Higher Technology Institute

Electronics And Communications Engineering

Measurements and Instrumentations

EEC213 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentations
Lectures 5 : Analog Electronic Instruments

Dr. Ramez Hosny

 References

David A. Bell “Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements”, Oxford Higher

Education/Oxford University press, third edition, 2013.
Chapter 5: Analog Electronic Instruments
 Outlines
Analog Electronic Instruments
1. Transistor Voltmeter Circuits
− Emitter-follower Voltmeters
− Practical emitter-follower Voltmeter
2. Operational Amplifier Voltmeter Circuits
− Op-amp Voltage-follower Voltmeter
− Op-amp Amplifier Voltmeter
3. Ohmmeter Function in Electronic Instruments
− Series Ohmmeter
4. AC Electronic Voltmeters
− Op-amp Half-wave Rectifier Voltmeter
5. Current Measurement with Electronic Voltmeter
 Introduction
Voltmeters constructed of moving-coil instruments and multiplier resistors
have some important limitations:
◦ They cannot measure very low voltages.
◦ Their resistance is too low for measurements in high-impedance circuit.

 These restrictions are overcome by the use of electronic circuits that offer:
◦ high input resistance
◦ amplify low voltages to measurable levels.
 When such circuits are used, the instrument becomes an Electronic Voltmeter.

Electronic Voltmeter can be analog instruments, in which the measurement is indicated

by a pointer moving over a calibrated scale, or digital instruments, which display the
measurement in numerical form.
 Transistor Voltmeter Circuits
Emitter-follower Voltmeters

 Voltmeter loading can be greatly reduced

by using a BJT emitter follower.

 An emitter follower offers a high input

resistance to voltages being measured, and
provides a low output resistance to drive current
through the coil of a deflection meter
 Emitter-follower Voltmeters

 The basic emitter-follower voltmeter circuit in

shown figure shows a PMMC instrument and
a multiplier resistance Rs connected in series
with BJT emitter.

 The (+) terminal of the voltage to be measured (E)

is applied to the BJT base, and its (−) terminal is
connected to the (−) terminal of the power supply.
 Emitter-follower Voltmeters

 The transistor base current IB is lower than

the meter current Im.
Im
IB =
hFE
 Where hFE is the BJT current gain. Thus, the circuit
input resistance is:

Ri = E
IB

 Which is much larger than the meter circuit

resistance (Rs+ Rm).
 Emitter-follower Voltmeters
Example 1:
The simple emitter-follower voltmeter circuit in shown Fig.
has Vcc= 20V, (Rs +Rm)= 9.3 kΩ, Im= 1 mA at full scale, and
hFE =100 for the transistor. Calculate:
(a) The meter current when E = 10V
(b) The voltmeter input resistance with and without the
transistor.
Solution:
(a) ⸪ VE = E - VBE =10 - 0.7 = 9.3 V
⸫ VE = Im (Rs +Rm)
9.3 = Im (9.3x103)
Im = 1 mA
 Continue of Example1
(b) Ri With Transistor: Ri Without Transistor:
Ri = IE Ri = Rs+ Rm = 9.3 kΩ
B

Im 1𝑚𝐴
⸪ IB = = 100 = l0μA
hFE

E 10
⸫ Ri = = = 1MΩ
IB 10μA
 When E= 5V in the circuit in example 1, the meter should indicate half of full scale 0.5 mA.
However, as a simple calculation shows, the meter current is actually 0.46mA.
⸫ VBE introduces an error in the measurement. The error can be eliminated by using
a voltage divider and an additional emitter follower.
 Practical emitter-follower Voltmeter
 When input E = 0 is applied to Q1 base,
The meter circuit voltage is:
V = VEl − VE2
= (E − VBEl) − VE2
= (0V − 0.7V) − (− 0.7V) = 0V ….the base
voltage of Q2 is adjusted to give zero meter
current. So, VB2 = 0V

 When input E= 5V is applied to Q1 base.

The meter circuit voltage is:
V = VEl − VE2
= (E − VBEl) − VE2
= (5V − 0.7V) − (− 0.7V) = 5V
 Practical emitter-follower Voltmeter
Example 2: An emitter-follower voltmeter circuit as in shown Fig. has R2= R3= 3.9 kΩ and VEE= ±12V.
(a) Determine I2 and I3 when E= 0 V.
(b) Calculate the meter circuit voltage V when E = 1V. and when E = 0.5V
Solution:
(a) VR2 = VE1− (−VEE)
VR3 = VE2− (−VEE)
⸫ VR2 = VR3 ............. & ⸪ R2= R3

⸫ I= VR2 = VR3
R2 I R3 = R2 R3
0− 0.7−(−12)
= = 2.9 mA
3.9 X 1000

(b) When E = 1V
V = VE1 − VE2
= 1− 0.7 − (0− 0.7) = 1V
 Similarly, it can be prove that When E = 0.5 the meter circuit voltage V= 0.5 V Voltmeter Range Changing ???
 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter Circuits
Op-amp Voltage-follower Voltmeter

The input voltage EB is applied to non- inverting

input of the op-amp, and the feedback output goes to
the inverting input.

 The very high internal voltage gain of the op-amp ≫

(+) terminal voltage = (-) terminal voltage

⸫ Output voltage V0 exactly follows EB

Vo = Im(Rm+ Rs)

 The attenuator stage selects the voltmeter range.

 Op-amp Voltage-follower Voltmeter
Example 3: An op-amp voltage-follower voltmeter, as in shown Fig. has Ra= 800 kΩ,
Rb=100kΩ, Rc= 60 kΩ, and Rd= 40 kΩ. A 50 µA meter is used with a resistance of Rm=750 Ω.
Determine the resistance for Rs to give FSD when E=10V and the range switch is as illustrated.
Solution:
Rc+Rd
EB= E ( )
Ra+Rb+Rc+Rd
60+40
= 10 x ( ) = 1V
800+100+60+40

Vo = Im(Rm+ Rs)
1 = 50 x10-6 (750+ Rs )
1
Rs = (50 x10−6) − 750
=19.25 kΩ
 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter
 Like a transistor amplifier, an IC op-amp circuit can be
used to amplify low input voltages to a level suitable for
detection meter circuit. See Fig.

– Input voltage E is applied to the (+) input op-amp

– Output voltage is divided across R3 & R4
– VR3 is fed back to the (-) input op-amp terminal

 The output voltage is:

R +R
Vout = E ( 3R 4)
3
 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter
Example 4: An op-amp voltmeter circuit as shown in Fig. is required to measure a maximum input of 20 mV.
The op-amp input current is 0.2 μA, I4 =200 μA and the meter circuit has Im = 100 μA at FSD and Rm = 10 kΩ.
Determine suitable resistance values for R3 and R4 .
Solution:
⸪ E =VR3 =20 mV
⸫ I4 = I3 = E
R3
200x10-6 = 20mV &…. R3 =100 Ω
R3
Vout = Im Rm = 100x10-6x10 x 103 =1 V
E ( R3+R4)
Vout = R3
1= 20x10-3(100+R4) &…. R4 = 4.9 kΩ
100
 Ohmmeter Function in Electronic Instruments
Series Ohmmeter:
 A series ohmmeter circuit uses the electronic
voltmeter on a 1.5 V range.

 The unknown resistance is connected across

terminals A&B, so that the voltmeter input E
is the voltage drop across Rx. (a) Series Ohmmeter for electronic instrument

 This circuit is similar to the series ohmmeter

in above lec. except that the voltage drop
across Rx is measured instead of its current.
(b) Ohmmeter scale for electronic instrument
 Series Ohmmeter
 At Rx = ∞ or open circuit, the voltmeter indicate full scale
defection E = EB =1.5 V. The pointer is
at the right-hand side of the scale.

 At Rx = 0Ω or shorted circuit, since E = 0V, no defection

is observed. The pointer is at the left-hand side of the
scale.
Rx
 At Rx= R1=1 kΩ & ⸪ E = EB R +Rx
1 (a) Series Ohmmeter for electronic instrument
⸫ E = (1) EB = (50% defection)
2
the pointer indicates half-scale.
 Thus if Rx = R1, half scale will be indicated, and the
center of the resistance scale is marked 1.
(b) Ohmmeter scale for electronic instrument
 Series Ohmmeter
 Now suppose that ∞Ω > Rx > 0Ω is connected to
terminals A & B.
 The battery voltage (EB ) is divided across R1 and Rx,
giving
Rx
E = EB ( )
R1+ Rx
 A battery voltage slightly larger or slightly smaller than (a) Series Ohmmeter for electronic instrument
this is easily taken care of by including an adjustable
resistance (Rs) in series with the deflection meter.

 If E=1.4V, Rs is adjusted to give FSD for 1.4V when A&B

are open circuited.
(b) Ohmmeter scale for electronic instrument
Example 5: For the electronic ohmmeter in the following figure, determine the resistance scale
marking at 1 & 2 of full scale. [E= (1) E B & E = (2)E B]
3 3 3 3
Solution:
At 1/3 of full scale:
Rx
⸪ E = EB
R1+Rx
Rx
(1/3) EB = EB
R1+Rx
Rx = 1 R1
2
At 2/3 of full scale:
Rx
(2/3) EB = EB
R1+Rx
Rx = 2R1
 Conclusion
 The unknown resistance can be measured only after both adjustments have been
made:
−First, the voltmeter must be zeroed electrically when terminals A & B are short-
circuited.
−Second, the resistance calibration control must be adjusted to give FSD when the
terminals are open-circuited.
 AC Electronic Voltmeters
Op-amp Half-wave Rectifier Voltmeter
 Connecting a rectifier in series with the meter
circuit of this instrument, converts it into a half-
wave rectifier voltmeter.

 The output from the voltage-follower is exactly

the same as the input.

 So the voltage fed to the meter circuit is simply

a half-wave-rectified version of the input
voltage EB from the attenuator.

 The coupling capacitor (C1) is usually provided

at the input of an ac voltmeter to block
unwanted dc voltages.
 Precision Op-amp Half-wave Rectifier Voltmeter

Example 6: The half-wave rectifier electronic voltmeter in shown Fig. uses a 500 µA deflection
meter with a 460Ω coil resistance. If Rs = 450Ω, calculate the rms input voltage(EB) required to
give FSD. (Average meter current = 1𝜋 I peak = 0.318 Ipeak)
Solution:
Vo(peak) = Im (Rm+Rs)
= 500 x10−6 (460+450) = 1.43V
0.318
0.707 0.707𝑋1.43
EB(rms) = Vo(peak) = = 505 mV
2 2
 Current Measurement with Electronic Voltmeter
Voltmeter and Shunt
 Recall that the two reasons for introducing electronic
devices into voltmeters are:
(1) to produce a very high input resistance
(2) to amplify very small voltages to measurable levels.

– Item 1 does not apply in the case of current

measurement? ammeters should normally have the
lowest possible resistance.
– Item 2 can apply in the case of very low current levels.

 The basic circuit of an analog electronic ammeter for

measurement of very low currents is shown in Fig An electronic voltmeter can be used for current measurement
by measuring the voltage drop across a shunt ( Rs). The
instrument scale is calibrated to indicate current.
 Current Measurement with Electronic Voltmeter
Voltmeter and Shunt

 The small voltage drop across shunt resistor Rs is

amplified before being applied to the deflection
instrument.

• Vo = Im (Rm + R3) ………& Im = IR

VR3
• R3 = ………………& VR3 = IS RS
Im

An electronic voltmeter can be used for current measurement

by measuring the voltage drop across a shunt ( Rs). The
instrument scale is calibrated to indicate current.
 Example
The circuit in shown figure uses a 1kΩ shunt resistor and has a 100 µA PMMC meter
with a 5 kΩ coil resistance. Determine a suitable resistance for R3 to give FSD on the
meter for a 20 µA current through the shunt.

Solution:
VR3 = IS RS = 20 µAx1 kΩ = 20mV
IR3 = Im = 100 µA

20mV
R3 = = 200Ω
100µA
 Multi-meter Probes ?????

End of Lecture
With Best Wishes