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INTRODUCTION

1. THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM

1.1.Definition of Phonetics and Phonology
1.2.The mechanisms of speech
1.2.1. Speech sounds
1.2.2. Speech organs
1.3.Classification of speech sounds

2. VOWELS
2.1.Description of vowels
2.2.Strong and Weak Forms

3. DIPHTHONGS

4. COMPARISON WITH SPANISH

5. CONCLUSION

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

0. INTRODUCTION
When we speak, we produce a succession of sounds arranged in groups, which we call words, and each
word has a definite meaning in the minds of the speakers of a language. But to somebody who does not
know that language, the words convey no meaning.
Just as each language has its own set of words, different from those of other languages; each language has
its own set of sounds. The list of all the different sounds used in that language is called its sound system.
The sound system of a language is peculiar to that language, and that no other language has the same
system.
The English phonological system is a rather complex topic since it entails many different aspects, which
differ from the Spanish language. For this reason, this issue will be dealt with from two different scopes:
• The first part will examine the English phonological system: to begin with, a distinction between
phonetics and phonology will be established; then, a brief analysis of the speech organs and the
mechanisms of speech will be provided
• The second part will go through the analysis of the English vowels and diphthongs.
• Finally, a contrastive analysis with Spanish will be done in a parallel way.

This study will be carried out from the perspective of relevant and influential phoneticians, such as Daniel
Jones or O’Connor who have provided a general but exhaustive framework of the English phonological
system.

1. THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM

1.1. Definition of Phonology and Phonetics
To begin with, a brief distinction between phonology and phonetics should be set forth in order to
determine which area of spoken English corresponds to each branch.

• Phonology deals with the study of the phonemes in a language system. Phonology studies the
phonic differences with difference in meaning and the rules according to which these are
combined to form significants. Its minimal unit, the phoneme (an abstract representation in the
speaker’s mind), is represented between slashes /…/ The phoneme is physically realized by one or
more allophones (different realizations of the same sound), represented in turn between square
brackets [ ] example [th] aspirated as in top [‘th ɒp] vs [t] unaspirated as in stop [‘stɒp]
• Phonetics deals with the study of how speech sounds are produced in a given language. They are,
in fact, the concrete sounds of a language. Phonetics do not take into account the relation they
have with meaning, thus, phonetic differences are phonologically irrelevant.
1.2. The mechanisms of speech
In this sense, when learning a foreign language, one should be conscious of the point and manner of
articulation of the speech sounds of that particular language, since they hardly ever coincide with one’s own
language. For example, Spanish has five distinct vowel sounds, whereas English has twelve. The learner of a
new language must, therefore, realize that he is dealing with quite new sounds, and he/she will have to put
their speech organs into positions which are not used in speaking their own language. In this sense, learning
a new set of sounds means forming a number of new habits.

1.2.1. Speech Sounds: How are speech sounds made?

We use mainly our tongue and mouth. However, much we change their shape and position, it is not sufficient
to produce any sound. What is needed is a stream of air is breathed out from the lungs. This stream of air,
when passing through the narrow spaces in the human throat and mouth, makes a sound. This sound is not
always the same; by modifying the shape of the passage through which the air passes when we speak, we can
make a number of different sounds. This process whereby speech sounds are produced can be divided into
three different physical stages:
• INITIATION: breathe in the air to produce the sound.
• PHONATION: the quality of the sound is made.
• ARTICULATION: the shaping of the sound is given.

1.2.2. Speech organs

As mentioned previously, speech organs are responsible, together with the stream of air breathe out from the
lungs, of the production of speech sounds. These can be classified according to whether they are movable or
fixed. The movable organs can act independently and their movements can be combined in different ways.
Consequently, it is possible to make a very large number of different speech sounds. Each organ of speech
contributes to the formation of speech sounds:
• Lungs are like two bags, which can be enlarged and compressed by the muscles of the chest. This
happens when we breathe, as a result, the air is drawn in and forced out through the tube known as
the windpipe. It is this stream of air used when we speak.

• Larynx: the first point where it is possible to modify the air stream is at the top of the windpipe,
which ends in the larynx. Inside the larynx we can find the so-called vocal cords. The vocal cords
can take up several positions, and in this way affect speech sounds:
1. When the vocal chords are apart, leaving space for the stream of air to pass through without any
obstruction, they produce voiceless sounds.
2. When the vocal cords are brought together in such a way that the air, forcing its way through them
in rhythmical puffs, they produce voiceless sounds
3. Whisper: the position of the vocal cords take a position which gives rise to whisper.
4. Glottal stop: the vocal chords can be brought into complete contact so that the air is entirely
stopped for a moment. It sounds like a cough.

• Soft palate (velum): it can take up two positions;

Raised: when the palate is raised, all the air from the windpipe escapes through the mouth, giving
rise to oral sounds.
Lowered: when the passage to the nose is open, the air can escape either entirely through the nose (if
the mouth passage is closed), or through the nose and mouth. The lowering of the soft palate gives
rise to nasal or nasalized sounds.

• The tongue is capable of making many movements, thus modifying the stream of air. It plays the
chief part in the formation of vowel sounds, since according to the part of the tongue raised, vowels
can be front, back or central.

• The lips can articulate sounds themselves, and their movement can be combined with that of other
organs of speech in the formation of both consonants and vowels. They can take up four positions:
Wide open /a/ of /h/.
Brought into contact so that the air is completely stopped for a moment and then released /p/.
Brought close together, so that the air pushes itself through, making friction.
• Vibrate.
1.3. Classification of speech sounds
Speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants, the main difference is that vowels are those sounds
which have most carrying power.
• Vowel is a voiced sound in the pronunciation of which the air passes through the speech organs in a
continuous stream, there being no obstruction and no narrowing.
• Consonant is a voiced or voiceless sound in the pronunciation, in which there is either a complete or
a partial obstruction.
For the purpose of recording speech sounds, it is necessary to make use of a phonetic alphabet, based on the
principle of one letter per phoneme. Without such an alphabet, an accurate description and record of speech
sounds would be clumsy and liable to misinterpretation.
Various phonetic alphabetic are in use. Yet, the most widely accepted alphabet is the International Phonetic
Alphabet, or IPA. As a matter of fact, over the course of this unit, this alphabet will be used for the record of
vowels.

2. VOWELS
For the sake of identifying and describing vowels, two criteria will be mentioned:
• Part of the tongue raised: according to this criteria, vowels can be front, back and central.
• Degree of raising which takes place: this criteria classifies vowels as close, halfclose, open and
half-open.
These are the most common criteria used in the classification of vowels. However, they can also be
categorized according to the following criteria:

• Tension: it has to do with the degree of tension in the muscles, these can be tense and lax

• Vowel length: classifies vowels according to QUANTITY

1. Short
2. Long

• Vowel strength: classifies vowels according to QUALITY

1. Weak
2. Strong

• Lip position: It refers to whether the lips are

1. Rounded
2. Unrounded

• Nasalization: it has to do with whether the velum is;

1. Raised: the vowel is oral
2. Lowered: the vowel is nasal

2.1. Description of vowels

English, unlike Spanish, has 12 vocalic sounds. For the sake of clarity and economy, they will be referred to
with numbers according to IPA.

Vowel number 1, /i:/

• Front, close vowel. Long. Lips spread to neutral.
• Its length is the most important feature to remember about this vowel (LONG).
• SPELLING: -i (police)
-ey (key)
-e (previous)
-ie (cities)
-ee (meet)
-ea (deal)
-ei (cheif)
Vowel n. 2, /i/
• Front vowel, nearer half close. Short. Spread lips.
• Vowel n.1 is the so-called tense vowel, but n.2 is lax.
• SPELLING: -i in middle (pity) MOST COMMON
-y in end (pity)
ending -age, -ate, -est

Vowel n.3, /e/

• Front vowel, half way between half-open and half-close position. Short. Spread lips.
• SPELLING: -e (pen) MOST COMMON
-ea (dead)
(friend, said, bury) OCCASIONAL SPELLING

Vowel n.4, /æ/

• Front vowel, between half-open and open. Short. Spread lips.
• SPELLING: -a (back) MOST COMMON)
-ai (plaid)

Vowel n.5, /a:/

• Almost a back vowel, open. Long. Neutral lips.
• SPELLING: -ar (arm) MOST COMMON
(calf, aunt) LESS COMMON

Vowel n.6, /o/

• Back and open vowel. Short. Lips are rounded.
• SPELLING: -o (boss)
-wa/qua (wander, quality)
-au (because)
(cough, yatch) LESS COMMON

Vowel n.7, /o:/

• Back vowel, half open. Long. Rounded lips.
• SPELLING: -or (sport)
-oar (board)
-our (course)
-oor (door)
-al (fall)
-alk (walk)
-aw (law)
-ought (bought) LESS COMMON

Vowel n.8, /u/

• Back vowel, half close. Short. Rounded lips.
• SPELLING: -oo (good)
-ook (took)
(put, sugar, push)
-oul (would)

Vowel n.9, /u:/

• Back vowel, close, long and rounded.
• SPELLING: -oo(food) MOST COMMON
(soup, blue, fruit)

Vowel n.10, /^/

• Central vowel, just below half open. Short. Neutral lip position.
• SPELLING: -u (but) COMMONEST
 -o (cover)
-ou (country)

Vowel n. 11, /3:/

• Central vowel, below the half close. Long. Neutral lip position.
• SPELLING: -er (mercy)
-ir (shirt)
-ur (burn)
-ere (were)
-or (word)
-ear (learn)
-yr (myrrh)
– our (journey)

Vowel n. 12, /ə/

• UNSTRESSED /WEAK VOWEL. VERY SHORT. CENTRAL OR NEUTRAL. LAX.
• Short version of n.11 but unestressed
• SPELLING: subdue [səb’dju:], miracle [‘mirəkl] or doctor [‘doktə].

2.2. Strong and Weak Forms

The pronunciation of words uttered in isolation differs from that in speech chains. In speech, form words,
such as prepositions, conjunctions, articles, pronouns and auxiliary verbs are usually pronounced with a
weak sound because they do not normally carry the stress in the sentence. However, they can have a strong
pattern depending in the context, for example, for emphasis (You MUST do it)

3. DIPHTHONG
A diphthong is a vowel, which changes its quality in the course of its production; it begins as one vowel and
ends as another. There are 9 falling diphthongs in English, the first element being louder than the second.
Hence, a diphthong is a gliding sound: the tongue starts in one vowel position and glides towards another
vowel position by the most direct route. A diphthong is made by one impulse of the breath. However, this
glide is not usually completed, unlike Spanish.
English diphthongs are usually written phonetically with two letters, the first representing the starting point
of the tongue, and the second the direction in which it moves.
Diphthongs can be CLOSING or CENTRING, depending on the final movement of the glide:
• Closing: /ai, ei, oi, əu, au/
• Centring: /iə, eə, uə, oə/

Diphthong n. 13, /ei/

• The tongue starts in position of vowel n.3 and moves towards position of vowel n.2
• Narrow: the movement is through a very small distance.
• SPELLING: -a (safe, face, pale)
– ea (break, steak)
-French origin words ending in -et (bouquet)

Dipththong n.14, /əu/

• It begins with a sound approximately midway between the half-close and the half-open positions of
the tongue, and it moves from there towards the position for vowel n. 8, /u/.
• The lip position during the fist part of the diphthong is neutral; there is some slight rounding as the
sound proceeds and the tongue gets near to vowel n.8.
• SPELLING: -o (go, hole)
(oat, dough)
French imitation (depot, mauve)

Diphthong n. 15, /ai/

• It begins with an open vowel, somewhere between n.4 and n.5, and it moves towards n.2. It is
unrounded.
 • SPELLING: -i (kind)
-ie (lie)
-y (try)
-igh (high)

Diphthong n.16, /au/

• It starts as an open vowel at a point a little in advance of vowel n.5 /a:/ and roughly half-way
between n.4 and n.5, and it moves in the direction of vowel n.8, /u/. The lips to begin with are
neutral, but become somewhat rounded as the sound proceeds.
• SPELLING: - ow (cow, allow)
-ou (mouse, sound)

Diphthong n.17, /oi/

• It starts at midway, or a little above midway, between vowel n.5 and n.6, and it moves towards the
position of vowel n.2. The lips are rounded at the very beginning, but quickly move towards the
spread position.
• SPELLING: -oi (choice, spoil)
-oy (joy, boy)

Diphthong n.18, /iə/

• The glide starts in vowel n.2 and moves to vowel n.12. It is unrounded.
• SPELLING: -ier (pier, frontier)
-eer (engineer)
-ere (here)
-ea (idea, real)
-ear (clear, gear)

Diphthong n.19, /eə/

• It begins with a half-open front vowel n.3, and moves to n.12 /ə/. It is unrounded.
• SPELLING: -are (care, share)
- air (chair, fair)
- ere (there, heir)

Diphthong n.20, /oə/

• It starts at vowel n.8 and moves to n.12, /ə/. The lips at first are rounded, but soon move to the
neutral position.
• SPELLING: -oor (moor, poor)
-our (tour, your)
-ur (e) (pure, cure)

Diphthong n.21, /uə//oə/

• the tongue starts a little below /o/ position and moves towards the neutral /ə/.
• SPELLING: It is the sound in pure or your

5. COMPARISON WITH SPANISH

If we closely analyze and compare the sound systems of English and Spanish, several differences will stand
out. Some differences have already been put forward along this study. Yet, a deeper contrastive analysis will
help Spanish native speakers understand the English phonological system better.
1. As for the vowels, Spanish has a smaller range of vowels phonetically speaking (5 vowels, whereas
English has 12). Moreover, there are no half-close / open vowels. The most important thing is that
Spanish vowels lack quantity; there are no long or short vowels in our language.
2. Regarding diphthongs, Spanish diphthongs can be falling or rising, and the glide is completed. On
the contrary, English diphthongs are falling and the glide is not completed. The number of
diphthongs in both languages is not the same either. While there are eight or nine in English, Spanish
has fourteen. What is more, Spanish diphthongs must always include one of the two closed vowels
/i/ or /u/, either in initial or in final position, while there are English diphthongs that do not glide
 towards any of these two sounds (closing diphthongs), as they guide towards with the English
Schwa: /iə/, /εə/, /oə/, /uə/. .

6. CONCLUSION
This study set out to provide a systematic account of the main features of the English phonological system,
paying special attention to the identification and description of vowels and diphthongs. This paper also
explores the main differences between the English and the Spanish sound systems.
Over the years, phonology has played many different roles in the English language-teaching classroom, from
a virtually non-existent role in the traditional grammar translation method to being the focus of the audio-
lingual method through its emphasis on minimal pairs, phonemes, drills and dialogue work.

It is a field of study which, although much research has been done on it, continues developing in association
with sociolinguistics; the different pronunciation of the vowels and consonants gives rise to the different
dialects. Students should be exposed to different variations of the language because RP is not spoken that
much, not even on TV as it was previously done.
This is a very complex field for Spanish students since they have to recognize and master a number of
sounds, which are strange to them. In this sense, special attention should be paid to listening, recognizing and
practising those particular sounds in context. Many and varied activities can be exploited in the second
language lesson, which range from recognizing individual sounds to working with songs.

The current emphasis on pronunciation teaching is on the broader phonological aspects of connected speech,
and their link to meaning on discourse level, and has resulted in renewed interest in the place of
pronunciation in communicative language teaching. It is this holistic, integrated approach to pronunciation
teaching, through focus on the suprasegmental aspects of phonology that linguists and teachers find
particularly interesting.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

ABERCROMBIE, D. Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1980.

BALL, M.J.- RAHILLY, J. Phonetics: The Science of Speech. London: Arnold Publishers, 1999.

JONES, D. An Outline of English Phonetics. London: Heffer, 1967.

O' CONNOR, J.D. Phonetics. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books (Pelican), 1997, 1982.

ROGERS, H. The Sounds of Language. An Introduction to Phonetics. London: Longman (Learning about
Language), 2000.

DICTIONARIES

CRYSTAL, D. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers (The Language
Library), 4th Edition, 5th Edition, 2002.