UNIT 5

A) Working Principle of Voltmeter and Types of Voltmeter

 Voltmeter Definition: A voltmeter is defined as an instrument that measures the voltage
between two points in an electrical circuit.
 Working Principle of Voltmeter: Voltmeters work by connecting in parallel to the circuit,
using high resistance to measure voltage without significantly altering the circuit.
 Types of Voltmeters: Voltmeters come in various types including PMMC, MI,
Electrodynamometer, Rectifier, Digital, and Electrostatic voltmeters.
 PMMC Voltmeter: Uses a permanent magnet and moving coil to measure DC voltage with
high accuracy and low power consumption.
 Digital Voltmeter (DVM): Measures voltage digitally, providing accurate, fast readings
and eliminating parallax error.

What is Voltmeter?
Voltmeter is a voltage meter. Which measures the voltage between the two nodes. We know the
unit of potential difference is volts. So it is a measuring instrument which measures the potential
difference between the two points.
Working Principle of Voltmeter
The working principle of a voltmeter is that it must be connected in parallel to the circuit where
the voltage is measured. This is because a voltmeter has very high resistance. If connected in
series, it would nearly stop the current flow, acting like an open circuit.

If it is connected in parallel, than the load impedance comes parallel with the high resistance of
the voltmeter and hence the combination will give almost the same the impedance that the load
had. Also in parallel circuit we know that the voltage is same so the voltage between the
voltmeter and the load is almost same and hence voltmeter measures the voltage.
An ideal voltmeter would have infinite resistance and draw no current, leading to no power loss.
However, infinite resistance is not practically achievable.
Classification or Types of Voltmeter
According to the construction principle, we have different types of voltmeters, they are mainly –
1. Parmanent Magnet Moving coil (PMMC) Voltmeter.
2. Moving Iron (MI) Voltmeter.
3. Electro Dynamometer Type Voltmeter.
4. Rectifier Type Voltmeter
5. Induction Type Voltmeter.
6. Electrostatic Type Voltmeter.
7. Digital Voltmeter (DVM).

PMMC Voltmeter
When current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the
conductor, if it is attached to a moving system, with the coil movement, the pointer moves over
the scale.
PMMC instruments have parmanent magnets. It is suited for DC measurement because here
deflection is proportional to the voltage because resistance is constant for a material of the meter
and hence if voltage polarity is reversed, deflection of the pointer will also be reversed so it is
used only for DC measurement. This type of instrument is called D’Arnsonval type instrument. It
has advantages of having linear scale, power consumption is low, high accuracy.

MI Voltmeter
MI instruments mean moving iron instrument. It is used for both AC and DC measurements,
because the deflection θ proportional square of the voltage assuming impedance of the meter to
be constant, so what ever is polarity of the voltage, it shows directional deflection, further they
are classified in two more ways,
1. Attraction type.
2. Repulsion type.

Electrodynamometer Type Voltmeter

Electrodynamometer instruments are used because they maintain the same calibration for both
AC and DC measurements. Once calibrated with DC, they can measure AC without
recalibration.
e have two coils, fixed and moving coils. If a voltage is applied at the two coils as a result of
which current flows two coils it will stay in the zero position due to the development of equal
and opposite torque. If the direction of one torque is reversed as the current in the coil reverses,
an undirectional torque is produced.
For voltmeter, the connection is a parallel one and both fixed and moving coils are connected in
series with non-inductive resistance.
  Digital Voltmeters (DVM)

Digital Voltmeters (DVM) Principle

The Digital Voltmeter is an instrument which can give the output voltage not by deflection but
directly indicating the value. It is a very good instrument to measure the voltage as it eliminates
completely the error due to parallax, approximation in measurement, high-speed reading can be
done and it can also be stored in memory for further analysis. The main principle is that the value
is measured by the same circuit arrangement but that value is not used to deflect the pointer, but
it is fed to the analog to digital converter and displayed as the digital value.

Electrostatic Instruments
Electrostatic Instruments Principle
When electric field created by the charged particles are allowed to act on the conductors which is
charged by the current, a deflecting torque is produced. This can be done by using-
1. Two electrodes which are oppositely charged in which one of them is fixed and the other
is movable.
2. Force between two electrodes which causes rotary motion of the moving electrode.

B) Ammeter Working Principle and Types of Ammeter

 Ammeter Definition: An ammeter is defined as a device that measures the electric current
in a circuit in amperes.
 Working Principle of Ammeter: Ammeters must have low resistance and inductive
reactance to minimize voltage drop and power loss, and they are connected in series to
measure current accurately.
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Ammeter: This type of ammeter uses
permanent magnets and is best for measuring DC currents due to its high accuracy and
linear scale.
 Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter: MI ammeters can measure both AC and DC currents using
the magnetic attraction or repulsion principle, making them versatile for different types of
current.
 Electrodynamometer Type Ammeter: These ammeters can measure both AC and DC
without recalibration, using fixed and moving coils to produce unidirectional torque.
Introduction of Ammeter
A meter is an instrument used to measure specific quantities. An ammeter, short for ampere-
meter, measures the current in amperes. Since ampere is the unit of current, an ammeter is an
instrument designed to measure electric current.
Working Principle of Ammeter
The working principle of an ammeter is that it must have very low resistance and inductive
reactance. This low impedance is essential to minimize voltage drop and power loss. Ammeters
are connected in series because the current remains the same in a series circuit, ensuring accurate
measurements.Because of its low impedance, the power loss in an ammeter is minimal.
Connecting it in parallel would create a short circuit, causing all the current to flow through the
ammeter, which could burn out the instrument. Therefore, ammeters must be connected in series.
Ideally, an ammeter should have zero impedance for zero voltage drop and no power loss, but
this is not practical.

Classification or Types of Ammeter

Depending on the constructing principle, there are many types of ammeter we get, they are
mainly –

1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil(PMMC) ammeter.

2. Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter.
3. Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
4. Rectifier type Ammeter.

Description of Different Types of Ammeters

PMMC Ammeter

When current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the
conductor, if it is attached to a moving system, with the coil movement, the pointer moves over
the scale.
Explanation: As the name suggests it has permanent magnets which are employed in this kind of
measuring instruments. It is particularly suited for DC measurement because here deflection is
proportional to the current and hence if current direction is reversed, deflection of the pointer
 will also be reversed so it is used only for DC measurement. This type of instrument is called D
Arnsonval type instrument. It has major advantage of having linear scale, low power
consumption, high accuracy. Major disadvantage of being measured only DC quantity, higher
cost etc.

MI Ammeter
A moving iron instrument (MI) ammeter can measure both AC and DC currents. This is because
its deflection is proportional to the square of the current, making it independent of the current
direction. MI ammeters are further classified into attraction and repulsion types.
1. Attraction type.
2. Repulsion type.
Electrodynamometer Type Ammeter
This can be used to measure both i.e. AC and DC currents. Now we see that we have PMMC
and MI instrument for the measurement of AC and DC currents
Principle Electrodynamometer Type Ammeter: There we have two coils, namely fixed and
moving coils. If a current is passed through two coils it will stay in the zero position due to the
development of equal and opposite torque. If somehow, the direction of one torque is reversed as
the current in the coil reverses, an unidirectional torque is produced.

C) Wattmeter and their Types

A wattmeter measures electrical power, calculated by multiplying voltage and current, and is
used to monitor energy consumption. The working principle involves converting voltage and
current readings into a mechanical torque that drives a pointer, or in digital versions, uses
electronic calculations displayed on a screen. Wattmeters are categorized into two main types:
analog (electrodynamometer) and digital.

Working Principle:
1. Current and Voltage Measurement:
Wattmeters simultaneously measure the current and voltage within a circuit.

2. Torque Generation:
In analog wattmeters, the measured current and voltage create magnetic fields that interact,
producing a torque proportional to the power.
3. Pointer Movement:
This torque causes a pointer on the wattmeter to move, indicating the power level.
4. Digital Calculation:
Digital wattmeters use electronic circuits and microprocessors to calculate power based on
voltage and current measurements, displaying the result digitally.

Types of Wattmeters:
 1. Electrodynamometer (Dynamometer) Wattmeter :
 This type uses two coils: a fixed coil and a moving coil.
 The fixed coil (current coil) is connected in series with the load, carrying the load current.
 The moving coil (pressure coil) is connected across the load, carrying current proportional to
the voltage.
 The interaction of magnetic fields created by these coils produces a torque that drives the
pointer.

2. Induction Wattmeter:
 These meters are primarily used for AC measurements and utilize electromagnetic induction to
measure power.
 Two alternating current fields interact with a rotating aluminum disc, producing torque that
drives the pointer.

3. Digital Wattmeter:
 These meters use electronic components, such as microprocessors, to measure voltage and
current thousands of times per second.
 They calculate power by multiplying the instantaneous voltage and current values and
averaging them over a cycle.
 The calculated power is then displayed digitally.

Applications:
 Monitoring energy consumption:
wattmeters are commonly used to monitor the power consumption of electrical devices and
loads.
 Power system analysis:
They are also used in power systems to monitor power flow and assess stability.
 Testing and research:
Wattmeters are used in laboratories and research settings to measure and analyze electrical
power characteristics.

D) Energy Meter
Definition: The meter which is used for measuring the energy utilises by the electric load is
known as the energy meter. The energy is the total power consumed and utilised by the load at
a particular interval of time. It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for measuring the
power consumption. The meter is less expensive and accurate.
Construction of Energy Meter

The energy meter has four main parts. They are the

1. Driving System
2. Moving System
3. Braking System
4. Registering System
The detail explanation of their parts is written below.

1. Driving System – The electromagnet is the main component of the driving system. It is the
temporary magnet which is excited by the current flow through their coil. The core of the
electromagnet is made up of silicon steel lamination. The driving system has two electromagnets.
The upper one is called the shunt electromagnet, and the lower one is called series
electromagnet.The series electromagnet is excited by the load current flow through the current
coil. The coil of the shunt electromagnet is directly connected with the supply and hence carry
the current proportional to the shunt voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil.The centre limb
of the magnet has the copper band. These bands are adjustable. The main function of the copper
band is to align the flux produced by the shunt magnet in such a way that it is exactly
perpendicular to the supplied voltage.
2. Moving System – The moving system is the aluminium disc mounted on the shaft of the
alloy. The disc is placed in the air gap of the two electromagnets. The eddy current is induced in
the disc because of the change of the magnetic field. This eddy current is cut by the magnetic
flux. The interaction of the flux and the disc induces the deflecting torque.When the devices
consume power, the aluminium disc starts rotating, and after some number of rotations, the disc
displays the unit used by the load. The number of rotations of the disc is counted at particular
interval of time. The disc measured the power consumption in kilowatt hours.

3. Braking system – The permanent magnet is used for reducing the rotation of the aluminium
disc. The aluminium disc induces the eddy current because of their rotation. The eddy current cut
the magnetic flux of the permanent magnet and hence produces the braking torque.This braking
torque opposes the movement of the disc, thus reduces their speed. The permanent magnet is
adjustable due to which the braking torque is also adjusted by shifting the magnet to the other
radial position.

4. Registration (Counting Mechanism) – The main function of the registration or counting

mechanism is to record the number of rotations of the aluminium disc. Their rotation is directly
proportional to the energy consumed by the loads in the kilowatt hour.

Working of the Energy Meter

The energy meter has the aluminium disc whose rotation determines the power consumption of
the load. The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt electromagnet. The shunt
magnet has the pressure coil, and the series magnet has the current coil.The pressure coil creates
the magnetic field because of the supply voltage, and the current coil produces it because of the
current.The field induces by the voltage coil is lagging by 90º on the magnetic field of the
current coil because of which eddy current induced in the disc. The interaction of the eddy
current and the magnetic field causes torque, which exerts a force on the disc. Thus, the disc
starts rotating.The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of the coil. The
permanent magnet controls Their rotation. The permanent magnet opposes the movement of the
disc and equalises it on the power consumption. The cyclometer counts the rotation of the disc.

E) Fuse and how it works

A fuse is an electrical safety device that protects circuits from overcurrent. It works by melting a
thin wire when the current exceeds a safe limit, breaking the circuit and preventing
damage. Fuses are commonly used in homes, industries, and vehicles to prevent electrical fires,
overheating, and short circuits.
 :What it is: A fuse is a simple yet effective electrical safety component.

How it works:
 Overcurrent Protection:
Fuses are designed to melt and break the circuit when the current flow exceeds a
predetermined level.
 Thin Wire Element:
The fuse contains a thin wire or strip made of a material with a low melting point.
 Melting Point:
When the current exceeds the safe limit, the wire heats up, melts, and creates a gap in the
circuit, stopping the flow of electricity.
 Sacrificial Device:
Once a fuse has blown (melted), it needs to be replaced, as it's considered a sacrificial device.
Why it's important:
 Prevents Overloads:
Fuses prevent excessive current from flowing through a circuit, protecting appliances and
wiring from damage.
 Short Circuit Protection:
They can also protect against short circuits, which can cause fires and other electrical hazards.
 Safeguards Electrical Systems:
Fuses help ensure the safety of electrical systems in homes, industries, and vehicles.

Different Types:
Various types of fuses, such as cartridge, blade, and thermal fuses, cater to different
applications and current ratings.
F) What is a Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

An MCB, or Miniature Circuit Breaker, is an electromechanical device enclosed in molded

insulating material. Its main function is to automatically open the connected circuit when the
flowing current exceeds its set value. It can also be manually operated to switch the connected
circuit ON and OFF, similar to a standard switch,

MCB Working Principle

If the circuit is overloaded for a long time, the bi-metallic strip becomes overheated and
deformed. This deformation of the Bi-metallic strip causes displacement of the latch point.The
moving contact of the MCB is arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch point, a little
displacement of the latch causes, the release of spring and makes the moving contact move for
opening the MCB.The current coil or trip coil is placed so that during a short circuit fault the
magneto-motive force (MMF) of the coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and make
the latch to be displaced.Again, when the operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is
operated by hand, that means when MCB goes off position manually, the same latch point is
displaced as a result of moving contact separated from fixed contact in the same manner.It may
be due to the deformation of a bi-metallic strip, increased MMF of a trip coil, or maybe a manual
operation, the same latch point is displaced and the same deformed spring is released, which is
ultimately responsible for the movement of the moving contact.When the moving contact is
separated from fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc.This arc then goes up through
the arc runner and enters arc splitters and is finally quenched. When we switch it on, we reset the
displaced operating latch to its previous on position and the MCB is ready for another switch off
or trip operation.

Different Types of MCBs Used in Electrical Protection Systems

In the context of Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs), the terms Type A, Type B, Type C, Type
D, Type E, and Type F refer to different levels of protection provided by the device.
1. Type A: Type A MCBs are designed to protect against over-current. They are suitable for use
in circuits where the maximum expected current is known and relatively constant, such as
lighting circuits.
2. Type B: Type B MCBs are designed to protect against over-current and short circuits. They
are suitable for use in circuits where the load is variable, such as in motor circuits.
3. Type C: Type C MCBs are designed to protect against both over-current and earth fault
currents. They are suitable for use in circuits where there is a high risk of earth fault currents,
such as in circuits powered by direct current (DC) or in circuits that include sensitive
electronic equipment.
4. Type D: Type D MCBs are designed to protect against over-current and earth fault currents,
with a higher tripping threshold than Type C MCBs. They are suitable for use in circuits
where there is a high risk of earth fault currents, but where the fault current is expected to be
higher than what can be protected by Type C MCBs.
5. Type G: Type G MCBs are designed to protect against over-current and earth fault currents
in residual current devices (RCDs) used in electrical systems.
6. Type H: Type H MCBs are designed to protect against over-current and earth fault currents
in electrical systems that are powered by direct current (DC).
7. Type K: Type K MCBs are designed to protect over-current and short circuits in electrical
systems with high fault levels.