180◦ —63.4◦ =
116.6◦.
The radius or distance from the origin is the hypotenuse of the right triangle.

r2 = (—3)2 + (6)2
r2 = 45
√ √
r = 45 = 3 5

√
Using this information, we can write the point (—3, 6) in Polar coordinate form as 3 5,116.6◦
Example B
Write the Cartesian coordinates, (3, —4), in Polar form. Give the angle in degrees.
Solution: Again, start with a sketch.
—4
We can find the reference angle again using tangent: tan—1 3 = —53.1◦. So the angle of rotation is 360◦ —53.1◦ =
306.9◦
Now find the radius:

r2 = 32 + (—4)2
r2 = 25
√
r = 25 = 5

The Polar coordinates are thus (5, 306.9◦)

39
Note: You may have noticed that there is a pattern that gives us a short cut for finding the Polar coordinates for any
Cartesian coordinates, (x, y):
The reference angle can be found using, θ = tan—1 xy and then the angle of rotation can be found by placing
the reference angle in the appropriate quadrant and giving
√ a positive angle of rotation from the positive x –axis
(0◦ ≤ θ < 360◦ or 0 ≤ θ < 2π). The radius is always r = x2 + y2 and should be given in reduced radical form.
Example C
Given the point (—9, —5) on the terminal side of an angle, find the Polar coordinates (in radians) of the point and the
six trigonometric ratios for the angle.
Solution: Make sure your calculator is in radian mode. Using the shortcut, we can find the Polar coordinates:
tan—1 5
9 =0 51.
. Since x and y are both negative, the point lies in the third quadrant which makes the angle of
√ √ √
rotation π + 0.51 = 3.65. The radius will be r = 92 + 52 = 106. The Polar coordinates are 106, 3.65 . As
for the six trigonometric ratios, a diagram will help us:

We already know that tan 3.65 = 5 , so cot 3.65 = 9 .

9 5
√
Now we can use the hypotenuse, 106 to find the other ratios:
√ √
sin3.65 = √—5 = — 5 106 and csc3.65 = — 106 .
106 5
106

40
 √ √
cos3.65 = √—9 = — 9 106 and sec3.65 = — 106
106 9
106
Guided Practice
1. Find the angle of rotation (in degrees) and radius (distance from the origin) of the point (7, 24).
2. Write the Cartesian coordinates, ( —8, —15), in Polar form(in radians) and find the six trigonometric ratios for the
angle.
3. Given the point (12, —4) on the terminal side of an angle, find the Polar coordinates (in degrees) of the point and
the six trigonometric ratios for the angle.
Answers
√
1. r = 72 + 242 = 25, θ = tan—1 247 ≈ 73.7◦
q
2. r = (—8)2 + (—15)2 = 17 and θ = tan—1 —15 ≈ 1.08 so the polar coordinates are (17, 1.08).
—8
The six trigonometric ratios are:
15 17
sin1.08 = — csc1.08 = —
17 15
8 8
cos1.08 = — sec1.08 = —
17 15
15 8
tan1.08 = cot1.08 = —
8 15
q √ √
—4
3. r = 122 + (—4)2 = 4 10 and θ = tan—1 12 ≈ 341.6◦ so the polar coordinates are 4 10, 341.6◦ .
The six trigonometric ratios are:
√ √
10 csc 341.6◦ = — 10
sin341.6 = —
◦
√
√ 10 10
3 10
cos341.6◦ = csc341.6◦ =
10 3
1
tan341.6 = —
◦
tan 341.6◦ = —3
3

Problem Set
Angle measures should be rounded to the dearest degree or hundredth of a radian or given exactly if possible. All
values of r should be given in reduced radical form.
Write the following Cartesian coordinate pairs in Polar form. Use degrees for problems 1 and 2 and radians for
problems 3 and 4.

1. (16, —30)
2. (5, 5)
3. (—5, —12)
4. (—9,40)

Given the points on the terminal side of an angle, find the Polar coordinates (in degrees) of the point and the six
trigonometric ratios for the angles.

5. (—6,8)
6. (0,—15)
7. (10,—8)

41
 8. √
4 3,4

Given the points on the terminal side of an angle, find the Polar coordinates (in radians) of the point and the six
trigonometric ratios for the angles.

9. (—9, 0)
10. (13, —13)
11. (2, 3)
√
12. —7,—7 3

Using r and θ to find a Point in the Coordinate Plane

Objective
Given the radius and angle of rotation θ of a point in the coordinate plane (polar coordinates), determine the Cartesian
or rectangular coordinates of the point.
Guidance
In this concept we will convert Polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates. Essentially we will reverse the process
used in the previous concept.
Example A
Given the point (6, 120◦), find the equivalent Cartesian coordinates.
Solution: First, consider the diagram below and the right triangle formed by a perpendicular segment to the x-axis
and hypotenuse equal to the radius. We can find the legs of the right triangle using right triangle trigonometry and
thus the x and y coordinates of the point.
From the diagram we can see that the reference angle is 60◦. Now we can use right triangle trigonometry to find x
and y. In this particular case, we can also use special right triangle ratios or the unit circle.

x y
cos60◦ = sin60◦ =
6 6
√ !
1 3 √
x = 6 cos 60◦ = 6 =3 and y = 6 cos 60◦ = 6 =3 3
2 2

√
Since the point is in the second quadrant, the x value should be negative giving the Cartesian coordinates —3, 3 3 .

42
More Guidance
Recall that every point on the unit circle was (cosθ, sinθ), where θ represented the angle of rotation from the
positive x axis and the radius (distance from the origin) was 1. In these problems, our radius varies as we are
no longer restricted to the unit circle. In the previous example, observe that the coordinates (x, y) are essentially
(6 cos 60◦, 6 sin 60◦) where 6 was the radius and 60◦ was the reference angle. We could have used the angle of
rotation, 120◦, and the only difference would be that the cosine ratio would be negative which would automatically
make the x coordinate negative. We can generalize this into a rule for converting from Polar coordinates to Cartesian
coordinates:

(r,θ) = (r cosθ,r sinθ)

Example B
Given the point, (10,—220◦), find the Cartesian coordinates.
Solution: Using the rule with r = 10 and θ = 220◦ and the calculator:

(10cos(—220◦),10sin(—220◦)) = (—7.66,6.43)

Example C
Given the point, 9, 11π
6 , find the exact value of the Cartesian coordinates.
√ √
Solution: This time r = 9 and θ = 6 . So, 9 cos 6 , 9sin 6 = 9 3 ,9 — 1 = 9 3 9
2 ,— 2 .
11π 11π 11π
2 2

Guided Practice
1. Use your calculator to find the Cartesian coordinates equivalent to the Polar coordinates (11, 157◦).
2. Find the exact value of the Cartesian coordinates equivalent to the Polar coordinates (8, 45◦).
3. Find the exact value of the Cartesian coordinates equivalent to the Polar coordinates 5, — π2 .
Answers
1. (11cos157◦, 11sin157◦) ≈ (—10.13,4.30)

43
 √ √ √ √
2. (8 cos45◦, 8 sin45◦) = 8 2 ,8 2 = (4 2, 4 2)
2 2

3. 5 cos — π2 , 5 sin — π2 = (5(0), 5(—1)) = (0, —5)

Problem Set
Use your calculator to find the Cartesian coordinates equivalent to the following Polar coordinates. Give your
answers rounded to the nearest hundredth.

1. (13, 38◦)
2. (25, —230◦)
3. (17, 345◦)
4. (2, 140◦)
5. 7, 2π5
6. (9, 2.98)
7. (3,—5.87)
8. 10, 13π7

Find the exact value Cartesian coordinates equivalent to the following Polar coordinates.

9. 5, π3
10. 6, — π4
11. 12, 5π6
12. (7, π)
13.
14. (11, 2π)
14, 4π3
15. 27, 3π4
16. 40,— 5π
6

44
 1.4 The Law of Sines

Objective
Use the Law of Sines proportion to solve non right triangles and find the area of triangles.
Review Queue
Evaluate the following trig functions. Give exact answers.
1. sin225◦
2. csc300◦
3. sec 5π
6
4. tanπ

Law of Sines with AAS and ASA

Objective
Derive the Law of Sines proportion and use it to solve non right triangles in which two angles and one side are given.
Guidance
Consider the non right triangle below. We can construct an altitude from any one of the vertices to divide the triangle
into two right triangles as show below.

from the diagram we can write two trigonometric functions involving h:

h h
sinC = and sinB =
b c
b sinC = h csinB = h

Since both are equal to h, we can set them equal to each other to get:
b sinC = c sinB and finally divide both sides by bc to create the proportion:

45
 sinC sinB
=
c b
If we construct the altitude from a different vertex, say B, we would get the proportion: sinA = sinC . Now, the
a c
transitive property allows us to conclude that sinA = sinB . We can put them all together as the Law of Sines: sinA =
sinB a b a
= sinC . In the examples that follow we will use the Law of Sines to solve triangles.
b c
Example A
Solve the triangle.

Solution: Since we are given two of the three angles in the triangle, we can find the third angle using the fact that
the three angles must add up to 180◦. So, m/ A = 180◦— 45◦ —70◦ = 650◦. Now we can substitute the known values
into the Law of Sines proportion as shown:

sin65◦ sin70◦ ◦
= = sin45
a 15 c

Taking two ratios at a time we can solve the proportions to find a and c using cross multiplication.
To find a:

sin65◦ sin70◦
=
a 15
15 sin 65◦
a= 14.5
sin70◦ ≈

To find c:

sin70◦ sin45◦
=
15 c
15 sin 45◦
c= 11.3
≈
sin70◦

This particular triangle is an example in which we are given two angles and the non-included side or AAS (also
SAA).
Example B
Solve the triangle.

46
Solution: In this example we are given two angles and a side as well but the side is between the angles. We refer to
this arrangement as ASA. In practice, in doesn’t really matter whether we are given AAS or ASA. We will follow
the same procedure as Example A. First, find the third angle: m/ A = 180◦ — 50◦ — 80◦ = 50◦.
Second, write out the appropriate proportions to solve for the unknown sides, a and b.
To find a:

sin80◦ sin50◦
=
a 20
20 sin 80◦
a= 25.7
sin50◦ ≈

To find b:

sin 50◦ sin50◦

=
b 20
20 sin 50◦
b= = 20
sin50◦

Notice that c = b and m/ C = m/ B. This illustrates a property of isosceles triangles that states that the base angles
(the angles opposite the congruent sides) are also congruent.
Example C
Three fishing ships in a fleet are out on the ocean. The Chester is 32 km from the Angela. An officer on the Chester
measures the angle between the Angela and the Beverly to be 25◦. An officer on the Beverly measures the angle
between the Angela and the Chester to be 100◦. How far apart, to the nearest kilometer are the Chester and the
Beverly?
Solution: First, draw a picture. Keep in mind that when we say that an officer on one of the ships is measuring an
angle, the angle she is measuring is at the vertex where her ship is located.

Now that we have a picture, we can determine the angle at the Angela and then use the Law of Sines to find the
distance between the Beverly and the Chester.
The angle at the Angela is 180◦ — 100◦ — 25◦ = 55◦.
Now find x,

47
 sin 55◦ sin100◦
=
x 32
32 sin 55◦
x= 27
sin100◦ ≈
The Beverly and the Chester are about 27 km apart.
Guided Practice
Solve the triangles.
1.

2.

3. A surveying team is measuring the distance between point A on one side of a river and point B on the far side
of the river. One surveyor is positioned at point A and the second surveyor is positioned at point C, 65 m up the
riverbank from point A. The surveyor at point A measures the angle between points B and C to be 103◦. The surveyor
at point C measures the angle between points A and B to be 42◦. Find the distance between points A and B.
Answers
1. m/ A = 180◦ —82◦ —24◦ = 74◦

sin24◦ sin74◦ 11 sin24◦

= , so b = ≈ 4.7
b 11 sin 74◦
sin82◦ sin74◦ 11 sin82◦
= , so c = ≈ 11.3
c 11 sin 74◦

2. m/ C = 180◦ —110◦ —38◦ = 32◦

sin 38◦ sin110◦ 18 sin38◦

= , so a = ≈ 11.8
a 18 sin110◦
sin 32◦ sin110◦ 18 sin32◦
= , so c = ≈ 10.2
c 18 sin110◦

3.

48
 m/ B = 180◦ —103◦ —42◦ = 35◦
sin 35◦ sin42◦
=
65 c
65 sin42◦
c= 75.8 m
sin 35◦ ≈

Problem Set
Solve the triangles. Round your answers to the nearest tenth.

1.

2.

3.

49
 4.

5.

6.

Using the given information, solve ∆ABC.

7.

m/ A = 85◦
m/ C = 40◦
a = 12

50
 8.

m/ B = 60◦
m/ C = 25◦
a = 28

9.

m/ B = 42◦
m/ A = 36◦
b= 8

10.

m/ B = 30◦
m/ A = 125◦
c = 45

Use the Law of Sines to solve the following world problems.

11. A surveyor is trying to find the distance across a ravine. He measures the angle between a spot on the far side
of the ravine, X , and a spot 200 ft away on his side of the ravine, Y , to be 100◦. He then walks to Y the angle
between X and his previous location to be 20◦. How wide is the ravine?
12. A triangular plot of land has angles 46◦ and 58◦. The side opposite the 46◦ angle is 35 m long. How much
fencing, to the nearest half meter, is required to enclose the entire plot of land?

The Ambiguous Case - SSA

Objective
When given two sides and the non-included angle, identify triangles in which there could be two solutions and find
both if applicable.
Guidance
Recall that the sine ratios for an angle and its supplement will always be equal. In other words, sinθ = sin(180— θ).
In Geometry you learned that two triangles could not be proven congruent using SSA and you investigated cases in
which there could be two triangles. In Example A, we will explore how the Law of Sines can be used to find two
possible triangles when given two side lengths of a triangle and a non-included angle.
Example A
Given ∆ABC with m/ A = 30◦, a = 5, and b = 8, solve for the other angle and side measures.
Solution: First, let’s make a diagram to show the relationship between the given sides and angles. Then we can set
up a proportion to solve for angle C:

51
 sin 30◦ sinC
=
5 8
8 sin 30◦
sinC =
5
◦
—1 8 sin 30
C = sin ≈ 53.1◦
5

From here we can find m/ A = 96.9◦, since the three angles must add up to 180◦. We can also find the third side
using another Law of Sines ratio:

sin30◦ sin96.9◦
=
5 a
5 sin 96.9◦
a= 9.9
≈
sin30◦
Putting these measures in the triangle, we get:
But, we know that sinθ = sin(180 — θ) so when we solved for C we only got one of the two possible angles. The
other angle will be 180◦ — 53.1◦ = 126.9◦. Next we need to determine the measure of angle A for and the length of
the third side in this second possible triangle. The sum of the three angles must still be 180◦, so m/ A = 23.1◦. Now
set up a proportion to solve for the third side just as before:

sin30◦ sin23.1◦
=
5 a
5 sin 23.1◦
a= 3.9
≈
sin30◦

52
The second triangle would look like this:
In this instance there were two possible triangles.
Example B
Given ∆ABC with m/ B = 80◦, a = 5 and b = 7, solve for the other angle and side measures.
Solution: Again we will start with a diagram and use the law of sines proportion to find a second angle measure in
the triangle.

sin 80◦ sinA

=
7 5
5 sin80◦
sinA =
7
5 sin 80◦
A = sin—1 ≈ 44.7◦
7

Now find the third angle, 180◦ — 80◦ — 44.7◦ = 55.3◦ and solve for the third side:

sin80◦ sin55.3◦
=
7 c
7 sin 55.3◦
c= 5.8
≈
sin80◦

Because we used the inverse sine function to determine the measure of angle A, the angle could be the supplement of
44.7◦ or 135.3◦ so we need to check for a second triangle. If we let m/ A = 135.3◦ and then attempt to find the third
angle, we will find that the sum of the two angles we have is greater than 180◦ and thus no triangle can be formed.

m/ A+m/ B+m/ C = 180◦

135.3◦ +80◦ + m/ C = 180◦
215.3◦ +m/ C > 180◦

This example shows that two triangles are not always possible. Note that if the given angle is obtuse, there will only
be one possible triangle for this reason.
More Guidance
In both examples we simply tested to see if there would be a second triangle. There are, however, guidelines to
follow to determine when a second triangle exists and when it does not. The “check and see” method always works

53
and therefore it is not necessary to memorize the following table. It is interesting, however, to see to pictures and
make the connection between the inequalities and what if any triangle can be formed.
First, consider when A is obtuse:
If a > b, then one triangle can be formed.

If a ≤ b, then no triangle can be formed.

Now, consider the possible scenarios when A is acute.

If a > b, the one triangle can be formed.

For the following cases, where a < b, keep in mind that we would be using the proportion:
sinA
a
= sinB
b
and that sin B = b sinA
a
If b sin A > a, no triangle can be formed because B > 1.

If b sin A = a, one right triangle can be formed because sin B = 1.

54
If b sin A < a (and a < b), two triangles can be formed because sin B < 1.

Example C
Given ∆ABC with m/ A = 42◦, b = 10 and a = 8, use the rules to determine how many, if any, triangles can be formed
and then solve the possible triangle(s).
Solution: In this case, A is acute and a < b, so we need to look at the value of b sin a. Since b sinA = 10 sin42◦ ≈
6.69 < a, there will be two triangles. To solve for these triangles, use the Law of Sines extended proportion instead
of making a diagram. Plugging in what we know, we have:

sin 42◦ sin B sinC

= =
8 b 10
Take the first and last ratios to solve a proportion to find the measure of angle A.

sinC = sin42◦
10 8
10 sin42◦
C = sin—1 ≈ 56.8◦
8

So, the m/ C ≈ 56.8◦ or 123.2◦ and m/ B ≈ 81.2◦ or 14.8◦ respectively.

Solve for the measure of side b in each triangle:

sin 42◦ sin 81.2◦ sin42◦ sin 14.8◦

= and =
8 b 8 b
8 sin 81.2◦ 8sin14.8◦
b= ≈ 11.8 b= ≈ 3.1
sin42◦ sin 42◦

Putting it all together, we have:

Triangle 1: m/ A ≈ 42◦, m/ B ≈ 81.2◦, m/ C = 56.8◦, a = 8, b ≈ 11.8, c = 10
Triangle 2: m/ A ≈ 42◦, m/ B ≈ 14.8◦, m/ C = 123.2◦, a = 8, b ≈ 3.1, c = 10
Guided Practice
1. Use the given side lengths and angle measure to determine whether zero, one or two triangles exists.

55
a. m/ A = 100◦,a = 3,b = 4.
b. m/ A = 50◦,a = 8,b = 10.
c. m/ A = 72◦,a = 7,b = 6.
2. Solve the following triangles.
a.

b.

3. Given m/ A = 30◦, a = 80 and b = 150, find m/ C.

Answers
1. a. Since A is obtuse and a ≤ b, no triangle can be formed.
b. Since A is acute, a < b and bsin A < a, two triangles can be formed.
c. Since A is acute and a > b, there is one possible triangle.
2. a. There will be two triangles in this case because A is acute, a < b and b sinA < a.
sin25◦
Using the extended proportion: = sinB
= sinC
, we get:
6 8 c

m/ B ≈ 34.3◦ or m/ B ≈ 145.7◦
m/ C ≈ 120.7◦ m/ C ≈ 9.3◦
c ≈ 12.2 c ≈ 2.3

b. Since A is acute and a > b, there is one possible triangle.

sin50◦
Using the extended proportion: = sinB
= sinC
, we get:
15 14 c

m/ B ≈ 45.6◦
m/ C ≈ 84.4◦
c ≈ 19.5

3. In this instance A is acute, a < b and b sinA < a so two triangles can be formed. So, once we find the two possible
measures of angle B, we will find the two possible measures of angle C. First find m/ B:

56
 sin 30◦ sin B
=
80 150
150sin30◦
sinB =
80
B ≈ 69.6◦, 110.4◦

Now that we have B, use the triangle sum to find m/ C ≈ 80.4◦,39.9◦.

Problem Set
For problems 1-5, use the rules to determine if there will be one, two or no possible triangle with the given
measurements.

1. m/ A = 65◦,a = 10,b = 11
2. m/ A = 25◦,a = 8,b = 15
3. m/ A = 100◦,a = 6,b = 4
4. m/ A = 75◦,a = 25,b = 30
5. m/ A = 48◦,a = 41,b = 50

Solve the following triangles, if possible. If there is a second possible triangle, solve it as well.

6.

7.

57
 8.

9.

10.

11.

Area of a Triangle

Objective
Use the sine ratio to find the area of non-right triangles in which two sides and the included angle measure are
known.

58
Guidance
Recall the non right triangle for which we derived the law of sine.
We are most familiar with the area formula: A = 21 bh where the base, b, is the side length which is perpendicular
to the altitude. If we consider angle C in the diagram, we can write the following trigonometric expression for the
altitude of the triangle, h:

h
sinC =
b
b sinC = h

No we can replace h in the formula with b sinC and the side perpendicular to h is the base, a. Our new area formula
is thus:

1
A = ab sinC.
2

It is important to note that C is the angle between sides a and b and that any two sides and the included angle can be
used in the formula.
Example A
Find the area of the triangle.

Solution: We are given two sides and the included angle so let a = 6, b = 9 and C = 62◦. Now we can use the
formula to find the area of the triangle:

1
A= (6)(9) sin(62◦) ≈ 23.8 square units
2

59
Example B
Find the area of the triangle.

Solution: In this triangle we do not have two sides and the included angle. We must first find another side length
◦
using the Law of Sines. We can find the third angle using the triangle sum: 180— 51◦—41◦ = 88◦. Use the Law of
Sines to find the side length opposite 41◦:

sin88◦ sin41◦
=
17 x
17 sin 41◦
x= 11.2
≈
sin88◦

Put these measures in the triangle:

We now have two sides and the included angle and can use the area formula:

1
A = (11.2)(17) sin(51◦) ≈ 74 square units
2

Example C
Given c = 25 cm, a = 31 cm and B = 78◦, find the area of ∆ABC.
Solution: Here we are given two sides and the included angle. We can adjust the formula to represent the sides
and angle we are given: A = 12 ac sin B. It really doesn’t matter which “letters” are in the formula as long as they
represent two sides and the included angle (the angle between the two sides.) Now put in our values to find the
area: A = 21 (31)(25) sin(78◦) ≈ 379 cm2.
Guided Practice
Find the area of each of the triangles below. Round answers to the nearest square unit.
1.

60
2.

3.

Answers
1. Two sides and the included angle are given so A = 21 (20)(23)sin105◦ ≈ 222 sq units.
sin70◦ ◦ ◦
2. Find side a first: 8 = sin60a , so a = 8sin60
sin70≈
◦ 7.4. Next find m
/ C = 180◦ — 60◦ — 70◦ = 50◦.

Using the area formula, A = 12 (7.4)(8) sin 50◦ ≈ 22.7 sq units.

sin59◦ sin80◦ 50sin80◦
3. Find m/ C = 180◦ — 80◦ — 41◦ = 59◦. Find a second side: = , so a = ≈ 57.4.
50 a sin 59◦

Using the area formula, A = 21 (57.4)(50) sin41◦ ≈ 941 sq units.

Problem Set
Find the area of each of the triangles below. Round your answers to the nearest square unit.

61
 1.

2.

3.
4. m/ A = 71◦,b = 15,c = 19
5. m/ C = 120◦,b = 22,a = 16
6. m/ B = 60◦,a = 18,c = 12
7. m/ A = 28◦,m/ C = 73◦,b = 45
8. m/ B = 56◦,m/ C = 81◦,c = 33
9. m/ A = 100◦,m/ B = 30◦,a = 100
10. The area of ∆ABC is 66 square units. If two sides of the triangle are 11 and 21 units, what is the measure of
the included angle? Is there more than one possible value? Explain.
11. A triangular garden is bounded on one side by a 20 ft long barn and a second side is bounded by a 25 ft long
fence. If the barn and the fence meet at a 50◦ angle, what is the area of the garden if the third side is the length
of the segment between the ends of the fence and the barn?
12. A contractor is constructing a counter top in the shape of an equilateral triangle with side lengths 3 ft. If the
countertop material costs $25 per square foot, how much will the countertop cost?

62
 1.5 The Law of Cosines

Objective
Use the Law of Cosines equation to solve non right triangles and find the area of triangles using Heron’s Formula.
Review Queue
Find the value of x in the following triangles.
1.

2.

3.

Using the Law of Cosines with SAS (to find the third side)

Objective
Use the Law of Cosines to determine the length of the third side of a triangle when two sides and the included angle
are known.
Guidance
The Law of Cosines can be used to solve for the third side of a triangle when two sides and the included angle are
known in a triangle. consider the non right triangle below in which we know a, b and C. We can draw an altitude

63
from B to create two smaller right triangles as shown where x represents the length of the segment from C to the foot
of the altitude and b — x represents the length of remainder of the side opposite angle B.

Now we can use the Pythagorean Theorem to relate the lengths of the segments in each of the right triangles shown.
Triangle 1: x2 + k2 = a2 or k2 = a2 — x2
Triangle 2: (b — x)2 + k2 = c2 or k2 = c2 — (b — x)2
Since both equations are equal to k2, we can set them equal to each other and simplify:

a2 — x2 = c2 — (b — x)2
a2 — x2 = c2 — (b2 — 2bx+ x2)
a2 — x2 = c2 — b2 + 2bx — x2
a2 = c2 — b2 + 2bx
a2 + b2 — 2bx = c2

Recall that we know the values of a and b and the measure of angle C. We don’t know the measure of x. We can use
the cosine ratio as show below to find an expression for x in terms of what we already know.

x
cosC = so x = acosC
a

Finally, we can replace x in the equation to get the Law of Cosines: a2 + b2 — 2ab cosC = c2
Keep in mind that a and b are the sides of angle C in the formula.
Example A
Find c when m/ C = 80◦, a = 6 and b = 12.
Solution: Replacing the variables in the formula with the given information and solve for c:

c2 = 62 + 122 — 2(6)(12) cos80◦

c2 ≈ 154.995
c ≈ 12.4

Example B
Find a, when m/ A = 43◦, b = 16 and c = 22.
Solution: This time we are given the sides surrounding angle A and the measure of angle A. We can rewrite the
formula as: a2 = c2 + b2 —2cb cos A. Just remember that the length by itself on one side should be the side opposite
the angle in the cosine ratio. Now we can plug in our values and solve for a.

64
 a2 = 162 + 222 — 2(16)(22) cos43◦
a2 ≈ 225.127
a ≈ 15

Example C
Rae is making a triangular flower garden. One side is bounded by her porch and a second side is bounded by her
fence. She plans to put in a stone border on the third side. If the length of the porch is 10 ft and the length of the
fence is 15 ft and they meet at a 100◦ angle, how many feet of stone border does she need to create?
Solution: Let the two known side lengths be a and b and the angle between is C. Now we can use the formula to
find c, the length of the third side.

c2 = 102 + 152 — 2(10)(15) cos100◦

c2 ≈ 377.094
c ≈ 19.4

So Rae will need to create a 19.4 ft stone border.

Guided Practice
1. Find c when m/ C = 75◦, a = 32 and b = 40.
2. Find b when m/ B = 120◦,a = 11 and c = 17.
3. Dan likes to swim laps across a small lake near his home. He swims from a pier on the north side to a pier on the
south side multiple times for a workout. One day he decided to determine the length of his swim. He determines the
distances from each of the piers to a point on land and the angles between the piers from that point to be 50◦. How
many laps does Dan need to swim to cover 1000 meters?

Answers
1.
c2 = 322 + 402 — 2(32)(40) cos75◦
c2 ≈ 1961.42
c ≈ 44.3

2.
b2 = 112 + 172 — 2(11)(17) cos120◦
b2 ≈ 597
b ≈ 24.4

65
3.

c2 = 302 + 352 — 2(30)(35) cos50◦

c2 ≈ 775.146
c ≈ 27.84

Since each lap is 27.84 meters, Dan must swim 27.84

1000
≈ 36 laps.
Problem Set
Use the Law of Cosines to find the value of x, to the nearest tenth, in problems 1 through 6.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

66
 6.

For problems 7 through 10, find the unknown side of the triangle. Round your answers to the nearest tenth.

7. Find c, given m/ C = 105◦, a = 55 and b = 61.

8. Find b, given m/ B = 26◦, a = 33 and c = 24.
9. Find a, given m/ A = 77◦, b = 12 and c = 19.
10. Find b, given m/ B = 95◦, a = 28 and c = 13.
11. Explain why when m/ C = 90◦, the Law of Cosines becomes the Pythagorean Theorem.
12. Luis is designing a triangular patio in his backyard. One side, 20 ft long, will be up against the side of his
house. A second side is bordered by his wooden fence. If the fence and the house meet at a 120◦ angle and
the fence is 15 ft long, how long is the third side of the patio?

Using the Law of Cosines with SSS (to find an angle)

Objective
Use the Law of Cosines to find the measure of an angle in a triangle in which all three side lengths are known.
Guidance
The Law of Cosines, a2 + b2 — 2ab cosC, can be rearranged to facilitate the calculation of the measure of angle C
when a, b and c are all known lengths.

a2 + b2 — 2abcosC = c2
a2 + b2 — c2 = 2abcosC
a2 + b2 — c2
= cosC
2ab

a2+b2—c2
which can be further manipulated to C = cos—1 2ab .
Example A
Find the measure of the largest angle in the triangle with side lengths 12, 18 and 21.
Solution: First, we must determine which angle will be the largest. Recall from Geometry that the longest side is
opposite the largest angle. The longest side is 21 so we will let c = 21 since C is the angle we are trying to find. Let
a = 12 and b = 18 and use the formula to solve for C as shown. It doesn’t matter which sides we assign to a and b.
They are interchangeable in the formula.

—1 122 + 182 — 212

m/ C = cos ≈ 86◦
2(12)(18)

67
Note: Be careful to put parenthesis around the entire numerator and entire denominator on the calculator to ensure
the proper order of operations. Your calculator screen should look like this:

cos—1((122 + 182 — 212)/(2(12)(18)))

Example B
Find the value of x, to the nearest degree.

Solution: The angle with measure x◦ will be angle C so c = 16, a = 22 and b = 8. Remember, a and b are
interchangeable in the formula. Now we can replace the variables with the known measures and solve.

222 + 82 — 162
cos—1 ≈ 34◦
2(22)(8)

Example C
Find the m/ A, if a = 10,b = 15 and c = 21.
Solution: First, let’s rearrange the formula to reflect the sides given and requested angle:
b2+c2—a2 152+212—102
cosA = , now plug in our values m/ A = cos—1 ≈ 26◦
2(b)(c) 2(15)(21)
Guided Practice
1. Find the measure of x in the diagram:

2. Find the measure of the smallest angle in the triangle with side lengths 47, 54 and 72.
3. Find m/ B, if a = 68,b = 56 and c = 25.
Answers
142+82 —192
1. cos—1 2(14)(8)
≈ 117◦
2. The smallest angle will be opposite the side with length 47, so this will be our c in the equation.

542 + 722 — 472

cos—1 ≈ 41◦
2(54)(72)

68
 a2+c2—b2 682+252—562
3. Rearrange the formula to solve for m/ B, cosB = ; cos—1 ≈ 52◦
2(a)(c) 2(68)(25)
Problem Set
Use the Law of Cosines to find the value of x, to the nearest degree, in problems 1 through 6.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

69
 6.
7. Find the measure of the smallest angle in the triangle with side lengths 150, 165 and 200 meters.
8. Find the measure of the largest angle in the triangle with side length 59, 83 and 100 yards.
9. Find the m/ C if a = 6,b = 9 and c = 13.
10. Find the m/ B if a = 15, b = 8 and c = 9.
11. Find the m/ A if a = 24, b = 20 and c = 14.
12. A triangular plot of land is bordered by a road, a fence and a creek. If the stretch along the road is 100 meters,
the length of the fence is 115 meters and the side along the creek is 90 meters, at what angle do the fence and
road meet?

Heron’s Formula for the Area of a Triangle and Problem Solving with Trigonometry

Objective
Use Heron’s formula for area of a triangle when the side lengths are known and solve real world application problems
using Law of Sines, Law of Cosines or the area formulas.
Guidance
Heron’s Formula, named after Hero of Alexandria 2000 years ago, can be used to find the area of a triangle given
the three side lengths. The formula requires the semi-perimeter, s, or 12(a + b + c), where a, b and c are the lengths
of the sides of the triangle.
Heron’s Formula:
√
Area = s(s — a)(s — b)(s — c)

Example A
Use Heron’s formula to find the area of a triangle with side lengths 13 cm, 16 cm and 23 cm.
Solution: First, find the semi-perimeter or s: s = 12(13 + 16 + 23) = 26. Next, substitute our values into the formula
as shown and evaluate:

√ √ √
A = 26(26 — 13)(26 — 16)(26 — 23) = 26(13)(10)(3) = 10140 ≈ 101 cm2

Example B
Alena is planning a garden in her yard. She is using three pieces of wood as a border. If the pieces of wood have
lengths 4 ft, 6ft and 3 ft, what is the area of her garden?
Solution: The garden will be triangular with side lengths 4 ft, 6 ft and 3 ft. Find the semi-perimeter and then use
Heron’s formula to find the area.

70
 1 13
s = (4 + 6 + 3) =
2s 2 s r
13 13 13 13 13 5 1 7 455
A= —4 —6 —3 = = ≈ 28 f t2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 16

Example C
Caroline wants to measure the height of a radio tower. From some distance away from the tower, the angle of
elevation from her spot to the top of the tower is 65◦. Caroline walks 100 m further away from the tower and
measures the angle of elevation to the top of tower to be 48◦. How tall is the tower?

Solution: First, make a diagram to illustrate the situation.

We can use angle properties (linear pair and triangle sum) to find the angles shown in green in the diagram.
180◦ — 65◦ = 115◦ and 180◦ — 48◦ — 115◦ = 17◦
Next, we can use the Law of Sines in the obtuse triangle to find the hypotenuse in the right triangle:

sin 17◦ sin 48◦

=
100 x
100 sin48◦
x= 254.18
sin17◦ ≈
Finally we can use the sine ratio in the right triangle to find the height of the tower:
sin 65◦ = 254.18
h
, h = 254.18 sin 65◦ ≈ 230.37 m
Guided Practice
Use the most appropriate rule or formula (Law of Sines, Law of Cosines, area formula with sine or Heron’s formula)
to answer the following questions.
1. Find the area of a triangle with side lengths 50 m, 45 m and 25 m.
2. Matthew is planning to fertilize his grass. Each bag of fertilizer claims to cover 500 sq ft of grass. His property
of land is approximately in the shape of a triangle. He measures two sides of his yard to be 75 ft and 100 ft and the
angle between them is 72◦. How many bags of fertilizer must he buy?
3. A pair of adjacent sides in a parallelogram are 3 in and 7 in and the angle between them is 62◦, find the length of
the diagonals.
Answers
√
1. Heron’s Formula: s = 12(50 + 45 + 25) = 60, A = 60(60 — 50)(60 — 45)(60 — 25) ≈ 561 m2.
2. Area formula with sine: 1 (75)(100) sin72◦ ≈ 3566 f t2, Number of bags 3566 ≈ 7.132 ≈ 8 bags. We round up
2 500
because 7 bags is not quite enough.

71
3.

Law of Cosines to find the blue diagonal:

c2 = 32 + 72 — 2(3)(7) cos62◦
√
c = 38.28 ≈ 6.19
So, 6.19 in
To find the green diagonal we can use the Law of Cosines with the adjacent angle: 180◦ — 62◦ — 118◦:

c2 = 72 + 32 — 2(7)(3) cos 118◦

√
c = 77.72 ≈ 8.82
So, 8.82 in
Problem Set
Use the Law of Sines, Law of Cosine, area of triangle with sine or Heron’s Formula to solve the real world application
problems.

1. Two observers, Rachel and Luis, are standing on the shore, 0.5 miles apart. They each measure the angle
between the shoreline and a sailboat out on the water at the same time. If Rachel’s angle is 63◦ and Luis’
angle is 56◦, find the distance between Luis and the sailboat to the nearest hundredth of a mile.
2. Two pedestrians walk from opposite ends of a city block to a point on the other side of the street. The angle
formed by their paths is 125◦. One pedestrian walks 300 ft and the other walks 320 ft. How long is the city
block to the nearest foot?
3. Two sides and the included angle of a parallelogram have measures 3.2 cm, 4.8 cm and 54.3◦ respectively.
Find the lengths of the diagonals to the nearest tenth of a centimeter.
4. A bridge is supported by triangular braces. If the sides of each brace have lengths 63 ft, 46 ft and 40 ft, find
the measure of the largest angle to the nearest degree.
5. Find the triangular area, to the nearest square meter, enclosed by three pieces of fencing 123 m, 150 m and
155 m long.
6. Find the area, to the nearest square inch, of a parallelogram with sides of length 12 in and 15 in and included
angle of 78◦.
7. A person at point A looks due east and spots a UFO with an angle of elevation of 40◦. At the same time,
another person, 1 mi due west of A looks due east and sights the same UFO with an angle of elevation of 25◦.
Find the distance between A and the UFO. How far is the UFO above the ground? Give answers to the nearest
hundredth of a mile.
8. Find the area of a triangular playground, to the nearest square meter, with sides of length 10 m, 15 m and 16
m.

72
 9. A yard is bounded on two sides with fences of length 80 ft and 60 ft. If these fences meet at a 75◦ angle, how
many feet of fencing are required to completely enclosed a triangular region?
10. When a boy stands on the bank of a river and looks across to the other bank, the angle of depression is 12◦.
If he climbs to the top of a 10 ft tree and looks across to other bank, the angle of depression is 15◦. What is
the distance from the first position of the boy to the other bank of the river? How wide is the river? Give your
answers to the nearest foot.

73
 www.ck12.org

C HAPTER
2 Trigonometric Functions
and Identities
Chapter Outline
2.1 GRAPHING T RIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
2.2 USING T RIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
2.3 SOLVING T RIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
2.4 SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAS
2.5 DOUBLE AND HALF ANGLE FORMULAS

In this chapter, we will extend our knowledge of trigonometry to graphing sine, cosine, and tangent functions
and using trigonometric identities and formulas to simplify expressions, prove trigonometric statements, and solve
equations.

74
 2.1 Graphing Trigonometric Functions

Objective
To graph, translate, and reflect the sine, cosine, and tangent functions.
Review Queue
Find the exact values of the following expressions.
1. sin π4
2. cos 5π6
3. tan 3π4
4. sin 7π
3

Graphing Sine and Cosine

Objective
To graph and stretch the sine and cosine functions.
Guidance
In this concept, we will take the unit circle, introduced in the previous chapter, and graph it on the Cartesian plane.
To do this, we are going to “unravel” the unit circle. Recall that for the unit circle the coordinates are (cosθ, sinθ)
where θ is the central angle. To graph, y = sin x rewrite the coordinates as (x, sin x) where x is the central angle, in
radians. Below we expanded the sine coordinates for 43π .

Notice
x = 3π . that
Thisthe curve ranges
“height” of the from 1 to -1. The
sine function maximum
is called value is 1, which is at x = π2. The minimum value is -1 at
the amplitude
2 . The amplitude is the absolute value of average
between the highest and lowest points on the curve.
Now, look at the domain. It seems that, if we had continued the curve, it would repeat. This means that the sine
curve is periodic. Look back at the unit circle, the sine value changes until it reaches 2π. After 2π, the sine values
repeat. Therefore, the curve above will repeat every 2π units, making the period 2π. The domain is all real numbers.

75
Similarly, when we expand the cosine curve, y = cosx, from the unit circle, we have:

Notice that the range is also between 1 and -1 and the domain will be all real numbers. The cosine curve is also
periodic, with a period of 2π. If we draw the graph past 2π, it would look like:

Comparing y = sinx and y = cosx (below), we see that the curves are almost identical, except that the sine curve
starts at y = 0 and the cosine curve starts at y = 1.

If we shift either curve π2 units to the left or right, they will overlap. Any horizontal shift of a trigonometric function
is called a phase shift. We will discuss phase shifts more in the upcoming concepts.
Example A
Identify the highlighted points on y = sinx and y = cosx below.

76
,

√
Solution: For each point, think about what the sine or cosine value is at those values. For point A, sin π4 = 22 ,
√
therefore the point is π
, 2 . For point B, we have to work backwards because it is not exactly on a vertical line,
4 2
but it is on a horizontal one. When is sin x = — 1 ? When x = 7π or 11π
. By looking at point B’s location, we know it
2 6 6
11π 1
is the second option. Therefore, the point is 6 ,2 .
For the cosine curve, point C is the same as point A because the1sine and cosine for π4 is the same. As for point D, we
use the same logic as we did for point B. When does cosx = — ? When x = 2π or 4π . Again, looking at the location
2 3 3
4π 1
of point D, we know it is the second option. The point is ,
3 2 .
More Guidance
In addition to graphing y = sin x and y = cos x, we can stretch the graphs by placing a number in front of the sine
or cosine, such as y = a sin x or y = a cos x. | a| is the amplitude of the curve. In the next concept, we will shift the
curves up, down, to the left and right.
Example B
Graph y = 3 sin x over two periods.
Solution: Start with the basic sine curve. Recall that one period of the parent graph, y = sin x, is 2π. Therefore, two
periods will be 4π. The 3 indicates that the range will now be from 3 to -3 and the curve will be stretched so that the
maximum is 3 and the minimum is -3. The red curve is y = 3 sin x.

77
Notice that the x-intercepts are the same as the parent graph. Typically, when we graph a trigonometric function, we
always show two full periods of the function to indicate that it does repeat.
Example C
Graph y = 12 cos x over two periods.
Solution: Now, the amplitude will be 21 and the function will be “smooshed” rather than stretched.

Example D
Graph y = —sinx over two periods.

78
Solution: The last two examples dealt with changing a and a was positive. Now, a is negative. Just like with other
functions, when the leading coefficient is negative, the function is reflected over the x-axis. y = —sinx is in red.
Guided Practice
5π 1
1. Is the point 6,2 on y = sinx? How do you know?
Graph the following functions for two full periods.
2. y = 6cosx
3. y = —3 cos x
4. y = 23 sinx
Answers
1. Substitute in the point for x and y and see if the equation holds true.
1 5π
2 = sin 6
5π 1
This is true, so 6 ,2 is on the graph.
2. Stretch the cosine curve so that the maximum is 6 and the minimum is -6.

3. The graph is reflected over the x-axis and stretched so that the amplitude is 3.

79
4. The fraction is equivalent to 1.5, making 1.5 the amplitude.

Vocabulary

Trigonometric Function
When the sine, cosine, or tangent of an angle is plotted in the x — y plane such that (x, f (x)), where x is the
central angle from the unit circle and f (x) is the sine, cosine, or tangent of that angle.

Amplitude
The height of a sine or cosine curve. In the equation, y = a sinx or y = a cosx, the amplitude is |a|.

Periodic
When a function repeats its y-values over a regular interval.

80
Period
The regular interval over which a periodic function repeats itself.

Phase Shift
The horizontal shift of a trigonometric function.

Problem Set

1. Determine the exact value of each point on y = sinx or y = cosx.

2. List all the points in the interval [0, 4π] where sinx = cosx. Use the graph from #1 to help you.
3. Draw from y = sin x from [0, 2π]. Find f 3π and f 5π 3 . Plot these values on the curve.

For questions 4-12, graph the sine or cosine curve over two periods.

4. y = 2sinx
5. y = —5cosx
1
6. y = 4 cosx
2
7. y = —3 sin x
8. y = 4sinx
9. y = —1.5cosx
5
10. y = 3 cosx
11. y = 10 sinx
12. y = — 7.2 sinx
13. Graph y = sinx and y = cosx on the same set of axes. How many units would you have to shift the sine curve
(to the left or right) so that it perfectly overlaps the cosine curve?
14. Graph y = sinx and y = —cosx on the same set of axes. How many units would you have to shift the sine
curve (to the left or right) so that it perfectly overlaps y = — cos x?

Write the equation for each sine or cosine curve below. a > 0 for both questions.

81
 15.

16.

Translating Sine and Cosine Functions

Objective
To be able to graph a translated sine or cosine function.
Guidance
Just like other functions, sine and cosine curves can be moved to the left, right, up and down. The general equation
for a sine and cosine curve is y = a sin(x —h) + k and y = a cos(x —h) + k, respectively. Also, just like in other
functions, h is the horizontal shift, also called a phase shift, and k is the vertical shift. Notice, that because it is x— h
in the equation, h will always shift in the opposite direction of what is in the equation.
Example A
Graph y = cos x — π4 .

82
Solution: This function will be shifted π4 units to the right. The easiest way to sketch the curve, is to start with the
parent graph and then move it to the right the correct number of units.

Example B
Graph y = sin(x + 2) + 3.
Solution: Because -2 is not written in terms of π (like the x-axis), we need to estimate where it would be on the
axis. — 3π = 2.35. . . So, -2 will be shifted not quite to the — 3π tic mark. Then, the entire function will be shifted up
4 4
3 units. The red graph is the final answer.

Example C
Find the equation of the sine curve below.

83
Solution: First, we know the amplitude is 1 because the average between 2 and 0 (the maximum and minimum) is
1. Next, we can find the vertical shift. Recall that the maximum is usually 1, in this equation it is 2. That means that
the function is shifted up 1 unit (2 —1). The horizontal shift is the hardest to find. Because sine curves are periodic,
the horizontal shift can either be positive or negative.
Because π is 3.14 . . ., we can say that “moves back almost π units” is -3 units. So, the equation is y = sin(x + 3) + 1.
If we did the positive horizontal shift, we could say that the equation would be y = sin(x — 3.28) + 1.

To determine the value of the horizontal shift, you might have to estimate. For example, we estimated that the
negative shift was -3 because the maximum value of the parent graph is at x = π2 and the maximum to the left of it
didn’t quite make it to x = — 2π (the distance between π2 and — π2 is π). Then, to determine the positive shift equation,
recall that a period is 2π, which is 6.28... So, the positive shift would be 2π — 3 or 6.28 — 3 = 3.28..
Guided Practice
Graph the following functions from [π,3π].
1. y = —1+ sinx
π
2. y = cos x + 3 —2
3. Find the equation of the cosine curve below.

84
Answers
1. Shift the parent graph down one unit.

2. Shift the parent graph to the left π

3 units and down 2 units.

85
3. The parent graph is in green. It moves up 3 units and to the right 3π
units. Therefore, the equation is y =
4
3π
cos x — 4 + 3.

If you moved the cosine curve backward, then the equation would be y = cos x + 5π4 + 3.
Vocabulary

Phase Shift
The horizontal shift of a trigonometric function.

Problem Set
For questions 1-4, match the equation with its graph.

86
 1. y = sin x — π2
2. y = cos x — π4 + 3
3. y = cos x + π4 — 2
4. y = sin x — π4 + 2
5. Which graph above represents:
1. y = cos(x — π)
2. y = sin x + 3π4 — 2
6. Fill in the blanks below.
1. sinx = cos(x — )
2. cosx = sin(x — )

For questions 7-12, graph the following equations from [—2π, 2π].

7. y = sin x + π4
8. y = 1 + cosx
9. y = cos(x + π)— 2
10. y = sin(x + 3)— 4
11. y = sin x — π6
12. y = cos(x — 1) — 3
13. Critical Thinking Is there a difference between y = sin x + 1 and y = sin(x + 1)? Explain your answer.

Putting it all Together

Objective
To graph sine and cosine functions where the amplitude is changed and horizontal and vertical shifts.
Guidance
In this concept, we will combine the previous two concepts and change the amplitude, the horizontal shifts, vertical
shifts, and reflections.

87
Example A
Graph y = 4 sin x — 4π . Find the domain and range.
Solution: First, stretch the curve so that the amplitude is 4, making the maximums and minimums 4 and -4. Then,
shift the curve 4π units to the right.

As for the domain, it is all real numbers because the sine curve is periodic and infinite. The range will be from the
maximum to the minimum; y ∈ [—4, 4].
Example B
Graph y = —2cos(x — 1) + 1. Find the domain and range.
Solution: The -2 indicates the cosine curve is flipped and stretched so that the amplitude is 2. Then, move the curve
up one unit and to the right one unit.
The domain is all real numbers and the range is y ∈ [—1,3].

88
Example C
Find the equation of the sine curve to the right.
Solution: First, let’s find the amplitude. The range is from 1 to -5, which is a total distance of 6. Divided by 2, we
find that the amplitude is 3. Halfway between 1 and -5 is 1+(— 5
5)
= —2, so that is our vertical shift. Lastly, we need
to find the horizontal shift. The easiest way to do this is to superimpose the curve y = 3 sin(x)— 2 over this curve
and determine the movement from one maximum to the closest maximum of this curve.

89
Subtracting π
and π , we have:
2 6
π
— π = 3π — π = 2π = π
2 6 6 6 6 3
Making the equation y = 3 sin x + π3 — 2.
Guided Practice
Graph the following functions. State the domain and range. Show two full periods.
1. y = —2 sin x — π2
2. y = 13 cos(x + 1)— 2
3. Write one sine equation and one cosine equation for the curve below.

Answers
1. The domain is all real numbers and the range is y ∈ [—2,2].

90
2. The domain is all real numbers and the range is y ∈ —2 13, —1 23 .

3. The amplitude and vertical shift is the same, whether the equation is a sine or cosine curve. The vertical shift
is -2 because that is the number that is halfway between the maximum and minimum. The difference between the
maximum and minimum is 1, so the amplitude is half of that, or 1 . As a sine curve, the function is y = —2 + 1 sin x.
2 2
As a cosine curve, there will be a shift of π2, y = 12cos x — π2 — 2.
Problem Set
Determine if the following statements are true or false.

1. To change a cosine curve into a sine curve, shift the curve π2 units.
2. For any given sine or cosine graph, there are infinitely many possible equations that can be written to represent
the curve.

91
 3. The amplitude is the same as the maximum value of the sine or cosine curve.
4. The horizontal shift is always in terms of π.
5. The domain of any sine or cosine function is always all real numbers.

Graph the following sine or cosine functions such that x ∈ [—2π,2π]. State the domain and range.

6. y = sin x + π4 + 1
7. y = 2 — 3cosx
8. y = 34 sin x — 2π
3
9. y = —5 sin(x — 3)— 2
10. y = 2 cos x + 5π6 — 1.5
11. y = —2.8 cos(x — 8) + 4

Use the graph below to answer questions 12-15.

12. Write a sine equation for the function where the amplitude is positive.
13. Write a cosine equation for the function where the amplitude is positive.
14. How often does a sine or cosine curve repeat itself? How can you use this to help you write different equations
for the same graph?
15. Write a second sine and cosine equation with different horizontal shifts.

Use the graph below to answer questions 16-20.

92
 16. Write a sine equation for the function where the amplitude is positive.
17. Write a cosine equation for the function where the amplitude is positive.
18. Write a sine equation for the function where the amplitude is negative.
19. Write a cosine equation for the function where the amplitude is negative.
20. Describe the similarities and differences between the four equations from questions 16-19.

Changes in the Period of a Sine and Cosine Function

Objective
Here you’ll learn how to change the period of a sine and cosine function.
Guidance
The last thing that we can manipulate on the sine and cosine curve is the period
The normal period of a sine or cosine curve is 2π. To stretch out the curve, then the period would have to be longer
than 2π. Below we have sine curves with a period of 4π and then the second has a period of π.

To determine the period from an equation, we introduce b into the general equation. So, the equations are y =
a sin b(x—h) + k and y = a cos b(x —h) + k, where a is the amplitude, b is the frequency, h is the phase shift, and k
is the vertical shift. The frequency is the number of times the sine or cosine curve repeats within 2π. Therefore, the
frequency and the period are indirectly related. For the first sine curve, there is half of a sine curve in 2π. Therefore
the equation would be y = sin 12x. The second sine curve2π
has two curves within 2π, making the equation y = sin 2x.
To find the period of any sine or cosine function, use b , where b is the frequency. Using the first graph above, this
| |
2π
is a valid formula: 1 = 2π · 2 = 4π.
2

Example A
Determine the period of the following sine and cosine functions.
a) y = —3 cos 6x
b) y = 2 sin 41 x

93
c) y = sinπx — 7
Solution: a) The 6 in the equation tells us that there are 6 repetitions within 2π. So, the period is 2π
= π.
6 3
b) The 1 in the equation tells us the frequency. The period is 2π = 2π · 4 = 8π.
4 1
4

c) The π is the frequency. The period is 2π

π = 2.
Example B
Graph part a) from the previous example from [0, 2π]. Determine where the maximum and minimum values occur.
Then, state the domain and range.

Solution: The amplitude is -3, so it will be stretched and flipped. The period is π
(from above) and the curve should
repeat itself 6 times from 0 to 2π 3
x = π and then
. The first maximum value is 3 and π occurs at
π half the period, or
repeats at x = 2, 6 , 6 , 2 , . . . Writing this as a formula we start at 6 and add 3 to get the next maximum,
π 5π 7π 3π 6 so each
π π
point would be 6 ± 3 n,3 where n is any integer.
The minimums occur at -3 and the x-values are multiples of π3. The points would be ± π3n, —3 , again n is any
integer. The domain is all real numbers and the range is y ∈ [—3,3].
Example C
Find all the solutions from the function in Example B from [0, 2π].
Solution: Before this concept, the zeros didn’t change in the frequency because we hadn’t changed the period. Now
that the period can be different, we can have a different number of zeros within [0, 2π]. In this case, we will have 6
times the number of zeros that the parent function. To solve this function, set y = 0 and solve for x.

0 = —3 cos 6x
0 = cos6x

Now, use the inverse cosine function to determine when the cosine is zero. This occurs at the multiples of π2.

94
 π 3π 5π 7π 9π 11π 13π 15π 17π 19π 21π 23π
6x = cos—1 0 = , , , , , , , , , , ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

We went much past 2π because when we divide by 6, to get x by itself, all of these answers are going to also be
divided by 6 and smaller.

π π 5π 7π 3π 11π 13π 5π 17π 19π 21π 23π

x= , , , , , , , , , , ,
12 4 12 12 4 12 12 4 12 12 2 12

23π
12 < 2π so we have found all the zeros in the range.
Guided Practice
1. Determine the period of the function y = 2 cos 3 x.
3 4
2. Find the zeros of the function from #1 from [0, 2π].
3. Determine the equation of the sine function with an amplitude of -3 and a period of 8π.
Answers
1. The period is 2π3 = 2π · 34 = 8π3 .
4

2. The zeros would be when y is zero.

2 3
0= cos x
3 4
3
0 = cos x
4
3 π 3π
x = cos 0 = 2 , 2
—1
4
4 π 3π
x= ,
3 2 2
2π
x = ,2π
3

3. The general equation of a sine curve is y = a sin bx. We know that a =— 3 and that the period is 8π. Let’s use this
to find the frequency, or b.

2π
= 8π
b
2π
=b
8π
1
=b
4

The equation of the curve is y = —3 sin 14 x.

Vocabulary

Period
The length in which an entire sine or cosine curve is completed.

95
Frequency
The number of times a curve is repeated within 2π.

Problem Set
Find the period of the following sine and cosine functions.

1. y = 5sin3x
2. y = — 2 cos4x
3. y = — 3 sin2x
4. y = cos 3
x
5. y = 1 4 .5x
2 cos2
6. y = 4sin3x

Use the equation y = 5 sin3x to answer the following questions.

7. Graph the function from [0, 2π] and find the domain and range.
8. Determine the coordinates of the maximum and minimum values.
9. Find all the zeros from [0, 2π].

Use the equation y = cos 34x to answer the following questions.

10. Graph the function from [0, 4π] and find the domain and range.
11. Determine the coordinates of the maximum and minimum values.
12. Find all the zeros from [0, 2π].

Use the equation y = —3 sin 2x to answer the following questions.

13. Graph the function from [0,2π] and find the domain and range.
14. Determine the coordinates of the maximum and minimum values.
15. Find all the zeros from [0, 2π].
16. What is the domain of every sine and cosine function? Can you make a general rule for the range? If so, state
it.

Write the equation of the sine function, in the form y = a sinbx, with the given amplitude and period.

17.
18. Amplitude:
Amplitude: -2
3 Period: 3π
Period: 5 4
π
19. Amplitude: 95 Period: 6
20. Challenge Find all the zeros from [0, 2π] of y = 12sin3 x — π3 .

Graphing Tangent

Objective
Here you’ll learn how to graph a tangent function.
Guidance
The graph of the tangent function is very different from the sine and cosine functions. First, recall that the tangent
opposite . In radians, the coordinate for the tangent function would be (θ, tanθ)
ratio is tanθ = hypotenuse

96
 π π π π 2π 3π 5π
x θ 0 6 6 π
√ 4 3 2 3 4 √
3 √ 3
y tanθ 0 1 3 und. √ —
— 3 —1 0
3 3

After π, the y-values repeat, making the tangent function periodic with a period of π.

The red portion of the graph represents the coordinates in the table above. Repeating this portion, we get the entire
tangent graph. Notice that there are vertical asymptotes at x = — 3π ,— π , π and 3π . If we were to extend the graph out
2 2 2 2
π
in either direction, there would continue to be vertical asymptotes at the odd multiples of 2 . Therefore, the domain
is all real numbers, x =/ nπ ± 2 , where n is an integer. The range would be all real numbers. Just like with sine and
π

cosine functions, you can change the amplitude, phase shift, and vertical shift.
The standard form of the equation is y = a tan b(x —
h) + k where a, b, h, and k are the same as they are for the other
trigonometric functions. For simplicity, we will not address phase shifts (k) in this concept.
Example A
Graph y = 3tanx + 1 from [—2π,2π]. State the domain and range.
Solution: First, the amplitude is 3, which means each y-value will be tripled. Then, we will shift the function up
one unit.

97
Notice that the vertical asymptotes did not change. The period of this function is still π. Therefore, if we were to
change the period of a tangent function, we would use a different formula than what we used for sine and cosine. To
change the period of a tangent function, use the formula π .
|b|
The domain will be all real numbers, except where the asymptotes occur. Therefore, the domain of this function will
/ nπ ±2 π . The range is all real numbers.
be x ∈ R, x ∈
Example B
Graph y = —tan2π from [0,2π] and state the domain and range. Find all zeros within this domain.

Solution: The period

is all real numbers, x∈/ofπ ,this
3π tangent
, 5π , 7π , πfunction will be
± π n where n
π
2
and the curves will be reflected over the x-axis. The domain
4 4 4 4 4 2 is any integer. The range is all real numbers. To find the zeros,
set y = 0.

98
 0 = — tan 2x
0 = tan2x
2x = tan—1 0 = 0, π, 2π, 3π, 4π
π 3π
x = 0, , π, , 2π
2 2

Example C
Graph y = 1 tan 1 x from [0, 4π] and state the domain and range.
4 4
Solution: This function has a period of π1= 4π. The domain is all real numbers, except 2π,6π,10π,2π ± 4πn, where
4
n is any integer. The range is all real numbers.

Guided Practice
1. Find the period of the function y = —4 tan 32 x.
2. Find the zeros of the function from #1, from [0, 2π].
3. Find the equation of the tangent function with an amplitude of 8 and a period of 6π.
Answers
1. The period is π3 = π · 32 = 2π3 .
2

99
2. The zeros are where y is zero.
3
0 = — 4 tan x
2
3
0 = tan x
2
3
x = tan—1 0 = 0, π, 2π, 3π
2
2
x = (0, π, 2π, 3π)
3
2π 4π
x = 0, , , 2π
3 3

3. The general equation is y = a tanbx. We know that a = 8. Let’s use the period to solve for the frequency, or b.

π
= 6π
b
π 1
b= =
6π 6

The equation is y = 8 tan 16 x.

Vocabulary

Tangent Function
Defined by the coordinates (θ, tanθ), where θ is the central angle from the unit circle and tangent is the ratio
of the sine and cosine functions.

Problem Set
Graph the following tangent functions over [0, 4π]. Determine the period, domain, and range.

1. y = 2tanx
2. y = — 13 tan x
3. y = — tan 3x
4. y = 4tan2x
5.
6. yy =
=—2 tan4x
1
tan 21 x
7. y=4 x
+tan
8. y = — 3 + tan3x
9. y = 1 + 2 tan 1 x
3 2
10. Find the zeros of the function from #1.
11. Find the zeros of the function from #3.
12. Find the zeros of the function from #5.

Write the equation of the tangent function, in the form y = atan bx, with the given amplitude and period.

13. Amplitude: 3 Period: 3π

2
1
14. Amplitude: 4 Period: 2π
15. Amplitude: -2.5 Period: 8
16. Challenge Graph y = 2 tan 13 x + π4 — 1 over [0, 6π]. Determine the domain and period.

100
 2.2 Using Trigonometric Identities

Objective
Here you’ll learn how to use trigonometric identities to solve and prove trigonometric statements and problems.
Review Queue
Find the exact value of the trig functions below.
1. sin π3
2.
cos — 5π
6

3. sin4π
4. tan 7π
4
5. cos 2π3
6.
tan — 2π
3

Introduction to Trig Identities

Objective
Here you’ll learn about the basic trigonometric identities and how to use them.
Guidance
Trigonometric identities are true for any value of x (as long as the value is in the domain). In the Reciprocal
Trigonometric Functions concept from the previous chapter, you learned about secant, cosecant, and cotangent,
which are all reciprocal functions of sine, cosine and tangent. These functions can be rewritten as the Reciprocal
Identities because they are always true.
Reciprocal Identities: cscθ = sinθ
1
secθ = cosθ
1
cotθ = tanθ
1

Other identities involve the tangent, variations on the Pythagorean Theorem, phase shifts, and negative angles. We
will discover them in this concept.
Example A
tanθ = opposite . Show that tanθ = sinθ
.This is the Tangent Identity.
ad jacent cosθ
Solution: Whenever we are trying to verify, or prove, an identity, we start with the statement we are trying to prove
and work towards the desired answer. In this case, we will start with tanθ = sinθ cosθ and show that it is equivalent to
tanθ = ad jacent. First, rewrite sine and cosine in terms of the ratios of the sides.
opposite

sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ
opposite
hypotenuse
= ad jacent
hypotenuse

Then, rewrite the complex fraction as a division problem and simplify.

101
 = opposite ÷ ad jacent
hypotenuse hypotenuse
,
opposite , po,
hy, nu,
te, se
= ,,, ·
h y,
, ,
potenus e ad jacent
opposite
=
ad jacent

We now have what we wanted to prove and we are done. Once you verify an identity, you may use it to verify other
identities.
Example B
Show that sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 is a true identity.
Solution: Change the sine and cosine in the equation into the ratios. In this example, we will use y as the opposite
side, x is the adjacent side, and r is the hypotenuse (or radius), as in the unit circle.

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
y 2 x 2
+ =1
r r
y2 x2
+ =1
r2 r2
y2 + x2
=1
r2

Now, x2 + y2 = r2 from the Pythagorean Theorem. Substitute this in for the numerator of the fraction.

r2
=1
r2

This is one of the Pythagorean Identities and very useful.

Example C
Verify that sin 2— θ = cosθ by using the graphs of the functions.
π

π
Solution: The function y = sin 2—x is a phase shift of π
2 of the sine curve.

The red function above is y = sin x and the blue is y = cosx. If we were to shift the sine curve π2, it would overlap
perfectly with the cosine curve, thus proving this Cofunction Identity.
Guided Practice
1. Prove the Pythagorean Identity: 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
2. Without graphing, show that sin(—θ) = —sinθ.

102
Answers
1. First, let’s use the Tangent Identity and the Reciprocal Identity to change tangent and secant in terms of sine and
cosine.

1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
sin2 θ 1
1+ =
cos2 θ cos2 θ

Now, change the 1 into a fraction with a base of cos2 θ and simplify.

sin2 θ 1
1+ =
cos2 θ cos2 θ
cos θ sin2 θ
2
1
+ 2 =
cos θ cos θ cos2 θ
2
cos2 θ + sin2 θ 1
=
cos θ
2 cos2 θ
1 1
=
cos2 θ cos2 θ

In the second to last step, we arrived at the original Pythagorean Identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ in the numerator of the
left-hand side. Therefore, we can substitute in 1 for this and the two sides of the equation are the same.
2. First, recall that sinθ = y, where (x, y) is the endpoint of the terminal side of θ on the unit circle.
Now, if we have sin(—θ), what is it’s endpoint? Well, the negative sign tells us that the angle is rotated in a clockwise
direction, rather than the usual counter-clockwise. By looking at the picture, we see that sin(—θ) = —y. Therefore,
if sinθ = y, then — sinθ = —y and combining the equations, we have sin(—θ) = —sinθ.

Vocabulary

Trigonometric Identity
A trigonometric equation that is true for any x value (within the domain).

Verify
To prove a trigonometric identity.

103
Reciprocal Identities
cscθ = 1 , secθ = 1
, and cotθ = 1
sinθ cosθ tanθ

Tangent Identity
tanθ = sinθ
cosθ

Cotangent Identity
cotθ = cosθ
sinθ

Pythagorean Identities
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1,1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ, and 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

Cofunction Identities
sin π2 — θ = cosθ, cos 2— θ
π
= sinθ, and tan 2— θ
π
= cotθ

Negative Angle Identities

sin(—θ) = — sinθ, cos(—θ) = cosθ, and tan(—θ) = — tanθ

Problem Set

1. Show that cotθ = cosθ

sinθ by following the steps from Example A.
2. Show that tanθ = secθ . Refer to Example A to help you.
cscθ
3. Show that 1 + cot θ = csc2 θ by following the steps from #1 in the Guided Practice.
2

4. Explain why cos π2 — θ = sinθ by using the graphs of the two functions.
5. Following the steps from #2 in the Guided Practice, show that cos(—θ) = cosθ.
6. Explain why tan(—θ) = —tanθ is true, using the Tangent Identity and the other Negative Angle Identities.

Verify the following identities.

7. cotθsecθ = cscθ
8. cosθ = tanθ
cotθ secθ
9. sinθcscθ = 1
10. cot( —θ) = — cotθ
11. tanxcscxcos x = 1
sin2(—x)
tan2 x = cos x
12. 2

Show that sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 is true for the following values of θ.

13. π
4
14. 2π
3
7π
15. — 6
16. Recall that a function is odd if f (—x) = — f (x) and even if f ( —x) = f (x). Which of the six trigonometric
functions are odd? Which are even?

Using Trig Identities to Find Exact Trig Values

Objective

104
Here you’ll use the basic trig identities to find exact trig values of angles other than the critical angles.
Guidance
You can use the Pythagorean, Tangent and Reciprocal Identities to find all six trigonometric values for certain angles.
Let’s walk through a few examples so that you understand how to do this.
Example A
Given that cosθ = 3 and 0 < θ < π , find sinθ.
5 2
Solution: Use the Pythagorean Identity to find sinθ.

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
2
2θ
3
sin + =1
5
9
sin2 θ = 1 —
25
16
sin2 θ =
25
4
sinθ = ±
5

Because θ is in the first quadrant, we know that sine will be positive. sinθ = 45
Example B
Find tanθ of θ from Example A.
Solution: Use the Tangent Identity to find tanθ.

4
sinθ 4
tanθ = = 5
3 =
cosθ 3
5

Example C
Find the other three trigonometric functions of θ from Example.
Solution: To find secant, cosecant, and cotangent use the Reciprocal Identities.

1 1 5 1 1 5 1 1 3
cscθ = = = secθ = = = cotθ = = =
sinθ 4 4 cosθ 3 3 tanθ 4 4
5 5 3

Guided Practice
Find the values of the other five trigonometric functions.
5 π
1. tanθ = — 12, 2<θ<π
2. cscθ = —8, π < θ < 3π
2
Answers
1. First, we know that θ is in the second quadrant, making sine positive and cosine negative. For this problem, we
will use the Pythagorean Identity 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ to find secant.

105
 5 2
1+ — = sec 2 θ
12
25
1+ = sec2 θ
144
169
= sec2 θ
144
13
± = sec θ
12
13
— = sec θ
12

If secθ = — 13 , then cosθ = — 12 . sinθ = 135 because the numerator value of tangent is the sine and it has the same
12 13 13 12
denominator value as cosine. cscθ = 5 and cotθ = — 5 from the Reciprocal Identities.
2. θ is in the third quadrant, so both sine and cosine are negative. The reciprocal of cscθ = —8, will give us
sinθ = —81 . Now, use the Pythagorean Identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 to find cosine.

2
1
— +cos 2 θ = 1
8
1
cos2 θ = 1 —
64
63
cos θ =
2

64
3 √7
cosθ = ±
8
√
3 7
cosθ = —
8

√ √
8 7 1 7
8
√ 21 √
secθ = — √ = — 21 ,tanθ = = , and cotθ = 3 7
3 7 3 7
Problem Set

1. In which quadrants is the sine value positive? Negative?

2. In which quadrants is the cosine value positive? Negative?
3. In which quadrants is the tangent value positive? Negative?

Find the values of the other five trigonometric functions of θ.

4. sinθ = 8 , 0 < θ < π

17 2
5. cosθ = — 5 , π < θ < π
6. tanθ = √ 36 2
4 ,0 < θ < 2
π
7. secθ = — 41 , π < θ < π
3
9 2
8. sinθ = — 11 , 3π < θ < 2π
9. cosθ = 2 √
142 2
4√ , 0 < θ <
π
2
10. cotθ = — 5, π < θ < 3π
2
11. cscθ = 4, 2 < θ < π
π

106
 7 3π
12. tanθ = — 10 , 2 < θ < 2π
13. Aside from using the identities, how else can you find the values of the other five trigonometric functions?
14. Given that cosθ = 11
6
and θ is in the 2nd quadrant, what is sin(—θ)?
15. Given that tanθ = —85 and θ is in the 4th quadrant, what is sec(—θ)?

Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions

Objective
Here you’ll use the basic trig identities to simplify more complicated expressions.
Guidance
Now that you are more familiar with trig identities, we can use them to simplify expressions. Remember, that you
can use any of the identities in the Introduction to Trig Identities concept. Here is a list of the identities again:
Reciprocal Identities: cscθ = 1 , secθ = 1 , and cotθ = 1
sinθ cosθ tanθ
Tangent and Cotangent Identities: tanθ = sinθ
and cotθ = cosθ
cosθ sinθ

Pythagorean Identities: sin θ + cos θ = 1,1 + tan θ = sec θ, and 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ
2 2 2 2

π π π
Cofunction Identities: sin 2— θ = cosθ, cos 2— θ = sinθ, and tan 2— θ = cotθ
Negative Angle Identities: sin(—θ) = —sinθ,cos(—θ) = cosθ, and tan(—θ) = —tanθ
Example A
Simplify secx .
sec x—1
Solution: When simplifying trigonometric expressions, one approach is to change everything into sine or cosine.
First, we can change secant to cosine using the Reciprocal Identity.

secx 1
cosx
→
sec x — 1 1
cosx — 1

Now, combine the denominator into one fraction by multiplying 1 by cos

cosx
x.

1 1 1
cosx cos x cosx
→ →
cos x — 1 cos x — cosx
1 1 cos x 1—cos x
cos x

Change this problem into a division problem and simplify.

1
1 1 — cos x
cos x
1—cos x → ÷
cos x cos x
cosx
1 ccoc
sx
·
coc
c s x 1 — cos x
1
1 — cos x
Example B
Simplify sin4 x—cos4 x .
sin2 x—cos2 x

107
Solution: With this problem, we need to factor the numerator and denominator and see if anything cancels. The
rules of factoring a quadratic and the special quadratic formulas can be used in this scenario.

,
sin24 x — cos24 x —,
x ,
in 2, ,2 x sin, 2 , sin2 x + cos2 x → 1
2,,, 2x + cos x
2
,s, cos
si
, n x — co s
sin x — cos x → , →
x

In the last step, we simplified to the left hand side of the Pythagorean Identity. Therefore, this expression simplifies
to 1.
Example C
Simplify secθtan2 θ + secθ.
Solution: First, pull out the GCF.

secθtan2 θ + secθ → secθ(tan2 θ + 1)

Now, tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ from the Pythagorean Identities, so simplify further.

secθ(tan2 θ + 1) → secθ · sec2 θ → sec3 θ

Guided Practice
Simplify the following trigonometric expressions.
π
1. cos 2— x cot x
sin(—x) cos x
2. tanx
3. cotx cos x
tan(—x) sin( π2 —x)
Answers
π
1. Use the Cotangent Identity and the Cofunction Identity cos 2
—θ = sinθ.
π cos x
cos 2— x cot x → sin x ·
sin x
→ cosx
2. Use the Negative Angle Identity and the Tangent Identity.
sin(—x) cos x
tan x → — sin sin
x cos x
x → — sin x cos x · cos x
sinx → — cos x
2
cosx

3. In this problem, you will use several identities.

cotx cos x cosx ·cos x cos2 x cos2 x 1 cos2 x 2
x→ → · —sinx → — sin2 x → —cot x
sin x
tan (—x) sin( π2 — x)
→ sin x
cosc
c c — sin x sinx
—c
cos
sin xx ·
c
Problem Set
Simplify the following expressions.

1. cot x sinx
2. cos2 x tan(—x)
cos(—x)
3. sin(—x)
4. secx cos( —x) — sin2 x
5. sin x(1 + cot2 x)
6. 1—sin2 π2 —x

108
 7. 1 — cos2 π2— x
8. ( 2 )
tan π —x sec x
1—csc2 x
9. cos2 x tan2( —x) —
1
cos2 x
10. cot2 x + sin2 x + cos2(—x)
secx sinx+cos( π —x)
11. 1+sin(—x)2
cos(—x)
12. 1
+sin(—x)
sin2(—x)
13. tan2 x
14. tan π2— x cot x — csc2 x
cscx(1—cos2 x)
15. sinx cos x

Verifying a Trigonometry Identity

Objective
Here you’ll use the basic trig identities to prove other identities.
Guidance
This concept continues where the previous one left off. Now that you are comfortable simplifying expressions, we
will extend the idea to verifying entire identities. Here are a few helpful hints to verify an identity:

• Change everything into terms of sine and cosine.

• Use the identities when you can.
• Start with simplifying the left-hand side of the equation, then, once you get stuck, simplify the right-hand side.
As long as the two sides end up with the same final expression, the identity is true.

Example A
cot2 x
Verify the identity cscx = cscx — sinx.
Solution: Rather than have an equal sign between the two sides of the equation, we will draw a vertical line so that
it is easier to see what we do to each side of the equation. Start with changing everything into sine and cosine.
cot2 x
csc x csc x — sin x
cos2 x
sin2 x 1
1 sinx — sin x
sin x
cos x
2

sinx
Now, it looks like we are at an impasse with the left-hand side. Let’s combine the right-hand side by giving them
same denominator.
1 sin2 x
sinx — sinx
1—sin2 x
sinx
cos2 x
sinx
The two sides reduce to the same expression, so we can conclude this is a valid identity. In the last step, we used the
Pythagorean Identity, sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, and isolated the cos2 x = 1 — sin2 x.
There are usually more than one way to verify a trig identity. When proving this identity in the first step, rather than
cos2 x
changing the cotangent to sin2 , we could have also substituted the identity cot x = csc x — 1.
2 2
x
Example B
sinx 1+cosx
Verify the identity 1—cos x
= sinx .

109
 1+cosx
Solution: Multiply the left-hand side of the equation by 1+cosx .

sin x
1 = 1 + cosx
— cosx sin x
1 + cosx sin x
· =
1 + cos x 1 — cosx
sin(1 + cos x)
=
1 — cos2 x
sin(1 + cos x)
=
sin2 x
1 + cosx
=
sinx

The two sides are the same, so we are done.

Example C
Verify the identity sec(—x) = secx.
Solution: Change secant to cosine.

1
sec( x) =
—
cos(—x)

From the Negative Angle Identities, we know that cos(—x) = cosx.

1
=
cosx
= secx

Guided Practice
Verify the following identities.
1. cosxsecx = 1
2. 2 — sec2 x = 1 — tan2 x
cos(—x)
3. +sin(—x) = secx + tanx
1
Answers
1. Change secant to cosine.

1
cosxsec x = cos ·
cos x
=1

2. Use the identity 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ.

2 — sec2 x = 2 — (1 + tan2 x)
= 2 — 1 — tan2 x
= 1 — tan2 x

110
 1+sinx
3. Here, start with the Negative Angle Identities and multiply the top and bottom by 1+sinx to make the denominator
a monomial.

cos(—x) cosx 1 + sinx

= ·
1 + sin(—x) 1 — sin x 1 + sin x
cosx (1 + sin x)
=
1 — sin2 x
cosx (1 + sin x)
=
cos2 x
1 + sinx
=
cosx
1 sinx
= +
cosx cosx
= secx + tanx

Problem Set
Verify the following identities.

1. cot( —x) = — cot x

2. csc( —x) = — cscx
3. tanxcscxcos x = 1
4. sinx + cosxcot x = cscx
5. csc π2 — x = sec x
6. tan π2 — x = tan x
7. cscx — cotx = 1
sinx tanx
8. tantan2 x+1
x
2
= sin2 x
9. (sin x — cosx)2 + (sin x + cos x)2 = 2
10. sinx2 — sinx cos2 x = sin3 1x+sinx
11. tan x + 1 + tanx sec x =
cos2 x
cscx cosx
12. cos2 x = tan
13. 1 1 x — 1 1 x = 2 tanx secx
x+cot x
—sin +sin
14. csc4 x — cot4 x = csc2 x + cot2 x
15. (sinx — tanx)(cosx — cotx) = (sinx — 1)(cosx — 1)

111
 2.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations

Objective
Here you’ll learn how to solve equations with trigonometric functions.
Review Queue
Solve the following equations.
1. x2 — 7x — 18 = 0
2. 9x4 — 16√= 0
3. sinx = 2 , 0 < x < π
2 2

Using Algebra

Objective
Here you’ll solve trig equations using algebra.
Guidance
In the previous concept, we verified trigonometric identities, which are true for every real value of x. In this concept,
we will solve trigonometric equations. An equation is only true for some values of x.
Example A
Verify that cscx — 2 = 0 when x = 5π
6.

Solution: Substitute in x = 5π
6 to see if the equations holds true.

5π
csc —2 = 0
6
1
— 2=0
sin 5π6
1
1 —2=0
2
2—2 = 0

This is a true statement, so x = 5π

6 is a solution to the equation.
Example B
Solve 2cosx + 1 = 0.
Solution: To solve this equation, we need to isolate cosx and then use inverse to find the values of x when the
equation is valid. You already did this to find the zeros in the graphing concepts earlier in this chapter.

112
 2cosx + 1 = 0
2 cos x = —1
1
cosx = —
2
So, when is the cosx = — 21 ? Between 0 ≤ x < 2π, x = 2π
3 and 4π
3 . But, the trig functions are periodic, so there are
2π 4π
more solutions than just these two. You can write the general solutions as x = 3 ± 2πn and x = 3 ± 2πn, where n
is any integer. You can check your answer graphically by graphing y = cosx and y = — 21 on the same set of axes.
Where the two lines intersect are the solutions.

Example C
Solve 5 tan(x + 2)— 1 = 0, where 0 ≤ x < 2π.
Solution: In this example, we have an interval where we want to find x. Therefore, at the end of the problem, we
will need to add or subtract π, the period of tangent, to find the correct solutions within our interval.

5tan(x + 2)— 1 = 0
5tan(x + 2) = 1
1
tan(x + 2) =
5
1
Using the tan—1 button on your calculator, we get that tan—1 5 = 0.1974. Therefore, we have:

x + 2 = 0.1974
x = —1.8026

This answer is not within our interval. To find the solutions in the interval, add π a couple of times until we have
found all of the solutions in [0, 2π].

x = —1.8026 + π = 1.3390
= 1.3390 + π = 4.4806

The two solutions are x = 1.3390 and 4.4806.

Guided Practice
√
1. Determine if x = π
3 is a solution for 2 sin x = 3.
Solve the following trig equations in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π.
2. 3cos2 x— 5 = 0

113
3. 3sec(x — 1) + 2 = 0
Answers
√ √ √
1. 2 sin π3 = 3 → 2 · 2 3 = 3 Yes, x = π3 is a solution.
2. Isolate the cos2 x and then take the square root of both sides. Don’t forget about the ±!

9cos2 x —5 = 0
9 cos2 x = 5
5
cos2 x =
9
√
5
cosx = ±
3
√
The cosx = 35 at x = 0.243 rad (use your graphing calculator). To find the other value where cosine is positive,
√ 2π, x = 2π — 0.243 = 6.037 rad.
subtract 0.243 from
The cosx = — 5 at x = 2.412 rad, which is in the 2nd quadrant. To find the other value where cosine is negative
3
(the 3rd quadrant), use the reference angle, 0.243, and add it to π. x = π + 0.243 = 3.383 rad.
3. Here, we will find the solution within the given range, 0 ≤ x < 2π.

3sec(x — 1) + 2 = 0
3 sec(x — 1) = —2
2
sec(x — 1) = —3
3
cos(x — 1) = —2

At this point, we can stop. The range of the cosine function is from 1 to -1. — 32 is outside of this range, so there is
no solution to this equation.
Problem Set
Determine if the following values for x. are solutions to the equation 5 + 6 csc x = 17.

1. x = — 7π
6
2. x = 11π
6
3. x = 5π
6

Solve the following trigonometric equations. If no solutions exist, write no solution.

4. 1 — cos x =
√0
5. 3tanx — 3 = 0
6. 4cosx = 2cosx + 1
7. 5sinx —2 = 2sinx + 4
8. sec x — 4 = — sec x
9. tan2(x — 2) = 3

Sole the following trigonometric equations within the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π. If no solutions exist, write no solution.

114
 10. cos√x = sinx
11. — 3cscx = 2
12. 6sin(x — 2) = 14
13. 7cosx — 4 = 1
14. 5 + 4cot2 x = 17
15. 2 sin2 x — 7 = —6

By Using Quadratic Techniques

Objective
Here you’ll solve trig equations by factoring and the Quadratic Formula.
Guidance
Another way to solve a trig equation is to use factoring or the quadratic formula. Let’s look at a couple of examples.
Example A
Solve sin2 x — 3sinx + 2 = 0.
Solution: This sine equation looks a lot like the quadratic x2 —3x + 2 = 0 which factors to be (x— 2)(x —1) = 0 and
the solutions are x = 2 and 1. We can factor the trig equation in the exact same manner. Instead of just x, we will
have sin x in the factors.

sin2 x — 3sinx + 2 = 0
(sinx — 2)(sinx — 1) = 0
sinx = 2 and sin x = 1

There is no solution for sinx = 2 and sin x = 1 when x = π2 ± 2πn.

Example B
√
Solve 1 — sin x = 3 cosx in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π.
Solution: To solve this equation, use the Pythagorean Identity sin2 x + cos2 x = 1. Solve for either cosine and
√
substitute into the equation. cos x = 1 — sin2 x

√ √
1 — sin x = 3· 1 — sin2 x
√
2
(1 — sin x)2 = 3 — 3 sin2 x
1 — 2sinx + sin2 x = 3 — 3sin2 x
4 sin2 x — 2 sin x — 2 = 0
2 sin2 x — sin x — 1 = 0
(2sinx + 1)(sinx — 1) = 0

Solving each factor for x, we get sinx = — 1 → x = 7π and 11π

and sin x = 1 → x = π .
2 6 6 2
Example C
Solve tan2 x — 5tanx — 9 = 0 in the interval 0 ≤ x < π.

115
Solution: This equation is not factorable so you have to use the Quadratic Formula.

q
5 ± (—5)2 — 4 (1)(—9)
tanx =
2
√
5 ± 61
=
2
≈ 6.41 and — 1.41

x ≈ tan—1 6.41 ≈ 1.416 rad and x ≈ tan—1 —1.41 ≈ —0.954 rad

The first answer is within the range, but the second is not. To adjust -0.954 to be within the range, we need to find
the answer in the second quadrant, π — 0.954 = 2.186 rad.
Guided Practice
Solve the following trig equations using any method in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π.
1. sin2 x cos x = cos x
2. sin2 x = 2sin(—x) + 1
3. 4 cos2 x — 2 cos x — 1 = 0
Answers
1. Put everything onto one side of the equation and factor out a cosine.

sin2 xcosx — cosx = 0

cosx(sin2 x — 1) = 0
cosx(sinx — 1)(sinx + 1) = 0

cos x = 0 sin x = 1 sin x = —1

π 3π π 3π
x = and x= x=
2 2 2 2

2. Recall that sin(—x) = —sinx from the Negative Angle Identities.

sin2 x = 2sin(—x) + 1
sin2 x = —2 sin x + 1
sin2 x + 2sinx + 1 = 0
(sin x + 1)2 = 0
sin x = —1
3π
x=
2

3. This quadratic is not factorable, so use the quadratic formula.

116
 √
2± 22 — 4 (4)(—1)
cosx = 2 (4)
√
2± 20
=
8
1 ± 2 √5
=
4

√ ! √ !
1+ 5 1— 5
x ≈ cos—1 x ≈ cos—1
4 4
≈ cos—1 0.8090 and ≈ cos—1 —0.3090
≈ 0.6283 ≈ 1.8850 (reference angle is π — 1.8850 ≈ 1.2570)

The other solutions in the range are x ≈ 2π — 0.6283 ≈ 5.6549 and x ≈ π + 1.2570 ≈ 4.3982.
Problem Set
Solve the following trig equations using any method. Find all solutions in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π. Round any
decimal answers to 4 decimal places.

1. 2 cos2 x — sinx — 1 = 0
2. 4sin2 x + 5 sinx + 1 = 0
3. 3tan2 x — tanx = 0
4. 2cos2 x+co√s(—x)—1 = 0
5. 1√—sin x = 2 cos x
6. sinx = 2sinx —1
7. sin3 x — sinx = 0
8. tan2 x — 8 tanx — 7 = 0
9. 5cos2 x + 3 cos x — 2 = 0
10. sinx — sinx cos2 x = 1
11. cos2 x — 3cos x — 2 = 0
12. sin2 xcos x = 4 cosx
13. cosxcsc2 x + 2cos x = 6 cosx

Using your graphing calculator, graph the following equations and determine the points of intersection in the interval
0 ≤ x < 2π.

14.

y = sin2 x
y = 2 sin x — 1

15.

y = 4 cos x — 3
y = —2 tan x

117
 2.4 Sum and Difference Formulas

Objective
To use and derive the sum and difference formulas.
Review Queue
Using your calculator, find the value of each trig function below. Round your answer to 4 decimal places.
1. sin75◦
2. cos 15◦
3. tan105◦
4. cos 255◦

Finding Exact Trig Values using Sum and Difference Formulas

Objective
Here you’ll use the sum and difference formulas to find exact values of angles other than the critical angles.
Guidance
√ √
You know that sin30◦ = 12,cos135◦ = — 2 2 ,tan300◦ = — 3, etc... from the special right triangles. In this concept,
we will learn how to find the exact values of the trig functions for angles other than these multiples of 30◦, 45◦, and
60◦. Using the Sum and Difference Formulas, we can find these exact trig values.
Sum and Difference Formulas

sin(a ± b) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b

cos(a ± b) = cos a cos b ∓ sin a sin b
tan a ± tan b
tan(a ±b) =
1 ∓ tanatanb
Example A
Find the exact value of sin75◦.
Solution: This is an example of where we can use the sine sum formula from above, sin(a + b) = sina cosb +
cosa sinb, where a = 45◦ and b = 30◦.

sin75◦ = sin(45◦ + 30◦)

= sin45◦ cos30◦ + cos45◦ sin30◦
√ √ √
2 3 2 1
= · + ·
2 2 2 2
√ √
6+ 2
=
4

118
In general, sin(a + b) /
= sina + sin b and similar statements can be made for the other sum and difference formulas.
Example B
Find the exact value of cos 11π
12 .
Solution: For this example, we could use either the sum or difference cosine formula, 11π = 2π + π or 11π = 7π — π .
12 3 4 12 6 4
Let’s use the sum formula.

11π 2π π
cos = cos +
12 3 4
2π π 2π π
= cos cos — sin sin
3√ 4 √ √3 4
1 2 3 2
=— · — ·
2 2 2 2
√ √
2+ 6
=—
4
Example C
π
Find the exact value of tan — 12 .
Solution: This angle is the difference between π
and π .
4 3

π π
π π tan 4 — tan 3
tan — =
4 3 1 + tan π4 tan π3
√
1— 3
= √
1+ 3
π
This angle is also the same as 23π
12 . You could have also used this value and done tan 4+ 3 and arrived at the same
5π

answer.
Guided Practice
Find the exact values of:
1. cos 15◦
2. tan255◦
Answers
1.
cos15◦ = cos(45◦ — 30◦)
= cos45◦ cos30◦ + sin45◦ sin30◦
√ √ √
2 3 2 1
= · + ·
2
√ 2
√ 2 2
6+ 2
=
4
2.
tan 210◦ + tan45◦
tan(210◦ + 45◦) =
1√— tan 210◦√tan 45◦ √
3
+1 3+3
3+3
3 3
= √ = √ = √
1 — 33 3—3 3 3 — 3

119
Vocabulary

Sum and Difference Formulas

sin(a ± b) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b

cos(a ± b) = cos a cos b ∓ sin a sin b
tan a ± tan b
tan(a ±b) =
1 ∓ tanatanb

Problem Set
Find the exact value of the following trig functions.

1. sin15◦
2. cos 5π
12
3. tan345◦
4. cos(—255◦)
5. sin 13π
12
6. sin 17π
12
7. cos15◦
8. tan(—15◦)
9. sin345◦
10. Now, use sin15◦ from #1, and find sin345◦. Do you arrive at the same answer? Why or why not?
11. Using cos 15◦ from #7, find cos165◦. What is another way you could find cos165◦?
12. Describe any patterns you see between the sine, cosine, and tangent of these “new” angles.
13. Using your calculator, find the sin142◦. Now, use the sum formula and your calculator to find the sin142◦
using 83◦ and 59◦.
14. Use the sine difference formula to find sin 142◦ with any two angles you choose. Do you arrive at the same
answer? Why or why not?
15. Challenge Using sin(a+b) = sin a cos b+cos a sin b and cos(a+b) = cos a cos b — sina sin b, show that tan(a+
b) = tana+tanb .
1—tan a tan b

Simplifying Trig Expressions using Sum and Difference Formulas

Objective
Here you’ll use the sum and difference formulas to simplify expressions.
Guidance
We can also use the sum and difference formulas to simplify trigonometric expressions.
Example A
The sina = —53 and cosb = 13
12
. a is in the 3rd quadrant and b is in the 1st. Find sin(a + b).
Solution: First, we need to find cosa and sinb. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, missing lengths are 4 and 5,
respectively. So, cosa = —54 because it is in the 3rd quadrant and sinb =135 . Now, use the appropriate formulas.

120
 sin(a + b) = sin a cosb + cos a sinb
3 12 4 5
= — · +— ·
5 13 5 13
56
=—
65

Example B
Using the information from Example A, find tan(a + b).
Solution: From the cosine and sine of a and b, we know that tana = 3 and tan b = 5
.
4 12

tana + tanb
tan(a + b) =
1 — tana tanb
3
+ 5
= 4 312 5
1 —4 · 12
14
12
56
= 11 =
16
33

Example C
Simplify cos(π — x).
Solution: Expand this using the difference formula and then simplify.

cos(π — x) = cosπcos x + sinπsin x

= —1 · cos x + 0 · sin x
= — cos x

Guided Practice
1. Using the information from Example A, find cos(a — b).
2. Simplify tan(x + π).
Answers
1.

cos(a — b) = cosa cosb + sinasinb

4 12 3 5
= — · +— ·
5 13 5 13
63
=—
65

2.
tan x + tanπ
tan(x + π) =
1 — tanx tanπ
tanx + 0
=
1 — tan 0
= tanx

121
Problem Set
sina = —178 ,π ≤ a < 23π and sinb = —21 , 23π ≤ b < 2π. Find the exact trig values of:

1. sin(a + b)
2. cos(a + b)
3. sin(a — b)
4. tan(a + b)
5. cos(a — b)
6. tan(a — b)

Simplify the following expressions.

7. sin(2π — x)
8. sin π2 + x
9. cos(x + π)
10. cos 3π2 —x
11. tan(x + 2π)
12. tan(x — π)
13. sin π6— x
14. tan π4 + x
15. cos x —π3

Determine if the following trig statements are true or false.

16. sin(π — x) = sin(x — π)

17. cos(π — x) = cos(x — π)
18. tan(π — x) = tan(x — π)

Solving Trig Equations using Sum and Difference Formulas

Objective
Here you’ll solve trig equations using the sum and difference formulas.
Guidance
Lastly, we can use the sum and difference formulas to solve trigonometric equations. For this concept, we will only
find solutions in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π.
Example A
√
Solve cos(x — π) = 22 .
Solution: Use the formula to simplify the left-hand side and then solve for x.

122
 √
2
cos(x — π) =
√2
cosxcosπ + sinx sinπ = 2
2
√
2
—cos x =
2
√
2
cosx = —
2
The cosine negative in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants. x = 3π
and 5π
.
4 4
Example B
π
Solve sin x + π + 1 = sin —x .
4 4
Solution:

π π
π sin x + 4π+ 1 = sin π 4— x π
sinxcos + cosxsin + 1 = sin cosx — x
cos sin
4 4 4 4
√ √ √ √
2 2 2 2
sin x · 2 + cosx · 2 + 1 = 2 . cos x — 2 · sin x
√
2sinx = —1
√
1 2
sinx = — √ =—
2 2
In the interval, x = 5π
and 7π
.
4 4
Example C
Solve 2sin x + π3 = tan π3 .
Solution:

π π
2 sin x +
= tan
3 3
π π √
2 sinx cos + cosx sin = 3
3 √
3
1 3 √
2 sin x · + 2 cos x · = 3
2 2
√ √
sinx + 3 cosx = 3
√
sinx = 3(1 — cosx)
sin2 x = 3(1 — 2cosx + cos2 x) square both sides
1 —cos x = 3 — 6cosx + 3cos x
2 2
substitute sin2 x = 1 — cos2 x
0 = 4cos2 x — 6cosx + 2
0 = 2cos2 x — 3cosx + 1

At this point, we can factor the equation to be (2 cosx — 1)(cosx — 1) = 0. cosx = 1 , and 1, so x = 0, π , 5π . Be
2 3 3
careful with these answers. When we check these solutions it turns out that 5π
3 does not work.

123
 5π π π
2 sin + = tan
3 3 √ 3
2sin2π = 3
√
0/
= 3

Therefore, 5π
3 is an extraneous solution.
Guided Practice
Solve the following equations in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π.
1. cos(2π — x) = 12
2. sin π6 — x + 1 = sin x + π6
3. cos π + x = tan π
2 4
Answers
1.
1
cos(2π — x) =
2
1
cos2πcosx + sin2πsin x =
2
1
cosx =
2
π 5π
x= and
3 3
2.
π π
sin — x + 1 = sin x +
6 6
π π π π
sin cosx — cos sinx + 1 = sinxcos + cosxsin
6 √6 √ 6 6
1 3 3 1
cosx — sinx + 1 = sinx + cosx
2 2 2 2
√
1 = 3 sinx
1
√ = sinx
3
1
x = sin —1 √ = 0.6155 and 2.5261 rad
3
3.
π π
cos + x = tan
2 4
π π
cos cosx — sin sinx = 1
2 2
— sin x = 1
sin x = —1
3π
x=
2
Problem Set
Solve the following trig equations in the interval 0 ≤ x < 2π.

124
 √
1. sin(x — π) = — 2
2
2. cos(2π +x) = —1
3. tan x + π4 = 1
4. sin π2 — x = 12
5. sin x + 3π4 + sin x — 3π4 =1
6. sin x + π6 = — sin x — π6
7. cos x + π6 = cos x — π6 + 1
8. cos x + π3 + cos x — π3 = 1
9. tan(x + π) + 2sin(x + π) = 0
10. tan( x + π) + cos x+ π2 = 0
11. tan x + π6 = tan x + π4
12. sin x — 5π3 — 2 sin x — 2π
3 =0
13. 4sin(x + π)— 2 = 2 cos x + π2
14. 1 + 2 cos(x — π) + cosx = 0
15. Real Life Application The height, h (in feet), of two people in different seats on a Ferris wheel can be modeled
by h1 = 50 cos6t + 46 and h2 = 50 cos6 t — π3 + 46 where t is the time (in minutes). When are the two people
at the same height?

125
 2.5 Double and Half Angle Formulas

Objective
You’ll learn how to use the double and half angle formulas.
Review Queue
Use your calculator to find the value of the trig functions below. Round your answers to 4 decimal places.
1. sin22.5◦
2. tan 157.5
Find the exact values of the trig expressions below.
3.
cos π4 + π4
4.
sin 2π3
— π4

Finding Exact Trig Values using Double and Half Angle Formulas

Objective
Here you’ll use the half and double angle formulas to find exact values of angles other than the critical angles.
Guidance
In the previous concept, we added two different angles together to find the exact values of trig functions. In this
concept, we will learn how to find the exact values of the trig functions for angles that are half or double of other
angles. Here we will introduce the Double-Angle (2a) and Half-Angle a2 Formulas.
Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas

cos2a = cos2 a — sin2 a sin2a = 2sinacos a

2 tan a
2 cos a 1
2
tan2a
= — =
1 — tan2 a
= 1 — sin2 a
r
a 1 — cosa a 1 — cosa
sin 2 = ± tan =
2 2 sina
r sin a
a 1 + cos a =
cos 2 = ± 2 1 + cosa

The signs of sin a and cos a depend on which quadrant a

lies in. For cos2a and tan a any formula can be used to
2 2 2 2
solve for the exact value.
Example A
Find the exact value of cos π8 .
Solution: π is half of π and in the first quadrant.
8 4

126
 r
1 π 1 + cos π
cos · = 4
2 4 2
s √
2
= 1+ 2

s 2
√
1 2+ 2
= ·
2 2
√ √
2+ 2
=
2

Example B
Find the exact value of sin2a if cosa = — 54 and 3π2 ≤ a < 2π.
Solution: To use the sine double-angle formula, we also need to find sina, which would be 35 because a is in the 4th
quadrant.

sin2a = 2sinacos a
3 4
= 2· ·—
5 5
24
=—
25

Example C
Find the exact value of tan 2a for a from Example B.
3
Solution: Use tan a = sina = 5 = — 3 to solve for tan2a.
cos a — 54 4

2 · — 34 3 3 16 24
tan2a = = —72 = — · = —
1 — —43
2 2 7 7
16

Guided Practice
1. Find the exact value of cos — 5π
8 .
2. cosa = and 0 ≤ a < . Find:
4 π
7 2
a) sin2a
b) tan a2
Answers
1. — 85π is in the 3rd quadrant.
s s s
√ √ √ √
— 8 = 2 — 5π 1 + cos — 5π
= — 1—
2
1 ·2 — 2 = 2 — 2
4 → cos 2 — 4 = — =
5π 1 1 5π 4 2
2 2 2 2 2
√ √
2. First, find sina. 42 + y2 = 72 → y = 33, so sina = 33
7
√ √
a) sin 2a = 2 · 733 · 74 = 8 4933

127
b) You can use either tan 2a formula.

√
a 1— 4 3 7 3 33
tan = √ 7 = ·√ = √ =
2 33 7 33 33 11
7

Vocabulary

Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas

cos2a = cos2 a — sin2 a sin2a = 2 sina cosa

2 tan a
2 cos2 a 1 tan 2a
= — =
1 — tan2 a
= 1 — sin2 a
r
a 1 — cos a a 1 — cosa
sin 2 = ± tan =
r 2 2 sina
a 1 + cos a sina
cos = ± =
2 2 1 + cosa
Problem Set
Find the exact value of the following angles.

1. sin105◦
2. tan π8
3. cos 5π
12
4. cos165◦
5. sin 3π
8
π
6.
7. tan — 12
11π
sin 8
8. cos 19π
12

The cosa = — 5 and 3π ≤ a < 2π. Find:

13 2

9. sin2a
10. cos a2
11. tan a2
12. cos2a
The sina = 8
and π
≤ a < π. Find:
11 2

13. tan2a
14. sin a2
15. cos a2
16. sin2a

Simplifying Trig Expressions using Double and Half Angle Formulas

Objective

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Here you’ll use the half and double angle formulas to simplify more complicated expressions.
Guidance
We can also use the double-angle and half-angle formulas to simplify trigonometric expressions.
Example A
Simplify sinx cos x .
cos2x

Solution: Use cos 2a = cos2 a — sin2 a and then factor.

cos 2x cos2 x — sin2 x

= sin x + cos x
sinx cosx ,
(cosx—sinx ) , (c,
o s,,,
x+sinx)
= ,,x
+,cos
sin,x,
,
= cos x — sin x

Example B
Find the formula for sin3x.
Solution: You will need to use the sum formula and the double-angle formula. sin3x = sin(2x + x)

sin3x = sin(2x + x)
= sin2xcosx + cos2xsinx
= 2sinxcosxcosx + sinx(2cos2 x — 1)
= 2sinxcos2 x + 2sinxcos2 x — sinx
= 4sinxcos2 x — sinx
= sinx(4cos2 x — 1)

We will explore other possibilities for the sin3x because of the different formulas for cos 2a in the Problem Set.
Example C
Verify the identity cosx + 2 sin2 2x = 1.
Solution: Simplify the left-hand side use the half-angle formula.

x
cosx + 2 sin2
2
r !2
cosx + 2 1 — cosx
2
1 — cosx
cosx + 2 ·
2
cos x + 1 — cos x
1

Guided Practice
1. Simplify sin2x
sinx .
2. Verify cosx + 2 cos2 x2 = 1 + 2 cosx.

129
Answers
1. sin2x
sinx
= 2sinx cos x
sinx
= 2 cosx
2.
x
cosx + 2 cos2 = 1 + 2 cosx
2
r 2
cosx + 2 1 + cos x =
2
cosx + 1 + cosx =
1 + 2cosx =

Problem Set
Simplify the following expressions.

√
1. cos22x+ 2 cosx cos x2
2. cos2 x
3. tan2x(1 + tan x)
4. cos2x — 3 sin2 x
5. 1+cos
cot x
2x

6. (1 + cos x)2 tan x2

Verify the following identities.

7. cot x2 = sinx
1—cos x
sin x = 1—cosx
8. 1+cos x sinx
sin2x = tanx
9. 1+cos 2x
10. (sinx + cosx) 2
= 1 + sin2x
11. sinx tan x + 2cosx = 2 cos2 x
2 2
12. cotx + tanx = 2csc2x
13. cos3x = 4cos3 x — 3cosx
14. cos3x = cos3 x — 3sin2 xcosx
15. sin2x — tanx = tanxcos2x
16. cos4 x — sin4 x = cos2x

Solving Trig Equations using Double and Half Angle Formulas

Objective
Here you’ll solve trig equations using the half and double angle formulas.
Guidance
Lastly, we can use the half and double angle formulas to solve trigonometric equations.
Example A
Solve tan2x + tanx = 0 when 0 ≤ x < 2π.
Solution: Change tan 2x and simplify.

130
 tan2x + tanx = 0
2 tan x
+tanx = 0
1 —tan2 x
2tanx + tanx(1 — tan2 x) = 0 → Multiply everything by 1 — tan2 x to eliminate denominator.
2tanx + tanx — tan3 x = 0
3tanx— tan3 x = 0
tanx(3 — tan2 x) = 0

Set each factor equal to zero and solve.

3— tan2 x = 0
2
— tan x = —3
tanx = 0 and tan2 x = 3
√
x = 0 and π tanx = ± 3
π
x = , 2π, 4π, 5π
3 3 3 3

Example B
Solve 2 cos x2 + 1 = 0 when 0 ≤ x < 2π.
Solution: In this case, you do not have to use the half-angle formula. Solve for x2.

x
2 cos + 1 = 0
2
x
2cos = —1
2
x 1
cos = —
2 2

Now, let’s find cos a = —21 and then solve for x by dividing by 2.

x 2π 4π
= ,
2 3 3
4π 8π
= ,
3 3

Now, the second solution is not in our range, so the only solution is x = 4π3 .
Example C
√
Solve 4 sinx cosx = 3 for 0 ≤ x < 2π.
Solution: Pull a 2 out of the left-hand side and use the sin2x formula.

131
 √
4 sinx cosx = 3
√
2 · 2 sin x cos x = 3
√
2 · sin 2x = √3
3
sin2x = 2
2x = π, 5π, 7π , 11π
3 3 3 3
π 5π 7π 11π
x= , , ,
6 6 6 6

Guided Practice
Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ x < 2π.
1. sin x2 = —1
2. cos2x— cosx = 0
Answers
1.
x
sin = —1
2
x 3π
=
2 2
x = 3π

From this we can see that there are no solutions within our interval.
2.

cos2x — cosx = 0
2 cos2 x — cos x — 1 = 0
(2cosx — 1)(cosx + 1) = 0

Set each factor equal to zero and solve.

2 cos x — 1 = 0
2cosx = 1 cosx + 1 = 0
1
cosx = and cos x = —1
2
π 5π
x= , x=π
3 3

Problem Set
Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ x < 2π.

1. cosx — cos 21 x = 0

132
 2. sin2xcosx = sinx
3. cos3x = cos3 x = 3 sin2 x cosx
4. tan2x — tanx = 0
5. cos2x —cosx = 0
x
6. 2cos2 2 = 1
7. tan 2x = 4
8. cos x2 = 1 + cosx
9. sin2x + sinx = 0
10. cos2 x = cos2x = 0
cos 2x
11. cos2 x = 1
12. cos2x — 1 = sin2 x
13. cos2x = cosx
14. sin2x — cos2x = 1
15. sin2 x — 2 = cos2x
16. cotx + tanx = 2csc2x

133
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