Introduction to networking and data communication

24 lessons
Specific objectives
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:
a). Define computer networking
b). State the purpose of computer networks
c). Describe the elements of a network
d). Describe the various types of networks
e). Describe the various types of network topologies

1.1Definition of Terms
A network is a collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a
manner as to exchange data, information or resources.
Telephone networks are called voice networks.
A computer network –
- A series of computers and other devices connected through data
communication links or channels for the purpose of sharing information and
programs or
- A collection of two or more computers connected together using
transmission media e.g. telephone cables, or satellites for the purpose of
communication and sharing of resources or
- Is a set of two or more computers linked through telecommunications
hardware, software and media to share resources and data.

Transmission media is any physical or non-physical link between two or more

computers and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to
destination.

Examples of shared resources include: programs, printers, fax machines,

modems, storage devices, communication links, etc.
Communication: is the process of transmitting data from one person or device
to another.
Data communication:
- it is the transmission of data between a user and a computer or between
computers, or
- the process of transmitting data signal from one point to another through the
network.
Computer networking is the most efficient and reliable means of transmitting
data.
Tele-communication: refers to data communications over large distances.

Terms used in Data Communication

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 Communication channel/link or line – this is the path that data follows as it is
transmitted from one computer to another.
Signal: is an electrical stream of information carried by a wire or telephone line,
or perhaps by radio wave. In data transmission there are two main types of
signal used: Digital signal and analog signal.
Data signal: Is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data.
Data signal can either be analog which is made up of continuous varying
waveform or digital non-continuous discrete.

Signal modulation and demodulation: conversation of data signals to a form

that is suitable for transmission over a transmission medium. E.g. a modem
converts digital signal to analog, a process called modulation. A modem at the
receiving end converts the analog signal into digital form, a process called
demodulation.
Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same
medium e.g. a wire conductor. Demultiplexing is the process of separating the
multiplexed signals at the receiving end. Computers share a single cable,
different data signals are made to have different frequencies on the cable so that
they don’t interfere with one another. The different frequencies create different
Demultiplexor
Multiplexer

logical channels in the medium.

Multiplexed line
To computers
From computers

Throughput: is the measurement of how much data is being put through the
wires (media) connecting computer systems and devices. The data transmission
rate is measured in bits per second (bps).

Bandwidth:
- is the range of frequencies that can be accommodated on a particular
telecommunications medium; or
- the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at any
one time e.g. 100mps (megabits per second).

There are two main types of bandwidth namely Baseband and Broadband
 Broadband transmission: It send analog signals with different frequency
over the transmission medium. Two computers can send signals at the same

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 time in a network but at different frequency. The advantage of broadband is
that it transmits audio, video and digital data at the same time. using a
particular frequency. Several data signals can simultaneously be sent
through the same medium but at different frequencies unlike in Baseband
signal.
 Baseband signal: is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the
transmission medium directly without modulation. Signals are send at
different times i.e. only one signal can be send at a time. Two computers can
send signals to the same network one at a time. Make use of transceivers to
transmit and receive digital data. Because signals are un-modulated, no
modems are required. Base band is simpler, cheaper and less sophisticated
than broadband.


Test your knowledge

a). Explain the term broadband and base band
b). Differentiate between broadband and baseband.
Answer:
Baseband Broadband
 - transmits only digital  - transmits digital,
data video and analog
(audio)
 Uses transceivers no  Uses modems
modems
 A computer has to send a  Signals of different
signal each at a time frequencies can be
send simultaneously

c). State two ways in which collision can be avoided in a wired network
( bounded media)
 Sending signals at different times (baseband)
 Sending signals with different frequency (broadband)s

Attenuation refers to signal loss i.e. the strength of the signal reduces as the
distance increases or the decrease in magnitude and energy as a signal
progressively moves along a transmission medium. Is corrected by placing
signal amplifiers (repeater stations) along the medium at appropriate distances
in order to receive the weak signal, clean it and amplify it then retransmit it.

Advantages of digitals signals

- Digital lines are usually faster and more accurate compared to analog.
- Easy data storage

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- Flexible processing
- Various transmission options

Disadvantages
- They require a greater bandwidth than analog signals
- Digital processing of data is very complex i.e. converting data from analog
form to digital form.

Modes of data communication

They are three:
a). Simplex
Data flows only in one direction on the communication media.
Examples: radio or TV where here the listener or viewer cannot
communicate back through the radio or TV receiver back to broadcaster.
Also communication between a computer and a printer.

b). Half duplex (Bi-directional)

Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time on the data
communication medium.
Examples:
 Network chat
 Using walkie - talkie where each person takes turns when talking. If
they both try talking, nothing happens.

c). Full duplex

Data flows in both directions simultaneously (at the same time). Full
duplex operates on a two-wire line which have the ability to separate a
receive signal from the reflection of the transmitted signal by either
frequency division multiplexing or by echo cancellation (EC). Example is
telephone conversion.

1.2Types of computer networks

There are six most common types of networks classified according to size:
i). Personal Area Network (PAN)
A computer network used for communication among computer devices
close to one person e.g. PDAs, personal computers, printers, scanners, fax
machines and even video consoles. Such a PAN may include wired or
wireless connections between devices. The reach of a PAN is typically at
least 6 – 7 meters, but this is expected to increase with technology
improvements.
ii). Wireless PAN (WPAN)
Is a personal area network that uses radio rather than wires.

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 iii). Local Area Network (LAN)
Is a computer network covering a relatively small geographical area like school,
home, office or group of buildings in a college or airport. It is owned by one
organization. One LAN can be connected to other LAN over any distance via
data transmission lines or wireless media. Most LANs connect PCs and Server
Computers on a small network. A server computer is a computer dedicated to
servicing requests for resources from other computers (workstations) on a
network.
Each workstation has its own Central Processing Unit with which it
executes programs, but it can access data and devices anywhere on the
LAN.
Advantages
 Sharing files and software
 Sharing printers
 Sharing disks
iv). Wireless LAN (WLAN)
This is a LAN that uses radio waves as its carrier. The last link with the
user is wireless. This link gives a connection to users in a building or large
institution.

Wireless LANs

Not all networks are connected with cabling; some networks are wireless.
Wireless LANs use high frequency radio signals, infrared light beams, or
lasers to communicate between the workstations and the file server or
hubs. Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort
of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data.
v). Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
These are large networks that spans a university or city. They typically use
fibre optics connections to link LANs in different geographical area. It is a
bigger version of LAN.
Advantage
 Sharing of resources in different LANs.
vi). Wide Area Network (WAN)
Refers to computers connected together by telephone line, satellite or
microwave linked over a wide geographical area. The largest WAN is the
Internet which uses point – to – point data transmission method. This is a

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 computer network covering a large geographical area such as a country, a
continent or the whole world. It consists of many LANs and MANs
connected together to form one large network. The Internet is a good
example of WAN.

Advantages
 Faster data transmission
 Allows communication between users in remote locations.

NB: Only three are the basic: LAN, MAN and WAN.

Other terms used in categorizing network include;

 Internet which is a set of linked networks that operate all over the world and
facilitate data communication services such as remote login, transfer of files,
electronic mail, the WWW, video conferencing & newsgroups.
 Intranet which is a private network utilizing Internet-type tools, but
available only within that organization.
 Extranet this is where a company allows some access from outside to its
intranet but access is controlled via usernames and passwords and/or firewall
(software or hardware which only allows permitted users to access the data).

1.3Purpose and limitation of networking

Purpose of networking
Resource sharing.
A resource is anything that can be shared on a network. Users are able to
share software, data and hardware resources such as printers, file storage,
image scanners, routers etc. by connecting them to the LAN via a server,
which handles requests from the network users. Data can be held centrally
on a file server to be shared and this leads to less wastage of time and hence
greater productivity. Software required by a number of users has to be
installed only once in a file server rather than been loaded on the hard disks
of many individual work stations.

Computer server
A computer server is a computer in a network that provides services to other
computers on the network.
There are different computer servers depending on their functions:
1). File server - are generally powerful PCs with a large RAM and large
amount of hard disk space dedicated to storing files in a network.

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2). Server software – is a specials program run by network servers which
controls computers on the network and listens to client requests to service
them over the network.
3). Print server is a computer that manages one or more printers in a network.
It also distributes the various printing work to different printers in a
network.
4). Network server – is a computer that manages the network traffic, files,
documents, emails that travel in a network i.e. computer dedicated to
servicing requests from other computers on the network.
5). Email server - is a computer that acts like a post box. It manages the
incoming and outgoing mails in a network. It provides storage for emails
and a set of defined rules for local users. The rules determine how the
server should respond to the destination of specific messages. It also stores
all the recognized accounts of the users in a network.
6). Proxy server - is a computer that acts on behalf of the client computer and
the server in a network. Proxy server provides security for incoming and
outgoing data. It translates the addresses to which data is being transmitted
to.

Clients / work stations refers to other computers on the network that send
requests to the server.

Remote communication
Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between
two communication devices located at different geographical locations. It
enables people to share ideas and pass messages over the Internet.
The computer mailing a remote request is called a remote client while the
computer that is being accessed is called a remote host.

Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing is a configuration in which terminals with processing
power are located in a wide geographical area i.e. data is manipulated in
different processors/computers, which are on the same network but placed
in separate locations. Files reside on the users computer rather than on a
central computer.
Advantages of distributed processing
- Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other
terminals
- Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage

Cost effective

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Although the initial purchase and laying down of network components may be
expensive, the savings experienced and the value added to service delivery
make them a ready choice for enterprising managers. Network increases the
efficient use of scarce resources e.g. printers, fax machine, optical drives, files
and applications. Transport and communication costs can be cut down by use
of video conferencing and electronic messages.
Reliability
Data can be transferred with a minimum error from source to destination.
Incase one computer breaks down, a user can still access data and
information from other computers using another computer on the network.
Speed
You can share and transfer files very fast. Otherwise, you have to copy
the files to floppy disk/flash disks, then carry or send the disks from one
computer to another. This method of transferring files (called sneaker-
net) takes a lot of time.
Security
Different user access levels and passwords can be created to restrict or
block unauthorized people from accessing or using files and programs.
You can also make it impossible for any user to copy network software
by designing them as ‘copy inhibit’.
Easy installation of software
All software running in a network is normally loaded in one file server.
No time and energy is spend installing updates and tracking files on
independent computers throughout the computer installation.
Electronic mail
Because networks have both hardware and software that is necessary for
the use of email this helps in speeding communication among staff. A
teacher can give students an email based exercise which they can do and
send it back as an attachment. Also a teacher can address students within
or outside campus using video conferencing resources.
Online collaboration
For schools that are connected to the internet students can collaborate
with others in real time (synchronously) or asynchronously. It has been
tried out in UK using Gemini Project and Japan has initiated online
collaboration project called PANGAEA - a Greek word meaning ‘all
lands’. For more information please visit: http://www.abcgemini.org and
http://www.pangaean.org
Networking helps in better control of resources and improved
productivity.
Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft
BackOffice) allows many users to work on a document or project
concurrently. For example, educators located at various schools within a

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 county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new curriculum
standards to the same document and spreadsheets.

Limitations of networking
Costly to install:
The high initial cost of buying networks hardware and software is very high.
You also need an expert to set up the network.

Security issues
Networks are vulnerable to hackers, disgruntled employees or even competitors.
These people can easily try to break into a network system to read or damage
crucial information. Much effort is thus spend on trying to prevent unauthorized
access to data and software.

Cables may break

Incase cables break in some network topologies the entire system is affected.

Moral and cultural effects

Chat rooms and messaging services from peers and adults on the net may have
bad intentions to underage children. Access to pornographic and other negative
materials have complicated the fight against social problems such as HIV/Aids,
bad sexual behaviour, drugs and substance abuse.

Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

The internet provides a rich recruitment ground for all types of illegal activities.
Each flow of information from one place to another keeps even those who are
on the wrong side of the low communicating easily. Terrorists and drug
traffickers use information networks for their business communications.

Over-reliance on networks
Modern organizations have phased out most manual operations, meaning that
all business and the society depend on computer networks. If the network fails
or goes down, then many systems will be brought to a halt e.g if all mobile
phones services were brought to a halt.

Slow response time

The file server shares its processing time and memory equally between each
user. The more users accessing a file server at the same time, the slower the

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server will be in handling each request. To avoid this: Have enough RAM, add
additional file servers to network to share the workload.

Access limitations for shared resources

Sharing printers can cause delays in production of work due to long documents
being printed by a user or by a large number of users sharing the same printer
causing long print queues.

Ethics: Some employees can use network for non-business activities.

Review questions 1.1

1. List four network systems that are not computer-based networks.
2. define the term computer network
3. define the term data communication
4. differentiate between a baseband and broadband signal
5. state four advantages of networking
6. give two disadvantages of networking
7. differentiate between a network server and a workstation
8. explain the concept of distributed processing in networking
9. why is a network more reliable than stand alone computers
10. explain the three most common types of computer networks in use today
11. Differentiate between remote client and remote host.
12. Explain the term bandwidth.
13. What is a “resource” in networking?
14. Differentiate between half duplex and full duplex transmissions.

1.4Elements of Networking
There are three major categories of elements/components namely;
i). Data communication media
ii). Communication devices
iii). Networking software

(i). Data communication media

A data communication medium (transmission media) is a pathway used for
carrying data and information from one point to another. The transmission
media dictates the type of signal that will be used to transmit a message.
Packets of data can be transmitted on the network as electrical signal in
electric wires, light signals in fibre optic cables as electromagnetic waves

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 through space. Each of these media has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
The data communication media is divided into two:
o Physical i.e. Communication using cables (bounded media)
o Wireless communication (unbounded media)

a). Physical transmission media (bounded)

In bounded media data signals are transmitted from the source to the destination
through a restricted pathways such as a cable.
The four types of bounded transmission media are:
o Two wire open line cables
o Twisted pair cables
o Coaxial cables
o Fibre optic cables
i). Two wire open line cables
Is the most basic form of electrical cable consisting of two insulated
copper wires. Two-wire cabling is suitable for low-speed transmission and
is used in telecommunication networking to transmit voice signal (analog).

Insulator Wire
conductor

Although the plastic insulator is meant to reduce inter-line interferences, if

several pairs of two-wire lines lie side by side, transmission suffers from cross-
talk (a problem where signals in one pair of wires produces a magnetic field,
which in turn causes a signal to flow in another pair of wires or unwanted
signals: unwanted sounds or other signals picked up by one channel of an
electronic communications system from another channel, e.g. between
telephones or loudspeakers ). This problem sometimes occurs with the
telephone system when someone else’s conversation is heard on the line. Also
the wires capture environmental frequencies e.g. radio waves causing noise in
the transmission channel. Noise is random unwanted signals picked up by the
channel.

ii). Twisted pair cables

Consists of two insulated copper wirers twisted in a spiral pattern to
minimize electromagnetic interference (induction) and cross talk. This
enables a large number of twisted pair to be packed together in large
cables. It is used in conventional telephone wiring for both voice and data
transmission. Twisted pair is the cheapest media and by far the most

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 common transmission medium for both analog and digital signals. It has a
bandwidth of 2 to 100Mbps.
A cable pair

The two common types of twisted pair are: unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
and shielded twisted pair (STP).

a). Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best
option for school networks (See fig. 1). UTP cables don’t have a shield that
prevents electromagnetic interference (RMI) from the environment. It is

susceptible to noise and signal interference. UTP is not suitable for

environments that are electricallynoisy.
Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-
speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is
twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference
from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the
higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The
EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association / Telecommunication Industry
Association) has established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

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 Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

b). Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Twisted pair

Unlike UTP the shielded twisted

pair (STP) a braided shield is
wrapped around the wires to shield
or protect them from noise. The extra covering in STP wiring protects the
transmission line from electromagnetic interference (EMI) leaking into or out of
the cable. A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and
electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for
environments with electrical interference; it is difficult to tap data from an STP
cable however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky and harder
to install. Shielded twisted pair is often used in Token Ring and Apple Talk
networks.
Advantages of twisted pair cabling
- It is easier to set up network media like telephone systems using UTP
- Installation equipments is cheap and readily available.
- It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.

Disadvantages of twisted pair cabling

- It suffers high attenuation
- It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping
- It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.

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iii). Coaxial Cable

Cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3).
The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights,
motors, and other computers and also prevents any internal fields from
escaping. The layers of insulation help minimize interference and distortion.
Coaxial cables transmit electrical signals that run through the central wire and
the metal braid. Coaxial cable have greater bandwidth of upto 1Gbps. These
cables are widely used to connect 2 or more separate LANs or worksites for
Local Area Networks, office buildings and cable television to connect TV
aerials.

Fig. 3. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal

interference. In addition, it can

Figure: Coaxial cables

support greater cable lengths between network devices

than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are; Thicknet and
Thinnet (cheapernet)

a). Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet or Cheaper – which has
one dielectric insulator.

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b). Thick coaxial (Thicknet) – which has two dielectric insulators around the
core and is thicker than the thinnet. Thick coaxial cable has an extra
protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center
conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer
lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it
does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Advantages of coaxial cables

- Very stable even under high loads
- Have large bandwidth upto 1 Gbps compared to twisted pair
- Carry voice, data and video signals simultaneously
- Are more resistant to radio and EMI than twisted pair cable.

Disadvantages
- Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with
- Are expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted pair

iv). Fiber Optic Cable

A technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data. A fiber
optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of
transmitting messages modulated onto light waves. Fiber optics has several
advantages over traditional metal communications lines:

Electrical signals from source are converted into optical signals; they are then
retransmitted through a glass fiber and reconverted into electrical signals. It
transmits light which can travel over long distance and higher bandwidths. Fiber
optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation and transmission
speed could go upto as high as trillions of bits per second. The speed of fiber
optics is hundreds of times faster than coaxial cables and thousands of times
faster than twisted – pair wire. This capacity broadens communication
possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive
services.

Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers
of protective materials (See fig. 5). LED is used at the transmitter to convert
electric signal to light then at the receiving end a photosensitive device is used
to convert light back to electric signals that can be processed by computer. It
transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks
between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.

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Fibre optic cable is made up of core, cladding, buffer, strength members and the
jacket.
The core is the central region of an optical fibre through which light is
transmitted. It is made up of glass or plastic fibers.
Cladding is a single protective layer made of glass surrounding the core. It has a
lower index of refraction i.e. it has some light bending characteristics in that
when the light tries to travel from the core to the cladding it is redirected back to
the core.
Buffer surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.
An outer ‘protective layer’ or ‘jacket’ the layer is made up of Teflon or PVC
and serves to protect the core and cladding from damage.

The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is

more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for
fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

Jacket Buffer(Kevlar fibre) Cladding Core

Fig.5. Fiber optic cable

There are three types of fibre optic cables namely;

 Single mode fiber

 Stepped multimode fiber

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  Graded index multimode fiber

Single mode fibre: has a very small core diameter of approximately 8 microns.
It allows only one mode of light to propagate. This makes it to have very low
attenuation rate an d is preferred for long distance transmission. It has a
bandwidth of 50 Gbps.

Stepped multi-mode fibre: it has a relatively large core diameter of 50 to 100

microns (one millionth of a meter) – much smaller than the diameter of a human
hair. It allows many ‘modes’, ‘paths’ or ‘rays’ of light to bounce around inside
the core reflecting off the cladding. This results in some rays taking long path
while others take a shorter path through the core.

Graded index multimode fibre: it has a gradual change in the core’s refractive
index. The light rays thus gradually bend back into the core path. This results in
a better receive signal than with stepped index.

Both stepped and graded index allows more than one mode light source to be
fed in the cable, so distortion occurs. Have a high attenuation rate and are used
for shorter distances unlike single mode.

Light signal propagates through the core in a process called total internal
reflection caused by refraction. Refraction is the bending of light when it
crosses boundary of two mediums that have different density. Light is refracted
back to the core from cladding hence propagate through the cable.

Advantages of fiber optic cables

- Since they transmit light rather than electronic signals they do not suffer
from electromagnetic interference, radio interference or cross-talk.
- Are immune to the effects of moisture and lighting

- Transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair

- Have a high transmission rates from 100 Mbps way up to 2 Gbps enabling
services like video conferencing and interactive services.

- Distance of transmission can be upto 2000 metres without a repeater.

- Are flexible in size and weight thus ideal for space limited situations.

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- Are more weather resistant

- Data can be transferred digitally

- Have low transmission loss.

- Security – it is hard to tap into an optic line.

Disadvantages
- Are very expensive to install and difficult to work with.
- Are more fragile than wire and difficult to split.
- Physical vibration at times shows up as signal noise.
- Are difficult to configure or fix together
- If a cable breaks is difficult and expensive to repair.

Facts about fiber optic cables:

 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

Factors to consider when choosing different types of cables:

 Ease of installation i.e. how easy it is to install a cable type
 Shielding – know whether the area of installation in noisy
 Is there a problem of cross-talk?
 Data transmission speed
 Attenuation – each cable type is limited by a certain distance of
transmission, if you exceed the specified limit the data degrades,
 Expense which is determined by the segment length of the cable.

Cables summary
BOUNDED MEDIA

Two wire open Twisted pair Coaxial cable Fibre optic cables
lines cables cables

Single mode fibre

Unshielded Thinnet
twisted pair
Thicknet Stepped multi-mode
fibre
Shielded
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Graded index multi-
18 mode fibre
Ethernet Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum length

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters

10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters

100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

100BaseTX Unshielded Twisted Pair 220 meters

b). Wireless / unguided media

Consists of a means for the data signals to travel but nothing to guide them
along a specific path or channel. Data is transmitted from one point to another
without using physical connections, are not bound to a cabling media and are
therefore often called unbound media. Transmitting antenna and receiver aerial
facilitate the communication. The signals flow through the air and are classified
by the type of wave propagation. Wireless transmission media are used when
it’s inconvenient, impractical or impossible to install cables. Transmission of
waves takes place in the electromagnetic (EM) range or spectrum
The carrier frequency of the data is expressed in cycles per second called Hertz
(Hz).Low frequency signals can travel for long distances through many
obstacles but cannot carry high bandwidth of data
High frequency signals can travel for shorter distances through few obstacles
and carry a narrow bandwidth. Also the effect of noise on the signal is inversely
proportional to the power of radio transmitter, which is normal for all FM
transmissions.
Examples of wireless communication
a). Microwave
b). Radio waves
c). Infrared

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 d). Mobile / cellular telephone / radio transmission

Transmission and reception for wireless media are usually achieved by means
of an antenna and can be one of the following.
Directional: point – to – point focused beams employing high frequencies.
Omnidirectional: Waves propagating in all directions using signals of lower
frequency

Broad types of wireless media based on wave propagation

Radio communication (RF) Propagation

In radio communication signals are transmitted in all directions i.e.
omnidirectional and can be received by any one with a suitable receiver. They
start from a central point and spread outwards in all directions. Radio waves are
used in radio and television broadcast.

Radio waves are of three types namely;

i. high frequency (HF),
ii. very high frequency (VHF)
iii. ultra-high frequency (UHF).

Three types of Radio Frequency (RF) propagation exist which are;

i. Ground wave which uses VHF
ii. Ionospheric which uses HF
iii. Line of sight which uses UHF

Ground wave propagation

Follows the curvature or warping of the earth. Ground waves have a carrier
frequency of up to 2 megahertz. An example of a ground wave propagation is
AM radio.
Ground wave propagation uses Very High Frequency (VHF) radio waves which
are transmitted along the Earth’s curvature. Due to the curvature of the earth the
signal will most likely alternate at the horizon, therefore repeater stations have
to be strategically placed to maintain line of sight, in order to receive, amplify
and propagate the signal from on area to another. The technology is popular for
hand held radio devices like walkie talkie. To overcome obstruction on the
Earth’s surface like mountains and buildings, repeater stations are built on
raised areas.

Ionospheric propagation
Definition of ionosphere: ionized layers in upper atmosphere: four layers of
the Earth's upper atmosphere in which incoming ionizing radiation from space

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creates ions and free electrons that can reflect radio signals, enabling their
transmission around the world.

This propagation bounces off the earths ionospheric layer in the upper
atmosphere. It operates in the high frequency (HF) of 30-85 MHz. because it
depends on the earths ionosphere it changes with the weather and time of day.
The signal bounces off at the ionosphere and back to earth’s surface and the
receiver will pick the signal. The limitation of high frequency communication is
signal interception by unauthorized parties. AM radios operates in earth’s
atmosphere.

Line of sight propagation

It uses the line of sight principle and transmits exactly in the line of sight. The
receiver station must be in view of the transmit station. This means that there
should be no barrier between the sending and the receiving aerial. They require
smaller aerials e.g. TV aerial for HF is bigger than the one for VHF radio wave
because VHF can be made to follow narrower and direct path to the receiver
than VHF radio waves. This transmission is limited by the curvature of the earth
for ground based station. Examples of line of sight propagation are: FM radio,
microwave and satellite.

Bluetooth
A short range wireless technology. Operate at approximately 1Mbps with range
from 10 to 100 metres. Blue tooth is an open wireless protocol for data
exchange over short distances.
The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio
transceiver, small enough to be inserted in small devices. A network of
Bluetooth enabled devices is called a wireless personal area network (WPAN)
or piconet. Bluetooth is best suited for personal or hand held devices thus
making it very popular in mobile communication and Internet connectivity.

Microwave Transmission
Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high speed signal transmission. The
transmission process involves sending signals from one microwave station to
another.

What is a microwave station?

This is an earth based reflective dish that contains the antenna, transceivers
and other equipment necessary for microwave communications.
Microwave frequency ranges from 3 to 10 Ghz or 21 – 23 GHz and it6 can be
focused into beams and transmitted between special receiving dishes. They
carry large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth. Microwave

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transmission is a line of sight transmission and the transmitter station must be in
visible contact with the receiver station. This sets a limit on the distance
between stations depending on the location of transmission. Due to earth
curvature, repeater station must be placed so that the data signal is transmitted
smoothly. Due to their small wavelength, microwaves releases their energy in
water as heat therefore used in making domestic kitchen appliances like oven.
One would need to use microwave when you want to send data across a gorge
or falls, cabling would be totally impractical.
Microwave transmission is used for both point to point connections over land or
water (called Terrestrial) or Satellite communication.

NB: Terrestrial microwaves bend with the curvature of the earth.

Satellite communication
A satellite is a microwave relay station and the microwave earths stations make
parabolic dishes with an antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam
towards the satellite in space. Satellite communication is often used for long
distances communications. Signals are send from earth station to a satellite.
Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit
on another) that are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. A
satellite transmission system has three main components:
a). Transmitter earth station – that set up an uplink to the satellite in order to
transmit data. The uplink has unique frequency.
b). A satellite – its in space where it receives, amplifies and retransmits the
signal to a receiving earth station via a downlink frequency different from
that of the uplink to avoid signal interference.
c). Receiving earth station - receive the sent signal on the other side of the
globe.

New trends in microwave transmission have seen the use of very small aperture
terminal (VSAT) technology which is a very small satellite dish used in data,
radio and TV. It enables direct access to satellite communication.

Infrared transmission
Is a form of light which is invisible to the human eye but can be used in the
same way as laser beams to carry data. Communication is through transceivers,
which must be within a line of sight in the same room. It is used in TV remote
controls but can also be used to communicate between computers or between a
computer and a printer at a short distance. Just like TV remote control, the
signal needs a clear “line of sight” between the sender and the receiver. Infrared
signals cannot penetrate obstacles like walls unlike radio signals. But the signals

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can be reflected off surfaces like walls and ceiling until they reach their
destination.
Example: an infrared transceiver on mobile phones once activated enables two
people in the same room to send messages to each other without going through
the mobile service provider hence avoid being charged.
In computer networking environment, the technology used to connect devices in
the same room to each other without need for cables e.g a computer to a printer.

Cellular radio
Use several radio communication technologies. The systems are divided to
different geographic area. Each area has low-power transmitter or radio relay
antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next are.
With so many users, it would be impossible to allocate individual radio
frequencies to each cellular telephone. With a cellular radio system, the country
is divided into a number of geographical areas called cells. These vary in size
according to the number of mobile phones users in the area. Within each cell,
the phones can each operate on a different frequency so that privacy and
security is maintained.

Advantages of wireless communication

o Is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media i.e. devices can be
moved around without losing access to the network.
o Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
o It can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have cost
physical infrastructure like telephone lines.
o Less susceptible to vandalism
Disadvantages of wireless communication
o Difficult to establish or configure
o Initial cost is very high

COMMUNICATION DEVICES:
For the network to be fully operational computers and transmission media
require communication devices, to be used as interfaces or junctions between
the terminal devices. Examples of data communication devices are;
o Network interface card s(NICs)
o Modems and codecs
o Hubs
o Bridges
o Repeaters
o Gateways

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 o Switches
o Access points (AP)
1. Network interface card (NIC)
- Enables each computer on the network to be connected to the network
cable. The NIC transmits data from the computer to the network and
receives the data packets from the network to the computer.
- A network card is a circuit board with a back plate which slots into one of
the expansion slots at the back of the computer.
- It is also referred to as a network adapter card or a transceiver.
- Every card must have a network card driver (software) loaded in the
computer, which provides the communication between the card and the
network operating system software.
- Currently, a good number of NICs are internal, with the card fitting into an
expansion slot inside the computer.
The main role of the network interface card is to:
(i) Provide a physical connection between a computer and data
transmission media.
(ii) Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.
(iii) Send the data to another computer.
(iv) Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
NB: the performance of NIC depends on the card bus width (equal tot the
computer bus width) and the speed of the card.

2. Modems and coders.

A modem converts a signal from digital to analog form for the purpose of
transmission over the analog media, while a codec converts an analog signal to
digital form for transmission via a digital medium. A modem can be external,
add – on card or built on the motherboard.

3. Hub
Also called multi port repeater or concentrator, operates at the Physical
layer and are simple devices that pass all traffic from both directions they link.
Hubs forward everything they receive. Hub connects and amplifies digital
signals from one computer, and transmits them to all other computers in
the network by broadcast. A hub will usually connect networks that have
common architecture software usually called protocols. Protocols. Several
hubs can be connected one after another to expand a network. This increases
the broadcast range which may lead to broadcast storms on the network.
Broadcast Storm: a condition where a network is overwhelmed with message
broadcast due to malfunctioning of network interface cards or hub related
problems.

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 Purpose of Hubs: Provide a physical start topology. At the centre of the star is
the hub, with the network nodes located on the tips of the star
Disadvantage: hub may cause broadcast problem.

4. Repeater:
- Repeater works at the Physical layer and are fast in performance. A repeater
solves the problem of attenuation, which is the loss of power of a signal. A
repeater takes an incoming signal and repeats it, but at a higher power and
noise- free. A repeater not only amplifies but also regenerates signals.
- Signal regeneration means that the original signal is absorbed, copied and
retransmitted along another segment of cabling.
- The new signal has been beefed up and cleaned up and when it leaves the
repeater is both renewed and noise free.
- Under OSI model the repeater functions on the physical layer to regenerate
BASEBAND digital signals.
- A repeater does not check errors and does not re-package the original signal.
If the signal had become corrupted before reaching the repeater, the device
would pass the corrupted data onto the attached segment.
- Both segments connected by a repeater must use the same access method i.e.
the logical link protocols must be the same in order to send a signal.
- Repeaters can move packets from one physical medium to another e.g. they
can take an Ethernet packet from a thinnet coaxial cable and pass it on to a
fiber- optic segment. In this case, the same access method is being used on
both segment but a different medium is used to deliver the signal.
- Because repeaters broadcast data from one segment to the next and back, are
simplest to expand.

5. Bridges:
Operate at the Data Link layer and are fast in performance. Connect similar
types of LANs (i.e. Ethernet to Ethernet, Token Ring to Token Ring) over a
wide area communication links. They understand only data link layer protocols
and addresses. They may connect similar types of cables.
- A bridge selectively determines the appropriate network segment for which
a message is meant for delivery through address filtering. A bridge can
divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic.
- A bridge is informed of where data is going to, and based on that
information can make an intelligent call whether or not to allow the data to
go to the destination.
- Bridges operate on the data link layer of the OSI model. On this layer
network systems group packets from data off the wire and make a
determination as to where the data goes.

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- Each device on the network has a unique physical station address. This
identification is used by devices on a network to determine how to send
data to one another. A bridge allows two networks to be connected to one
another, each moving its own group of devices with unique station
addresses.

Purpose of a bridge
o Isolates networks by Media Access Control (MAC) addresses i.e. it takes
an overloaded network and splits it into two networks, therefore they can
divide the network to isolate traffic or problems and reduce the traffic on
both segments.
o Manages the network traffic by filtering packets. The term filtering
packets refers to the process of deciding whether or not to forward a
packet.
o Translates from one protocol to another on the data link layer.
o Extend the length and the number of stations that a segment can support.

Comparison between a bridge and a repeater:

 Bridges regenerate data at the packet level.
 Bridges accommodate more nodes than repeaters.
 They provide better network performance than repeaters because they
segment the network.
 A bridge can be external, stand alone piece equipment or it can be
installed on a server.

Advantages of bridges:
 Increase the number of attached workstations and network segments.
 It is possible to interconnect different segments, which use different
MAC protocols.
 Since bridges work at MAC layer, they are transparent to higher-level
protocols.
 By subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is
increased.
 Used for non- routable protocols like NetBEVI, which must be
bridged.
 Help localize network traffic by only forwarding data onto other
segments as required unlike repeaters.
Disadvantages:
 The buffering of frames introduces network delays.
 Bridges may overload during periods of high traffic.

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  Bridges, which combine different MAC protocols, require the frames to
be modified by transmission onto new segment, thus causing delays.
 In complex networks, data is not sent over redundant paths, and the
shortest path is not always taken.
 Bridges pass on broadcasts, giving rise to broadcast storms on the
network.

6. Routers:
- Routers operate at the Network layer. The router interconnects different
networks and directs the transfer of data packets from the source to the
destination. Routing depends on network address enabled by a special
internetworking protocol called the Internet Protocol (IP).
- All the computers on the same network have the same network address but
different host numbers.
- The router receives a packet from another router on the internet work and
checks the destination network address is the same as the one on which the
router is, it passes the data packet to the destination host by reading the
host address otherwise the packet will be routed to the next network
address.
- A router links physically dissimilar LANs like Ethernet to token ring
LANs. Some modem routing devices combine the functionality of a bridge
and a router using a device called a brouter.
- Routers determine the best path for data to flow and filter broadcast traffic
to the local segment. They do NOT pass on the broadcast traffic.

In summary:
 Require specific addresses.
 Only pass packets to the network segment they are destinated for.
 Routers do not talk to remote computers, only to other routers.
 They can segment large networks into smaller ones.
 They act as safety barrier (firewall) between segments.
 They prohibit broadcast storms, because broadcasts and bad data not
forwarded.
 Are slower than most bridges.
 Can join dissimilar access methods.
 Routers do not look at the destination computer address but NETWORK
address and only pass on the data if the network address is known. This
leads to less traffic.

Disadvantages of routers:

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 Do not send corrupted broadcast packets or corrupted packets.
 Cannot transform information from one data format to another e.g. TCP /
IP to PX / SPX.
 Processing is intensively CPU.

7. Brouters
Are devices that combine the functions of both Bridges and Routers. It
combines the best qualities of both bridges and routers. When a brouter
receives a data packet to be forwarded to the remote segment, it checks to
see if it recognizes the Network layer protocol. If the Brouter does, it acts
like a Router and finds the shortest path. If it doesn’t recognize the
Network layer protocol, acts like a bridge and forwards the data packet to
the next segment.
Brouters connect mainly different types of LANs together like Token ring
and Ethernet. Brouters are more cost effective than individual bridges and
routers.

8. Switches:
- Like Bridges, Switches operate at the Data Link layer (again
understanding only data link layer protocols and addresses.
- Unlike a Hub, a switch forwards a packet directly to the address node
without broadcasting. A node is data terminal equipment such as a
workstation or computer on the network. Switches connect two nodes
point to point thus reducing the broadcast problems on the network.
- Switches are enhanced version of the hub and one switch may be used as a
bridge to connect several hubs thus reducing the collision caused by
broadcasts.
- Switches are more expensive than hubs.

9. Gateways
A gateway is a translator which allows communication between dissimilar
systems or environments which do not use the same protocols, data formatting
structure, languages and architecture.
Gateways work at the Application layer making communication possible
between different architectures and environments. They perform protocol and
data conversion / translation by taking the data from one environment, strip it,
and re-repackage it in the protocol stack from the destination system. They
repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that
each environment can understand the other environments data so that each
environment can understand the other environments data . Gateways can
translate protocols and data.

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 Disadvantages
- They slow things down because of the work they do
- They are expensive
- Difficult to configure

Wireless communication devices

a). Access points (AP)
it is an entry point into a bounded network for people who have wireless devices
such as personal digital assistants (PDA’s), laptops and computers with wireless
links.

b). Wireless antennae

Access points will have two antenna, where one is wireless, so that the one that
receives the best signal at any particular time is used.

c). Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA)

cards.
PCMCIA is an add-on card inserted into a device such as personal digital
assistants or laptop in order to enable wireless communication between the
devices and a wired network server.

Network software
The software is classified into two main groups namely;
1. Network operating system s
2. Network protocols.

1. Network operating system

The network operating system (NOS) coordinates the activities of many
computers across the network thus acting like a director to keep the network
running smoothly. It will optimize the network computers ability to respond to
service requests. Servers run on a NOS.
Functions of the network operating system (NOS)
1. Provides access to network resources e.g. printers, folders, files.
2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other more
efficiently
3. Supports inter-process communication i.e. enables the various processes on
the network to communicate with one another.
4. respond to requests from application programs running on the network
5. supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols
6. implementing network security features.

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Network operating systems are designed as multiuser operating systems that run
the network server program. Once installed on the right hardware platform and
configured as a server, the OS will provide network management tools to
network administrators. These tools can be used to;
1. Secure network against unauthorized access
2. Track network usage and keep a log of all the people who have used the
network.
3. Ensure inter-operatability between various systems on the network.
4. Performance monitoring to ensure maximum throughput on the network

Examples of Network Operating System:

 Windows NT
 Windows 2000 Server
 Windows 2003
 Linux
 Novell Netware
 UNIX
 Banyan Vines
 AppleShare
 Artisoft’s LANtastic
 Windows for Workgroups
2. Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules and procedures that control communication between
computers on the network .
How protocols work
Data transmission over the network is broken down into discrete systematic
steps. At each step, a certain action takes place. Each step has its own rules and
procedures as defined by the network protocols. The work is so coordinated
through protocol layering so that there are no conflicts or incomplete operations.
Network protocols are designed after the open systems interconnection (OSI)
model. The OSI is meant to help designers to come up with high quality layered
protocols. It has seven layers each performing distinct functions.

The 7 Layers of the OSI Model

The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for
implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting
at the application layer in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the
next station and back up the hierarchy.

Layer Description Device Protocol

Application This layer supports application and end- Gateway NCP,

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 user processes. Everything at this layer is SMB,
application-specific; Data to be SMTP,
transmitted to the network enters the OSI FTF,
(Layer 7)
model through this layer; provides flow SNMPM,
control; provides flow control and error Telnet,
recovery. Appletalk
This layer formats and encrypts data to be Gateway NCP,
sent across a network, providing freedom and AFP, TDI
Presentation
from compatibility problems. It is redirectors
(Layer 6)
sometimes called the syntax layer.

This layer establishes, manages and Gateway NetBios

terminates connections between
applications. The session layer sets up,
Session coordinates, and terminates conversations,
(Layer 5) exchanges, and dialogues between the
applications at each end. It deals with
session and connection coordination.

This layer provides transparent transfer of Gateway NetBEUI,

data between end systems, or hosts, and is TCP, SPX
Transport responsible for end-to-end error recovery and
(Layer 4) and flow control. It ensures complete data NWLink
transfer.

Routing and forwarding are functions of Gateway NetBEAU,

this layer, as well as addressing, IP, IPX,
Network
internetworking, error handling, NWLink
(Layer 3)
congestion control and packet sequencing.

Data Link At this layer, data packets are encoded and Switch, None
(Layer 2) decoded into bits. It furnishes transmissionbridge and
protocol knowledge and management and router
handles errors in the physical layer, flow
control and frame synchronization. The
data link layer is divided into two sub
layers: The Media Access Control (MAC)
layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC)
layer. The MAC sub layer controls how a
computer on the network gains access to
the data and permission to transmit it. The

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 LLC layer controls frame synchronization,
flow control and error checking.

This layer conveys the bit stream - Multiplexor None

electrical impulse, light or radio signal -- and
through the network at the electrical and repeater
mechanical level. It provides the hardware
Physical means of sending and receiving data on a
(Layer 1) carrier, including defining cables, cards
and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet,
RS232, and ATM are protocols with
physical layer components.

Figure : Seven Layers of Networking (OSI Model)

The seven layers of networking is sometimes referred to the OSI Model, Open
System Interconnection. Networking is broken down by traveling through
several layers or protocols. This process is broken down into seven layers;
Application Layer, Presentation Layer, Session Layer, Transport Layer,
Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer. When a person
communicates to another person on a network the information passes through

these layers. It begins at the Application Layer, works its way through to the
Physical Layer and then back up to the Application Layer.

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  (7) Application Layer- This layer is where the end-user (computer user)
begins the communication process. At this layer user authentication is
identified and protocols like FTP, TELNET, E-MAIL, and other file
transfer protocols begin with the user starting the process.

 (6) Presentation Layer - This layer is where encryption occurs. This layer
converts the file and/or information into a language (format) that the
remaining layers can read and handle without any compatibility
problems.

 (5) Session Layer - This layer is where the communication is

coordinated. Applications are managed in this layer. This layer manages
the exchange of information by creating and terminating all
communication between the application layer at both ends.

 (4) Transport Layer - This layer is responsible for ensuring the data
completes it's transmission to the other user. It's also responsible for flow
control and error recovery.

 (3) Network Layer - This layer is where the routing and switching takes
place. Packet sequencing, addressing, congestion control, and
internetworking happen at this layer. Logical paths are created at this
level to allow users to communicate to each other. This layer utilizes IP
addresses.

 (2) Data Link Layer - This layer is where packets (information) is broken
into bits through encoding and decoding. At this layer you have two
sections; Media Access Control (MAC), and Logical Link Control (LLC).
The MAC section is where packets (information) is gathered and gets
permission to transmit the data. The MAC section is where your
computer's MAC address is located to allow proper delivery to a specific
system (computer). The LLC section controls synchronization, flow
control, and error checking.

 (1) Physical Layer - This layer is where your hardware such as ethernet
cable, Network Interface Cards, etc., provide the transmission through
electrical impulse, light, and radio waves. This layer is the hardware
means of sending and receiving data (information).

Some ways to remember the seven layers are:

All People Seem To Need Data Processing

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All Players Seem To Need Daily Practice.

Down upwards the layer

Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away.

The top four layers have been grouped together and are called ‘Application Set’
mainly concerned with controlling how the various applications currently
running are making use of the network.
The bottom three layers are called the ‘Transport Set’ concerned with passing
of information through the network.

Basic rules about the OSI model:-

 Each layer can only talk to the one above it or below it.
 Passing information from one layer to another is done in a standard way
 Any layer does not care or need to know how the layers beneath it work.

Advantages of using the OSI model

- Any hardware that meets the OSI standard will be able to communicate
with any other hardware that also meets the standard.
- Any software that meets the OSI standard will be able to communicate
with any other hardware or software that also meets the standard
- Consumers are given a wider choice since hardware / software from any
manufacturer will work together
- OSI is independent of country, it doesn’t matter where the hardware /
software is made.
- OSI is not dependent on the operating system used
- The protocols for OSI are defined at each stage
- Any errors that occur are handled in each layer
- The different layers can operate automatically

How data is sent via the OSI model

Data is normally passed from one layer down to the next lower layer at the
sending computer, till it is finally transmitted onto the network cable by the
physical layer. As the data is passed down to a lower layer, it is broken up into
a larger unit (each layer adds its own layer information to that which it receives
from a higher layer). At the receiving end, the message is passed upwards to
the desired layer, and as it passes upwards through each layer, the
encapsulation information is stripped off.(See OSI model diagram above)

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Network protocols defines a language of rules and conventions for
communication between network devices.
Examples of network Protocols
Application layer Protocols
1. simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) used to send e-mail
2. File Transfer protocol (FTP) allows files to be transferred over the
internet
3. Apple share – apple computers networking suit.
4. AppleTalk – it allows for sharing of files and printers.
5. NCP
6. telnet (TELetype NETwork) – provide a method for establishing an
interactive connection between computer systems.
7. SNMP
8. SMB

Presentation layer Protocols

1. NCP
2. AFP
3. TDI
4. Session layer protocols
5. NetBIOS – allows applications to interface with the network

Transport Layer Protocols

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – internetworks dissimilar systems;
delivers sequenced data over the network.
2. Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) – do packet exchange / sequential
packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.
3. NetBEUI – Establishes communication sessions between computer.
4. apple Transmission Protocol (ATP) – Apple computers communication
session and data transport protocol.
5. NWLink

Network layer protocol

1. Internet Control Protocol (IP) – provides the routing and packet
forwarding.
2. IPX (Internet Packet Exchange) – does Packet forwarding and switching
3. NetBEUI
4. NWLink

Other Protocols are;

- SLIP
- PPP- point to point protocol

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 - POP3 – allows email messages to be transferred.
- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – for requesting and receiving
HTML pages
- Network File System (NFS) – extend the file system to support access to
directories and disk on other computer systems.

1.6 Network topologies

Network topology is the way in which computers and other devices have been
arranged or how data is passed from one computer to another in the network.
Network topologies is classified into two: logical and physical topology.
The logical topology describes how the network works while a physical
network describes how the network has been cabled.

Logical topology (Signal topology)

Types of logical topologies
 Ethernet
 Token ring
 Local talk
 Ethernet

In this topology all computers wanting to transmit on the Ethernet first perform
a preliminary check to determine whether the medium is available or whether a
transmission is currently in progress and can only send data when none of the
computers is sending.

Data sent over the Ethernet exists in the forms of frames. An Ethernet frame
contains a header, a data section, and a footer having a combined length of no
more than 1518 bytes. The Ethernet header contains the addresses of both the
intended recipient and the sender.

Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple

Access with Collision Detection). In this method, the computer senses that the
cable is free then data is transmitted. If data is on the cable, no other computer
can transmit until the cable is free. If a collision occurs i.e two computers
attempt to transmit at the same time, the computers wait a random period of
time and retransmit. Each Ethernet device tests each frame to determine if it
was intended for them and reads or discards the frame as appropriate. Network
adapters incorporate this function into their hardware.

The Ethernet protocol supports linear bus, star or tree topologies.

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 Local Talk
It uses the method called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance)
How CSMA/CA works
The computer broadcasts a warning packet before it begins transmitting on
the wire which eliminates almost all collision. No computer attempts to
broadcast when another computer sends the warning packet. All other
computers wait until the data is send.
The only drawback is that network is very high due to the broadcasting of
the intent to send a message.
The Local Talk protocol supports linear bus, star or tree topologies.

 Token Ring Topology

The computers are connected so that the signal travels around the network from
one computer to another in a logical Ring. Stations on a token ring LAN are
logically organized in a ring topology with data being transmitted sequentially
from one ring station to the next with a control token circulating around the ring
controlling access.

How Token Passing Works

A special packet or electric token is passed from computer to computer. If a
computer does not have information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to
the next workstation. A computer that wants to transmit must wait for the free
Token to send data. A computer that wants to transmit must wait for a free
token. Token Ring uses beaconing to detect `faults which make the method fault
tolerant. There no contention i.e. equal access is given to all computers on the
network. This method has no collisions.
The Token Ring protocol supports a star-wired ring using twisted pair or fiber
optic cable.

Physical Topology
Main Types of Physical Topologies
 Linear Bus
 Star
 Star-Wired Ring
 Tree
 Considerations When Choosing a Topology
 Summary Chart

Linear Bus
Also called multidrop/Ethernet/parallel

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The file Server has a long data cable called the bus or backbone with a
terminator at each end (See fig. 1). All nodes (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connect to a central cable. Wiring is usually done point to point
using coaxial cable. Data is broadcast along the cable with an identification. The
transmitted message is visible to all computers connected to that cable. The
workstation with the right ID takes the message while all the others ignore it.
Data flows to and fro.

Terminator

Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology

The bus network topology use Ethernet which uses CSMA/CD {Carrier Sense
Multi Access with Collision Detection}

Terminator- is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing
back and forth o the cable causing signal distortion.

What is the meaning of;

Carrier Sense: refers to the fact that each station listens to see if no other
station is transmitting before sending data.
Multiple Access: refers to the fact that in bus system, each station has access to
the common cable.
Collision detection: refers to the principle of listening to see if other stations are
transmitting whilst we are transmitting.

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Data flow is fast because of broadcast

 It can hold many work stations along the cable
 Easy to connect and a remove a computer or peripheral to a linear
bus.
 Cheap because it requires less cable length than a star topology.
 In one network station fails operations of other computers on the
network are not affected
 Stations communicate independently of each other.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

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  Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
 Frequent data collisions
 Limited range by length of cable thus suitable for small LANs
 It can take some time to isolate faults thus need for a LAN meter.
 If the min cable fails the whole network goes down
 The network degrades dramatically when highly loaded

Star Topology

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub or concentrator or
switch. (See fig. 2).the main computer is the file server or network server.
Communication between any two stations is via the server. The ne6twork
server is the computer that controls all other computers and monitors user’s
access to the shared resources.

Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing
to its destination. The hub or concentrator manages and controls all functions of
the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is
common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable
or fiber optic cable.

Fig. 2. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

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  No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing
devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 If one cable fails it affects only one computer
 It is easy to isolate faults through the central hub/ switch
 It is easy to add and remove computers
 Different computers can transmit at different speeds
 The system is more secure as messages are sent directly to the
central computer and are not seen by other computers.
 There is a direct link to the data bank (file server) therefore access
to the server is fast.
 It is easy and cheap to install and maintain
 Communication is very fast since each computer on the network
has a direct line to the server.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of
the concentrators.
 It can only hold a few work stations
 There can be delay for requests if there is heavy traffic.
 Installation is time consuming because each node forms a segment
of its own.

The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk.
Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring.

Users

Supermarkets, bank halls, airline booking, water billing offline mostly where
similar tasks are done by all workstations.

Ring Topology (loop) / peer – to – peer LAN

The ring topology is actually a logical ring, meaning that the data travels in
circular fashion from one computer to another on the network. It is not a
physical ring topology. Figure 4 shows the logical layout of a ring network.

Figure 4 Logical design of the ring network.

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All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so that
each device is connected directly to two other devices, one on either side of it.
Data flows in one direction thus reducing the risk of data collision. To allow
orderly access to the ring, a token is passed from one computer to the next
around the ring. When a data packet arrives with an address (destination) the
workstation takes it if it belongs to that address, otherwise it passes it on. A
computer can only transmit when it captures the token. A token is used to
exchange data from one station to another. Each station is responsible for
regenerating and transmitting signals. In a ring topology, if a single computer
or section of cable fails, there is an interruption in the signal. The entire network
becomes inaccessible. Network disruption can also occur when computers are
added or removed from the network, making it an impractical network design in
environments where there is constant change to the network.

Ring networks are most commonly wired in a star configuration. In a Token

Ring network, a multistation access unit (MSAU) is equivalent to a hub or
switch on an Ethernet network. The MSAU performs the token circulation
internally. To create the complete ring, the ring in (RI) port on each MSAU is
connected to the ring out (RO) port on another MSAU. The last MSAU in the
ring is then connected to the first, to complete the ring. Table 3 summarizes the
advantages and disadvantages of the ring topology.

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Table 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Ring Topology
Advantages Disadvantages
- Cable faults are easily - Expansion to the network can cause
located, making network disruption.
troubleshooting easier. - A single break in the cable can disrupt the
- There is no data entire network.
collision - Trouble shooting can be difficult
- There is efficient flow - One must break the ring to add an extra
of data because it workstation
travels in one direction - Network is within a small area as cables
- Each workstation acts cannot be too long
as a signal booster
- More workstations can - If any computer breaks down, may affect
be accommodated the entire network unless a Multi Station
within a small area. Access Unit (MSAU) is used for station
- There is equal access bypass if a station fails.
for all users.
- Each workstation has
full access sped to the
ring
- Ring networks are
moderately easy to
install.

Tree / Hierarchical Topology

It’s a Hybrid topology because it combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a
linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 4). In this topology the main file server
connects to other File Servers and workstations, whereby the workstations by be
connected to other workstations. This network is very complex and on a Wide
geographical area. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing
network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

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Fig. 4. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
 It supports many work stations
 It can operate over a wide area
 If there is a problem in one workstation / File server, it does not
affect the network

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling

used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
 It is expensive the Main File Server is usually a maintenance
computer.
 It requires highly skilled personnel to operate

Users:
Large organizations e.g. National Banks, airlines, universities etc. which have
operations over a wide geographical area.

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Mesh Topology
In this topology each computer on the network is connected to the others. Is
mostly used in wide Area Network where there are many paths between
different locations. Devices are connected with many redundant
interconnections between the nodes. Every node has a connection to every other
node in the network.

Users:
Offices e.g. Newsroom, accounts department, etc.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
- Faster communication between work stations while still having access to
the File Server.
- Efficient flow of data because data does not have to go through the file
server.
- Suitable for a busy network
- It is highly fault tolerant. A single cable break will not stop network
communications between any two computers.

Disadvantages
- Used in a small Geographical area
- Supports few work stations

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 - It uses a large amount of network cabling making it expensive

Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to

install a network; you do not have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter
lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is
easily done by adding another concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded
twisted pair, which is most often used with star topologies.

Summary Chart:

Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol

Twisted Pair
Ethernet
Linear Bus Coaxial
LocalTalk
Fiber

Twisted Pair Ethernet

Star
Fiber LocalTalk

Star-Wired Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring

Twisted Pair
Tree Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber

Table of Contents || Chapter 1 || Chapter 2 || Chapter 3 || Chapter 4 || Chapter 5 ||

Chapter 6
Glossary || Next

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Produced by the Florida Center for Instructional Technology College of
Education, University of South

Florida ©1997-2005.

10Base2 - Ethernet specification for thin coaxial cable, transmits signals at 10

Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 185 meters per segment.

10Base5 - Ethernet specification for thick coaxial cable, transmits signals at 10

Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 500 meters per segment.

10BaseF - Ethernet specification for fiber optic cable, transmits signals at 10

Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of 2000 meters per segment.

10BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cable (category 3,

4, or 5), transmits signals at 10 Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance
limit of 100 meters per segment.

100BaseT - Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is

used to transmit data at 100 Mbps (megabits per second) with a distance limit of
100 meters per segment.

1000BaseTX -Ethernet specification for unshielded twisted pair cabling that is

used to trasmit data at 1 Gbps (gigabits per second) with a distance limitation of
220 meters per segment.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) - A network protocol that transmits

data at a speed of 155 Mbps and higher. It is most often used to interconnect
two or more local area networks.

AppleTalk - Apple Computer's network protocol originally designed to run

over LocalTalk networks, but can also run on Ethernet and Token Ring.

AUI Connector (Attachment Unit Interface) - A 15 pin connector found on

Ethernet cards that can be used for attaching coaxial, fiber optic, or twisted pair
cable.

Backbone - A cable to which multiple nodes or workstations are attached.

Bit - Binary digit in the binary numbering system. Its value can be 0 or 1. In an
8-bit character scheme, it takes 8 bits to make a byte (character) of data.

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BNC Connector (Bayone-Neill-Concelman) - Standard connector used to
connect 10Base2 coaxial cable.

Bridge - Devices that connect and pass packets between two network segments
that use the same communications protocol.

Cable - Transmission medium of copper wire or optical fiber wrapped in a

protective cover.

Client/Server - A networking system in which one or more file servers (Server)

provide services; such as network management, application and centralized data
storage for workstations (Clients).

CSMA/CA - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Avoidance is a network

access method in which each device signals its intent to transmit before it
actually does so. This prevents other devices from sending information, thus
preventing collisions from occurring between signals from two or more devices.
This is the access method used by LocalTalk.

CSMA/CD - Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection is a network

access method in which devices that are ready to transmit data first check the
channel for a carrier. If no carrier is sensed, a device can transmit. If two
devices transmit at once, a collision occurs and each computer backs off and
waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. This is the
access method used by Ethernet.

Coaxial Cable - Cable consisting of a single copper conductor in the center

surrounded by a plastic layer for insulation and a braided metal outer shield.

Concentrator - A device that provides a central connection point for cables

from workstations, servers, and peripherals. Most concentrators contain the
ability to amplify the electrical signal they receive.

DIN - A plug and socket connector consisting of a circular pattern of pins in a

metal sleeve. This type of connector is commonly seen on keyboards.

Dumb Terminal - Refers to devices that are designed to communicate

exclusively with a host (main frame) computer. It receives all screen layouts
from the host computer and sends all keyboard entry to the host. It cannot
function without the host computer.

E-mail - An electronic mail message sent from a host computer to a remote

computer.

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End User - Refers to the human executing applications on the workstation.

Ethernet - A network protocol invented by Xerox Corporation and developed

jointly by Xerox, Intel and Digital Equipment Corporation. Ethernet networks
use CSMA/CD and run over a variety of cable types at 10 Mbps (megabits per
second).

Expansion Slot - Area in a computer that accepts additional input/output boards

to increase the capability of the computer.

Fast Ethernet - A new Ethernet standard that supports 100 Mbps using
category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) - A network protocol that is used

primarily to interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large
distances.

Fiber Optic Cable - A cable, consisting of a center glass core surrounded by

layers of plastic, that transmits data using light rather than electricity. It has the
ability to carry more information over much longer distances.

File Server - A computer connected to the network that contains primary

files/applications and shares them as requested with the other computers on the
network. If the file server is dedicated for that purpose only, it is connected to a
client/server network. An example of a client/server network is Novell Netware.
All the computers connected to a peer-to-peer network are capable of being the
file server. Two examples of peer-to-peer networks are LANtastic and Windows
for Workgroups.

Gigabit Ethernet - An Ethernet protocol that raises the transmission rates to 1

Gbps (gigabits per second). It is primarily used for a high speed backbone of a
network.

Gigabyte (GB) - One billion bytes of information. One thousand megabytes.

Hub - A hardware device that contains multiple independent but connected

modules of network and internetwork equipment. Hubs can be active (where
they repeat signals sent through them) or passive (where they do not repeat but
merely split signals sent through them).

Infrared - Electromagnetic waves whose frequency range is above that of

microwaves, but below that of the visible spectrum.

Intranet - Network internal to an organization that uses Internet protocols.

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Internet - A global network of networks used to exchange information using
the TCP/IP protocol. It allows for electronic mail and the accessing ad retrieval
of information from remote sources.

LAN (Local Area Network) - A network connecting computers in a relatively

small area such as a building.

Linear Bus - A network topology in which each node attaches directly to a

common cable.

LocalTalk - Apple Corporation proprietary protocol that uses CSMA/CA media

access scheme and supports transmissions at speeds of 230 Kbps (Kilobits per
second).

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) - A network connecting computers over a

large geographical area, such as a city or school district.

MAU (Multistation Access Unit) - A Token Ring wiring hub.

Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) - Devices that convert digital and analog

signals. Modems allow computer data (digital) to be transmitted over voice-
grade telephone lines (analog).

Multiplexer - A device that allows multiple logical signals to be transmitted

simultaneously across a single physical channel.

Network Modem - A modem connected to a Local Area Network (LAN) that is

accessible from any workstation on the network.

Network Interface Card (NIC) - A board that provides network

communication capabilities to and from a computer.

Network Operating System (NOS) - Operating system designed to pass

information and communicate between more than one computer. Examples
include AppleShare, Novell NetWare, and Windows NT Server.

Node - End point of a network connection. Nodes include any device attached
to a network such as file servers, printers, or workstations.

Node Devices - Any computer or peripheral that is connected to the network.

PCMCIA - An expansion slot found in many laptop computers.

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Peer-to-Peer Network - A network in which resources and files are shared
without a centralized management source.

Physical Topology - The physical layout of the network; how the cables are
arranged; and how the computers are connected.

Point-to-Point - A direct link between two objects in a network.

Ports - A connection point for a cable.

Protocol -A formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern

how devices on a network exchange information.

RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) - A configuration of multiple

disks designed to preserve data after a disk casualty.

RAM (Random Access Memory) - The working memory of a computer where

data and programs are temporarily stored. RAM only holds information when
the computer is on.

Repeater - A device used in a network to strengthen a signal as it is passed

along the network cable.

RJ-45 - Standard connectors used for unshielded twisted-pair cable.

Router -A device that routes information between interconnected networks. It

can select the best path to route a message, as well as translate information from
one network to another. It is similar to a superintelligent bridge.

SCSI (Small Computer Serial Interface) - An interface controller that allows

several peripherals to be connected to the same port on a computer.

Segment - Refers to a section of cable on a network. In Ethernet networks, two

types of segments are defined. A populated or trunk segment is a network cable
that has one or more nodes attached to it. A link segment is a cable that
connects a computer to an interconnecting device, such as a repeater or
concentrator, or connects a interconnecting device to another interconnecting
device.

Sneaker-Net - Refers to a manual method of sharing files in which a file is

copied from a computer to a floppy disk, transported to a second computer by a
person physically walking (apparently wearing sneakers) to the second
computer, and manually transferring the file from floppy disk to the second
computer.

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Speed of Data Transfer - The rate at which information travels through a
network, usually measured in megabits per second.

Star Topology - LAN topology in which each node on a network is connected

directly to a central network hub or concentrator.

Star-Wired Ring - Network topology that connects network devices (such as

computers and printers) in a complete circle.

Tape Back-Up - Copying all the data and programs of a computer system on
magnetic tape. On tape, data is stored sequentially. When retrieving data, the
tape is searched from the beginning of tape until the data is found.

Terminator - A device that provides electrical resistance at the end of a

transmission line. Its function is to absorb signals on the line, thereby keeping
them from bouncing back and being received again by the network.

Thicknet - A thick coaxial cable that is used with a 10Base5 Ethernet LAN.

Thinnet - A thin coaxial cable that is used with a 10Base2 Ethernet LAN.

Token - A special packet that contains data and acts as a messenger or carrier
between each computer and device on a ring topology. Each computer must
wait for the messenger to stop at its node before it can send data over the
network.

Token Ring - A network protocol developed by IBM in which computers

access the network through token-passing. Usually uses a star-wired ring
topology.

Topology - There are two types of topology: physical and logical. The physical
topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and
other peripherals. Logical topology is the method used to pass the information
between workstations. Issues involving logical topologies are discussed on the
Protocol chapter

Transceiver (Transmitter/Receiver) - A Device that receives and sends signals

over a medium. In networks, it is generally used to allow for the connection
between two different types of cable connectors, such as AUI and RJ-45.

Tree Topology - LAN topology similar to linear bus topology, except that tree
networks can contain branches with multiple nodes.

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Twisted Pair - Network cabling that consists of four pairs of wires that are
manufactured with the wires twisted to certain specifications. Available in
shielded and unshielded versions.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port - A hardware interface for low-speed

peripherals such as the keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, printer, and
telephony devices.

WAN (Wide Area Network) - A network connecting computers within very

large areas, such as states, countries, and the world.

Workgroup - A collection of workstations and servers on a LAN that are

designated to communicate and exchange data with one another.

Workstation - A computer connected to a network at which users interact with

software stored on the network.

1.7 network security

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2. APPLICATION AREAS OF INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
Specific objectives:
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:
a) Describe the use of computers in different application areas.
b) Write a report on the use of a computer in any one of the computer
application areas visited by students.
This chapter is not very different from what was covered in Form One under the
subtopic “areas where computers are used”, only that it gives an in- depth
analysis and explanations of the same.

Introduction:
The use of computers is spreading virtually in all areas. Some companies are
using it for competitive advantage while others are using it to be abreast of the

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latest in technology. Computers have been applied in the contemporary society
to add value to the information systems of various organizations.
An information system: is a collection of specific human and machine efforts
required to support the decision making process, data processing, information
output and presentation.

APPLICATION AREAS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY
1. FINANCIAL SYSTEMS:
Enable organizations to manage their finances and they include:
(a) Payroll systems.
(b) Accounting systems
(c) Banking systems.
(a) Payroll systems: it deals with the production of pay slips for employees and
the maintenance of records required for taxation and any other deductions.
This happens at the end of each pay period. The system processes the
accurate information for employees including: gross pay, deductions and net
pay.

(b) Accounting system: are popular in business management. There are six
business accounting activities/subsystems as follows:
(i) Customer order entry billing: records incoming customer orders,
authorizes delivery of items or services ordered and produces
invoices for customers who do not pay in advance or on cash basis.
(ii) Inventory management: keep track of the items in stock and help the
management determine which items to reorder. Management will
make enough stock at all times to meet the needs of the customers.
(iii) General ledger account: also known as nominal ledger. It contains a
summary of all business accounts. It is used in preparing balance
sheet, profit and loss account, trial balance, day book/journal, list of
accounts, and so on.
» It is used to keep track of how much a business makes and is
worthiness by summarizing the financial transactions. It produces
reports on income, sources of income, expenses, and the net profit or
loss earned.
(iv) Accounts receivable: keeps the money owed to a company by its
customers e.g. when goods are sold to a retailer, money owed on the
sales is an account receivable item until the payment is received.
This helps the management to make a follow-up by billing the
customers for overdue charge.
(v) Accounts payable: keeps track of the amount the business owes to
the others e.g. when a wholesaler purchases goods from a

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 manufacturer, money on the purchase is an accounts payable item
until the bill is paid. This helps the management to produce cheques
for payment of these amounts.

2. BANKING SYSTEMS:
Modern banks are self- service. Most of the work is done by the customer
and not the bank staff. The computerized banking services include:
(a) Processing customer transactions: computers are used in banks to carry
out financial transactions such as recording deposits, withdrawals and
calculating interests on loans and saving.

(b) Cheques clearing and processing: the use of Magnetic Ink Character
Reader (MICR) details of the cheques are automatically entered into a
computer for cheques processing. The characters identify the bank in which
the cheque is drawn, the customer account number, the cheques number and
the amount of the cheques.

(c) Electronic funds transfer (EFT): is a method of transferring money from

one bank account to another without paper money changing hands. The
money can be transferred instantly or at a stated period of time.
Uses of EFT:
» Government departments and companies use it to deposit payroll into
the employees accounts directly.
» Individuals transfer money electronically from one account to another
within the same bank.
» Payments of goods purchased from a supermarket or any other retailer
that has a provision for electronic fund transfer.
» Paying electricity
» Direct payment of mortgage

Advantages
» Is quick and reliable
» Risk of loss or stolen or misdirected payments is minimized.
» The bank’s processing costs is lowered

Disadvantage
Customers are compelled to a fixed standard time of payment.

{EFT is the movement of money using Information and Communication

Technology e.g. when paying for goods using a credit card, payment is
transferred electronically from the customer’s account to recipient account.

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 Electronic method of moving money from one bank account to another
without any paper transactions.}

(d) Internet Banking (E-banking)

Enables users to access their Bank Accounts through the internet for account
statements, pay bills and transfer funds electronically.
(e) Mobile Banking (M- banking)
Cash transfer is taking place with support of some mobile companies like
Safaricom (M-Pesa) and Zap of Zain whereby you need not have
Bank .Account. An account holder can perform banking transactions using
his / her mobile phone like Cash transfers, settling bills electronically and
performing account queries.

(f) Cash dispensers (ATMs): they are set outside banks and are linked to the
central computer. An ATM is simply a data terminal with two inputs and
four output devices.
Input devices: card reader, a keypad.
Card- reader captures the account information stored on the magnetic
stripe on the back of an ATM/ debit or credit card.
A keypad is used by the card holder to tell the bank what kind of
transaction is required e.g. cash withdrawal, balance inquiry, deposit of
cash, etc. it is also used to enter the cardholder’s personal ID (PIN) for
verification.
Output devices: a speaker, display screen, a receipt printer, the safe and cash
dispensing mechanism.
ATMs allow customers to do their banking at any hour of the day or night.

Advantages of using ATMs to the company:

 The employees do not spend all their time doing repetitive
transactions, instead they spent more time on marketing the
company.
 Less staff is needed since the machine does most of the work.
 Customer’s demands are fully met unless the ATM crops a
technical problem.
 Customers can only withdraw cash if they leave it in their account.
 Queuing in banks is reduced.

Advantages to the customer of using ATMs

 Ideal for customers who work late.
 Customers can withdraw whatever amount they need depending on
the maximum withdrawal amount of different banks.
 Getting cash is very fast.

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  Customers do not have to queue for a long time.

General disadvantages of ATMs

 They are very expensive to manufacture.
 They can break down just like any other machine.
 Some of the ATMs can only be used if you are a member of a
particular bank.
 A customer can be waylaid by thugs and asked to withdraw all his or
her money.
 Most banks make a maximum amount that you can withdraw at a
given deal.
 Transactions like asking for a loan will not be very friendly when you
are using an ATM.
 It can lead to job losses for bank employees.

Types of cards used for ATMs:

There are two main cards used with ATMs:
(i) Debit card: money is taken directly from your bank using electronic
means.
(ii) Credit card: with this card, money is not taken straight away from
your account. Instead, you receive a bill at the end of the month.
You can pay the full amount or pay a particular percentage of the
total account. This usually attracts an interest. If you fail to settle the
bill, you can be surcharged or your card can even be blocked for any
further transaction.

3. RETAIL SYSTEMS:
(a) Stock control: this is managing sensibly the amount of goods in stock. A
computerized stock control system enables a user to manage stock more
efficiently.
Aims of stock control:
 To keep enough of each item in a stock so that they do not run out.
 To avoid making too much of any item(overstocking)

A stock control system does the following jobs:

 Keep a check on exactly what goods are in stock.
 Work out what goods are selling and fix the maximum and minimum stock
levels for each item.
 Reorder goods to replace the items which are sold so that stocks are kept
between the maximum and minimum levels.

(b)Transaction handlings at the electronic point of sale terminals(EPOS)

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 Is a point of services that is equipped with electronic equipment that can
display prices and record transactions. The equipment is connected to a
Computer Server that contains the stock prices of the goods sold in a
supermarket or a retail shop. When the customers check out with goods, it
provides the cost and processes the total. Some point of sale also provide
electronic funds transfer services that enables customers also to pay for their
goods electronically using ATM or Credit cards.
 { EFTPOS is a method where funds transfer takes place at a point of sale
terminal. EPOS is a computer terminal used in retail stores to input and
output data at the point where sales are transacted e.g. at the supermarket
checkout counter.
 An EPOS terminal has all facilities of a normal cash register, but with
additional direct data capture devices e.g. barcode reader, card reader,
monitor and a receipt printer.
 During payment process, each item’s barcode is passed over a barcode
reader/ wand or laser scanner built into the point of sale terminal (POS). the
barcodes contains the product details, manufacturer, country of origin and a
check digit. The terminal is linked to the main computer via network links.
The check digit is calculated and compared to the scanned one. The till
beeps if they match. The main computer stores all the products sold. The
computer sends the price and the description of the item back to the POS
terminal.
 NB: it is important to note that price is NOT in the barcode. It is contained
in a different file. }

Advantages of EPOS system:

 Correct prices are used at the checkout counter.
 Faster since the attendant does not need to make or enter details
manually.
 The system is very accurate; cases of wrong charge are not likely to
happen.

4. RESERVATION SYSTEMS:
Are distributed networked systems that are used mainly to make bookings
in such areas as:-
(a) Hotel booking: booking and reservation of rooms in hotels are made
from a remote terminal connected to a centralized computer database.
A customer makes enquiries via the remote terminal connected to the
central computer.
(b) Airline booking: major airlines have centralized databases. This means
that all flights and passengers records are stored in a computer system
in one location. Travel agent from all over the world can access each

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 data via communication lines. In that way, agents book in client where
tickets have not been bought.

Reservation systems use real time processing.

5. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS:
(a) Computer Aided Learning (CAL): it involves using the computer as an
aid to normal teaching. Some CAL programs improve basic skills with
drill and practice exercises which provide extra motivation. Also have
graphical presentations such as video clips and voice for
demonstrating or explaining difficult concepts. Can also be used to
replace difficult, dangerous or lengthy science experiments.

(b) Computer Aided Instruction (CAI):

 Refers to the use of a computer to learn, drill and practice
particular educational principles. The learner is presented with
explanation of the concept. The computer then presents the
questions from which the learner is to select the correct answer.
 Some CAI programs present learning content in form of
educational games which make learning more fun e.g. typing
tutor program that teaches a person to learn typing skills.
(c) Electronic learning(E- learning)
 This is a self- placed interactive training program produced on
CD or the web that contain multimedia elements (i.e. sound,
video, animations) and automated test questions that provide
instant feedback to the trainee.
 It is also known as web- based training, online learning,
distributed learning or technology for learning.
 E- learning can be CD-ROM based; Network based Intranet/
Extranet based or Internet based.
 It can be very rich learning experience that can even surpass the
level of training you might experience in a crowded classroom.

Advantages of E- learning:
 It can work from any location and any time.
 Courses can be tailored to specific needs.
 Asynchronous reading is possible when communication takes place
in turns.
 It is very flexible.
 You can save on traveling costs.
 You do not spent a lot of time away from work.

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  It can lead to increased retention and a stronger grasp on the
subject.
 It can be updated easily and quickly.
 It provides a consistent message.

Disadvantages:
 It can at times make boring slides.
 There may be monotonous speeches.
 There might be little opportunity for interaction.

Categories of E- learning:
1. Knowledge of databases.
2. Online support.
3. Asynchronous training.
4. Synchronous training.

(d) E- curriculum: is the concept of learning with computers rather than

learning about computers. In this system all curriculum materials are
loaded into a computer with sound, animation and activities to
rationalize the thinking and imagination of school- age student.

(e) Computer based simulation: refers to the science of representing the

behavior of a real life situation by using computerized models. This
program creates real situation which replaces very dangerous and
expensive experiments in science mainly used in areas where practical
skills have to be learnt like training pilots, engineers etc.
Common uses of simulation
Traffic lights {read more on page 192 Sec computer studies book 4 by
Herman Oduor}
Thrill ride simulator
Flight simulation – pilots are able to practice landing and taking off.
A robot arm
Fire training simulator
Space shuttle simulators.
Nuclear power stations
Zero gravity simulator
Traffic lights simulations
Military operations simulation
Study of the origins of the universe
Circuit testing – for production of computer chips
Advantages of using a simulation

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6. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
Communication is the distribution of information or data from one person or
location to another. Effective and efficient data communication is achieved by
use of high speed electronic devices such as computers, cell phones, radios and
TV.
ICT is the integration of computerized electronic devices and
telecommunication infrastructure for the purpose of communication. Some of
the communication systems include:
(a) Facsimile (fax): is a telecommunication device used to send digitized
images along telephone lines. The fax machine at one end scans the
document and converts it into analog form then transmitted over the
telephone line. The fax machine at the receiving end uses these signals
to reproduce a hard copy of the document.

Advantages of fax:
 There is instant transmission thus making it quite faster compared
with letters.
 It is convenient and simple. Documents with signatures and
handwritten are send.
 Hard copy is produced.
 A document can be faxed to any part of the world so long as the
recipient has a fax machine.
 If a computer has a fax modem, the fax will be answered and
automatically stored on the hard drive.

Disadvantages:
 Faxed printouts are sometimes of poor quality.
 Can be slow to send bog documents because every paper has to be
scanned and converted into digital form before being sent.
 The telephone line cannot be used whilst you are sending faxes. You
must separate fax number to avoid this problem.
 Faxing text that is in color is not easy.

(b) Radio communication: computers are used in broadcasting stations

to:
 Record and manage radio programmes
 Automate running of selected programmes.
 Create slides, simulate objects and sound effects to prepare adverts.
 Download information from the internet to prepare programmes like
international news.

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 (c) Television sets:
Data and information is transmitted via a TV channel the same way the
channel is used to broadcast conversional TV programs. The most
common types of data transmitted via TV include:
(i) Tele text:
 Is a system for sending out information using ordinary television
signals. It is computerized such news and other information are
provided on TV screens to subscribers. TV is configured using a
special adapter. The subscriber can browse for information using a
remote controlled device.
 The user can receive data but cannot send it. Also, the user cannot
interact with the computer because it is a one- way communication
(simplex)

(ii) Videotext (view data):

 This is an interactive computer information system where the
telephone is used to link users to the host computer and can
transmit text and graphics. It uses a computer to transmit data to
user’s screens.
 Is a two- way communication service half duplex over a telephone
line or cable TV channel.
 A subscriber can interact with the service provider database and
the information is displayed on home TV screen.
 You have to pay a subscription fee to use this system.
 View data is generally slow and it sometimes takes a lot of time to
open. The telephone charges are quite high.
 View data is used in reservation bookings, ordering for goods and
services, sending e- mails etc.

(d) Video conferencing (popularly referred to as web cab technology.)

This is a communication method that uses cameras to transmit live
pictures, tables and graphs so as to allow several people at different
locations to hold a meeting over a network. Video conferencing
communication is popular in TV broadcasting stations where a field
reporter interacts with newscasters.
The mode of processing is real time because you have to
communicate in full duplex say you are holding a meeting.

Hardware required for video conferencing

A video camera, digital camera or web cam.

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 A microphone
An Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) and a Digital to
Analogue Converter (DAC) with compression for video and sound
Satellite dish
ISDN/ADSL / midband / broadband
Speakers
Remote control
Video bridge

Applications of video conferencing:

 Remote learning.
 Conducting interviews and conferences to persons who are located
far away without incurring traveling expenses.
 Sharing and exchanging information on business technology,
politics and leisure.

Advantages:
 People in different places can link up to see and hear each other.
This saves the time and cost of traveling to meetings.
 Meetings can take place without one leaving the office.
 Meetings can be arranged at a short notice.
 Participants can still attend meetings even if they are physically
unable e.g. weather preventing them from traveling.
 You can even send text messages to a lecturer over a long distance
in real time.

Disadvantages:
 It provides low quality pictures.
 It may not be as productive as a face to face discussion round a
table.
 Meetings may be disrupted due to a technical failure.
 Setting up the whole system is quite expensive.
 It may not be necessary for confidential documents e.g. a contract
to be viewed and signed in- person.

(e) Tele communications or tele working:

 This is a system where you work from home rather than traveling
to your work everyday using a computer connected to the
workplace network.
 It is a situation whereby an employee works usually at home using
a computer connected to the workplace network. This method

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 takes advantage of the growing communication networks to reduce
unnecessary travel to the place of work.
Advantages:
 Reduce unnecessary travel to workplace.
 Reduce travel expenses and inconveniences.
 It gives great employment opportunities for the disabled people
 Employers save the cost of office space, heat and light
 People can recruit from a wider geographical area.
 Employees becomes very productive and this benefits the
employer a great deal.
Disadvantages
- Managing the workplace can become a problem
- It is difficult for unions to monitor workers and fight for their
rights
- It will be difficult for employees to separate work and home lives
- Work may be distracted at home.
- Workers may find it difficult to work in teams
- Insecurity because of hackers and viral attacks
- Isolation and lonely of employees.

(f) Internet:
Internet transmits huge amounts of information in form of words,
images and sounds. Some of the services available on the internet are:-
(i) World Wide Web (www):
WWW refers to a collection of web pages which may be made up of
text, images, animations, sounds and video held on web servers. One
can access information using a computer or other devices like mobile
phones.
NB: for a mobile phone to be used to access the internet, it must have a
wireless application protocol. (WAP)

(ii) E- mail:
This is a system that allows a person to type out a text message on his/
her computer. Once you subscribe for internet services through a
service provider, you can send or receive e- mails to or from anyone
connected to internet using a computer or a WAP- enabled cellular
phone.
Advantages of E- mail
 Sending messages is much faster.
 It is cheaper.
 You can send one message to a number of people.
 You can send attachments.

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  The message arrives almost immediately.
 One can send replies immediately.
 Graphics and text can be electronically transmitted and placed in a
document by the recipient.
 Some E- mail systems will notify you when an e-mail has been read
by the recipient.
 If your message does not reach its destination, you are immediately
notified.

Disadvantages:
 You can only send letters and attachments but not physical objects
like parcels.
 You must subscribe to ISP
 Sending e-mail messages can be expensive when lines are busy.
 Not all businesses or homes have equipment for sending e-mail.
 You may end up getting a lot of mail that you do not need i.e.
spam or junk mail.
 Unless you make a new email alert, you have to remember to
check your mail box.

7. INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM:
(a) Computer Aided Design or Computer Aided Manufacturing.
(CAD or CAM):
 Is the use of a computer to help in the drawing of designs from
which objects are going to be manufactured or constructed. In CAM
or CAD, the computer is involved in all the stages from design to
manufacture.
 One application of CAM is the use of robots to carry out assembly
line operatives. A robot is a computer controlled device that
emulates a human being in carrying out operations that would
otherwise be hazardous, repetitive and boring to a human being e.g.
welding, lifting heavy objects, spray painting of vehicle bodies,
removing red hot materials from furnaces etc.
(b) Industrial simulation:
This allows some activities that would otherwise be expensive and
dangerous in real life situation to be put under test e.g. a plane crash test
simulation with the use of a visual model on the computer screen that
represents the real situation or object.

(c) Modeling:

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 Computer modeling is the creation of electronic representations of objects
or ideas, computer model shows what something might look like when the
real thing would be too difficult or too expensive to create and visualize.

Advantages of using a simulation or a model:

 People are not put in any danger as the system is studied.
 Predictions can be made about the future behavior.
 Model can be run slowly to study carefully the effect which
happens too quickly to observe clearly in the real system.
 No equipment is damaged.
 Modifications can be done easily and re- tested quickly.

(d) Process control:

This is the automatic monitoring and control of an industrial activity by a
computer that is programmed to respond to feedback signals from sensors.
Or ;
Refers to the use of a computer system to control an on- going physical
process especially in manufacturing e.g. regulating temperature, fluid flow,
etc. it is mostly used in petroleum refineries, chemical plants and other
manufacturing companies to manage machine intensive processes
Advantages
There is immediate response when needed
Fewer employees are needed to run the process
The system can work all day – every day.
The computerized system keeps people away from dangerous
processes.

Disadvantages
It can lead to unemployment as fewer employees are needed
The initial cost of the system may be expensive.

8. SCIENTIFIC AND RESEARCH SYSTEMS:

(a) Weather forecasting:
Modern weather forecasting have been automated using computerized
systems, hence weather predictions are more accurate and reliable. The
data collected are analyzed with the help of the computer to predict the
weather patterns. Also computers are used in geographical information
system (GOS) and the geographical data in graphical form by positioning
and superimposing it on the world map.

(b) Medical research:

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  The health care industry uses computer based information systems
for data processing operations such as patient billing, accounting,
inventory control, calculation of health care statistics etc. computers
are also used to control devices that help to care for the
handicapped such as the deaf, blind, etc.
 Expert systems are also used to assist physicians in making
diagnosis because they can remember more facts than human
doctors can.
 An expert system: is an interactive system that generates
conclusions from captured data by comparing it with a set of rules
held in a knowledge base database.
(c) Military and space:
The computer technology responsible in the military growth, space science
and exploration by extensive use of computers.

9. LIBRARY SERVICES:
(a) Lending services:
Computerized library system manages the issuance and return of
borrowed reading materials. Books, magazines, reports etc. are given
unique identification numbers or codes. Member’s details are recorded
once a book is borrowed and updated when the book is returned to reflect
new status.

(b) Inventory control:

Computers are used to manage stock which includes checking for books
currently in shelves and those on high demand that need adding and also
those that become obsolete can be retired to archives.

(c) Cataloguing:
Computerized catalogues have replaced manual card catalogue which
enhance service delivery and efficiency. The electronic catalogue is
updated constantly when new reference materials are acquired.

10.ENTERTAINMENT SYSYEMS:
(a) Music and video:
In music industry computers are used in recording, synthesizing, editing
and adding special effects to music. In video industry, computers are used
to produce highly simulated and animated movies, generate scenes and
actors.

(b) Games:

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 Three dimensional multimedia games are now possible on personal
computers. There are computer games that simulate sports e.g. driving, war
combat, etc. such games give the player maximum pleasure in a virtual
environment on the screen.

11.TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS:
(a) Air traffic control:
Airports and airstrips have been computerized. Computers are used to
monitor air traffic movement, take off and landing of crafts. Computers are
used for air reservations and also to direct aircrafts to follow the shortest
path between two locations.

(b) Shipping control:

Computers are used to load and offload and also in docking of ships.
Records are also handled with much ease at the ports.

(c) Automobile traffic control:

Computers are used to control both human and motor vehicle traffic using
a computerized lighting system. These lights are controlled using a
computer system or a clock switch. Computerized traffic light systems
have sensor pads laid underneath the road which detect the pattern of the
traffic flow. The collected data is sent to a computer which detects and
analyses the traffic flow.

12.OFFICE EXPERT SYSTEMS:

 It is a computer program that performs some tasks as human experts.
 Is software that stores the knowledge of human expert and are used
as consultant in a particular field.
 The system is capable of simulating the decision making process
and intelligent problem solution just like a human expert. It also has
a set of rules that help it make conclusions when some parameters
are entered.

13.MARKETING:
(a) Electronic commerce (E- commerce)
E- Commerce has changed the way in which goods are sold. A large
number of dot com companies have cropped up that operate solely from
the internet. Even supermarkets are selling goods and arranging home
delivery via the internet. Therefore e- commerce involves the carrying of
day- to- day transactions of an enterprise electronically through the
internet.

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 (b) Electronic Presentation:
Marketing agents can create exciting presentations concerning the products
of a business and present them to audience using presentation software.

(c) Advertising:
It is possible to create advert materials and video clips using simulation,
presentations and animation software and then have them displayed on
billboards, broadcasted over television or place them in internet.

14.VIRTUAL REALITY OR ARTIFICIAL REALITY:

Is a kind of computer simulation that constructs models of real world
environments. The computer user can interact with the environment by
wearing special components namely:
 The headgear or boom
 The glove
 The body suit.
Other names of virtual reality are: cyberspace, virtual world or virtual
environments.
(a) The headgear/ boom.
A headgear is made up of two tiny display screens and sound systems that
channel images and sound from the source to the eyes and ears thus
presenting a stereo three dimensional sound effect in the virtual world. The
wearer of the headgear is able to look around in the virtual world.
(b) Gloves:
They are worn on the hands and allow the user to navigate through the
virtual world and interact with virtual objects. The gloves have sensors that
collect data about the movement of the hands and relay the data into the
system. They give the wearer a sense of touch in the virtual world.
(c) Body suit:
Is made of conductor wires wound in a rubber suit. The wires sense the
body movement and relay the data into the virtual reality system which in
turn adjusts the position of the user in virtual reality world.
(d) Virtual reality software:
This software gives the wearer of the sensory devices an interactive virtual
sensory experience that makes him/ her feel as if he/ she is in a real world.

Applications of virtual reality

 Is used to represent any three dimensional object or ideas that are real
or abstract. Real objects include: buildings, landscapes underwater
shipwrecks, spacecrafts, human anatomy, sculptures, crime scene
reconstruction, solar system etc.

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 e.g., a house can be simulated before the actual building is
physically set up. A client can be allowed to virtually move
through the house, pull drawers and touch objects all in a computer
generated environment.
 Other applications of virtual reality include entertainment, training in
areas such as medicine, military equipment operations, education,
design evaluation, prototyping, simulation and assembly of sequences,
assistance to the handicapped etc.
 Computer games
 Architecture
 Surgery
 Engineering design
 Education
 Medicine
 Commerce

15.LAW ENFORCEMENT SYSTEMS:

Crime has become very sophisticated hence immediate and accurate
information is very crucial on crime detection, biometrics analysis which is
using a computer and a biometric device to recognize features of human body
parts like finger prints, iris color, facial features etc. some of the devices that
can be used here are video cameras and biometric scanners.

REVISION QUESTIONS:
1. (a) What is meant by computer Aided Manufacture? (2 marks)
(b) Give two examples of Computer Aided Design software. (2
marks)
2. (i) What is simulation? (1 mark)
(ii) Name two application areas of simulation. (2 marks)
(iii) State two advantages of Computer Based Simulation. (2 marks)
3. Explain two ways in which ICT can enhance commerce. (2 marks)
4. describe the following network services and identify their application:
(i) Voice mail. (2 marks)
(ii) Video conferencing. (2 marks)
5. distinguish between the following:
(a) tele text and videotext.
(b) CAI and CAL.
(c) e- learning and CBS.
6. i) What is tele working? (1 mark)
ii) State three advantages and two disadvantages of tele working. (5 marks)
iii) Give four examples of the expert system. (4 marks)

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7. Explain the concept of biometric analysis. (2 marks)
8. Explain why computers have become important in library management
tools.
(2 marks)

3. IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ON SOCIETY.
The demands of modern world are such that if you are left behind in ICT, then
operating becomes almost impossible therefore ICT dominates everything in
influencing our lifestyle both positively and negatively.

ISSUES RESULTING FROM THE USE OF

ICT:
A number of issues have risen as a result of use of
ICT. These issues include:
1.Effects on employment:
ICT has had a great revolution in employment
resulting in creation of new jobs, replacement of

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computer illiterate workers and displacement of
jobs that were formerly manual.
(i) Job creation
ICT has introduced very many jobs dominated by
the youth that never existed before. Staff have
had to be retrained or new ones employed to
adapt to the changing demands on ICT skills. It
has been indeed bad news for those who are not
always ready to learn new ideas. Several jobs
have come up in different areas like computer
operators, programmers, network administrators,
information technology or information science
managers, database administrators, software
developers, system analysts, etc.

(ii) Job replacement {one loses the job}

This is a situation whereby certain old jobs
disappears in an organization but appears in
another form requiring more and high skilled
manpower. Examples of job replacements
include: manufacturing and assembly work in
industries is now done by robots, bank notes are
counted by bill counters faster and more
accurately, shop assistants use point of sale
computers to check out shoppers, pay rolls are
done automatically using accounting programs

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which previously involved a number of wage
clerks.

(iii) Job displacement { no loss of job, one is

shifted to section/departments where computer
skills are not required}
This is the true process of placing manpower with
computerized machines and an employee is
moved to another place or department where
computer skills are not required e.g. a data clerk
reduced to an office messenger. However, to
avoid losing competent employees in- service
training may be done.

2.AUTOMATED PRODUCTION
This involves computerization of production
processing industries i.e. the use of computer
aided production which does not require high
manpower.

Advantages of using automated production

 It reduces the cost of production because
of the efficiency of the machines.
 It leads to improved quality of services
and better range of products.

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  Has helped in reduction of accidents in
sectors like mining and chemical production
where much work is potentially hazardous.
 Efficient utilization of resources e.g. raw
materials, personnel, equipments hence less
operating expenses are incurred.

Disadvantages
 It may lead to unemployment in some areas
that are labor intensive.
 High initial cost of setting up an automated
system.
 People may be cynical (feel that pos are
overrated and it takes much effort and time to
learn and use them), naïve or frustrated by
technology.

(i) Downsizing and outsourcing

Downsizing means reducing size of the workforce
in an organization and consolidating or eliminating
some operations. Automation enables companies to
downsize and remain competitive, profitable and
efficient. In the process, in the business jargon,
organizations have “flattened the hierarchy” by
reducing the levels and numbers of middle
managers therefore fewer people are doing the same
amount of work done before downsizing.

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 Outsourcing means contracting outside business or
services to perform the work once done in- house.
Contractors do the work more cheaply and
efficiently. Therefore, downsizing has led to
outsourcing of non- core services for example
organization contracts a transport firm to ferry its
stuff instead of using company transport i.e. budget
buses (nrb) are contracting by several companies to
ferry their workers.

3. ISSUES OF WORKER’S HEALTH

Despite all the positive contribution of
computers, they too affect on our health
negatively. Some of the health issues arising
from prolonged use of computers are:
(i) Repetitive Strain injuries(RSI)
This is where people suffer from aches and
stiffness of tendons and ligaments in the arms
and shoulders and tingling of fingers due to
repeated physical movements.
Solution: use ergonomically designed
keyboards with wrist supports. Take regular
breaks.

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(ii) Eye strain and headache
Since computer users have their eyes at close
range with the monitor, there is danger of
developing the computer vision
syndrome(CVS) or cataracts. All these are
caused by poor screen positioning, glare from
the screen and light reflection from interior
lighting and sunlight.
Solution; use adjustable screens, antiglare
filters, diffused interior lighting and window
blinds.

(iii) Electromagnetic emissions

There are waves of electrical and magnetic
energy that are emitted by current- carrying
conductors.
Solution: computer users are advised to use
low emission devices in order to avoid
exposing themselves to excess emissions.

(iv) Stress and general fatigue

This is caused by prolonged sitting in front of
the computer. Also people who work at
computer feel that they are expected to
produce more and do faster because
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computers themselves are faster. Too those
been monitored by computers frequently feel
additional pressure.
Solution: taking short breaks every hour of
working with computers.

(v) Isolation
People can conduct business and
communication without ever coming face to
face. Computers workers can work by taking
the instructions from computer screen,
sending and receiving memos to each other
electronically without engaging in personal
conversation. These people feel isolated from
other workers.

(vi) Radiation and Visual Display Unit

There have been reports that VDU emit
radiations that cause birth defects, blindness,
cancer, miscarriages, and sterility etc.

(vii) Computer chip toxin

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Workers in computer chip manufacturing
industries are exposed to toxic chemicals that
may pose hectors similar to those feared from
VDU.

(viii) Back problems

Caused by poor posture when working with
computers.
Solution: use adjustable (swivel based)
screens, sub-standard furniture chairs and if
need be, foot and back rest.

Ergonomics: science of designing the work

place for the comfort and safety of the
workers. This is a study of how living and
working conditions can be adapted to the
information technology. The need for better
working environment has resulted to
designing of special furniture to prevent
backaches, special monitors to prevent eye-
strain etc.

4.ENVIRONMENTAL
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(i) Environmental pollution
Huge garbage dumps of dead computer parts,
printers ink toner cartridges, monitors and other
computer accessories are disposed in large fills
hence causing environmental pollution and
leaking into underground water tables and
catchment areas.

(ii) Energy consumption and radiation

Initially, computers consumed a lot of energy
hence generated a lot of hear and emitting
electromagnetic radiation. In recent years, the
environmental protection agency (EPA) launched
energy star policy to encourage minimal use of
power of electronic devices.
5.CULTURAL EFFECTS
The introduction of computers and particularly
the internet has had a very negative impact on
some users. It has actually made them to engage
in criminal or immoral practices. ICT has changed
the way we talk, affected our privacy, human
rights and integrity. Examples include:
oWatching pornographic materials which is
morally wrong and institutions should use filters
to block such sites.

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 oFlaming which is writing online messages that
use derogatory obscene or dirty language.
oCredit card fraud when using e- commerce
where customer’s credit card details have been
made public.
o Hacking- which is unauthorized access to
companies/ banks/ users files and possible
manipulation of data. Hackers are also called
superhighway thieves or computer junkies.
oSpreading viruses- certain users enjoy spreading
viruses either for personal interest or financial
gain.
oCompromising moral integrity through use of
computers to forge certificates, passports and
other documents.
oData sabotage - illegal destruction of data and
information into a rival company where you may
delete or attempt eaves- dropping.
Tapping without authorization into communication
lines over which computer data and messages are
sent.
oPiracy- making unauthorized copies of
copyrighted computer software.
oManipulating stored personal data e.g. removing
a criminal record.

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Solutions:
Several legislations have come up to protect
computer based data e.g.
 The electronic communications act in 2000
(mainly for e- commerce)
 The copyright act which was amended in 1996.
 Designs and patents act of 1998.
 Data protection act of 1998.
 Computer act of 1990.

Therefore, at times it is a matter of personal

conscience that can help user decide on whether
our act is right or wrong. This is what computer
ethics is all about.

Evolution of computer systems

Future trends in information and
communication technology will be
characterized by:
(a)Rapid evolution in computer
hardware and software.
(b)Artificial intelligence.
(c)Expanded information
superhighway.
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(a)Rapid evolution in computer
hardware and software
 Future trends will see reduction in
size and cost of components but
increase in capability.
 The capacity of a computer is
becoming larger and larger with
reduced physical size and cost.
 Microprocessors of a thumb size can
now execute instructions in a
trillionth of a second.
 Digital voice storage devices to
advance in technology rather than
the MP3 variations and the iPod.
 More and more business to switch
to online interactions with
customers.
 Education will have to gear itself to
training students to computer-

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 assisted services rather than
teaching them physically.

(b)Artificial intelligence (AI)

AI can be defined as
 The ability of computers to think
and reason as human beings e.g.
seeing and hearing, learning,
reasoning and communicating etc.
 The technology of making
computers perform tasks that would
require intelligence if performed by
a person.
 The study concerned with using
computer hardware and software to
simulate human thought processes
such as imagination and intuition.

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Application areas of artificial
intelligence:
(i) Expert systems:
- Is software that stores the knowledge
of human experts and is then used as
a consultant in a particular field.
- It is also a computer program that
performs the same task as human
experts. E.g. to help doctors diagnose
patients.

Components of an expert system

a)Knowledge base:
Is the expert systems’ database of
knowledge about a particular subject
e.g. an expert system on financial
planning is developed with the aid of
an expert financial planner. It contains
relevant facts, beliefs and procedures
for solving a particular problem.

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b)Inference system:
Is software that applies the rules from
a knowledge base in the data provided
by the user to draw conclusions.
c) User interface:
This displays the screen that enables
the user interact with the system.

Examples of expert systems:

Mycin: Used to diagnose blood and
meningitis infections.
Prospector: Used in predicting
mineral deposits in certain
geographical sites.
Delta: used to help people repair
diesel electric locomotive.
Xcon: gives advice on how to
configure a VAX computer system.

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Advantages of expert systems
 Can perform some tasks faster
than humans.
 Can easily identify faults in
equipment.
 Data can be kept up to date.
 Is always available 24 hours and
will never retire.
 Easily used to keep records of
certain events.
 The system can be used at a
distance over a network.
 They are cheaper in cost.
 They draw conclusions strictly
based on the available information
very precisely.

Disadvantages:
 Make mistakes and they do not
learn from them.
 Are difficult to build.
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  They require a lot of space.
 Human beings can easily become
slaves of it.
 Heavy usage of expert systems
can make experts to lose their jobs.
 Can only be built with the help of
experts alone.
 Lack of human touch.

(ii) Natural language use:

This is the ability of a computer to
understand human language and
translate it to instructions, which the
computer can understand. The problem
of natural language is that sometimes
they may be ambiguous and be
interpreted differently by different
people. Before using them, the
computer program must be trained to
recognize the voice and pronunciation
of words by the user.
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(iii) Voice recognition:
Is a system that will allow voice input.
The user inputs data by speaking into a
microphone. A few systems can’t
satisfactorily perform this task because
of:
 Words with similar sound i.e.
pronunciation e.g. hear, here.
 One word with multiple
meanings e.g. sack (type of a
bag/ dismiss a worker.)
This is useful to people who can’t
enter data in the normal way like blind,
handicapped people etc.

(iv) Voice synthesis:

Are machines that are able to create
human voice to talk e.g. a
computerized bank teller giving you
your account balance in human like
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voice. E.g. samahani mteja hapatikani,
u don’t have enough credit to complete
the call, etc in mobile phones.

(v) Artificial neural networks:

Is the use of electronic devices and
software to emulate the neurogical
structure of the human being. Also are
computer system that draw from and
emulate the structure of the brain in
terms of neurons and synapses.
The idea is to try to emulate the
cognitive learning process of the brain
and how it recognizes patterns. The
human brain works by receiving
signals from special sensory cells
called neurons.
Artificial neurodes in neural networks
work in similar manner by perceiving
stimuli and hence decide whether to
pass it on to the system or not.
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Applications of neural networks.
- Fraud detection in credit card
transactions.
- Machine diagnosis.
- Process modeling and control.
- Voice recognition.
- Medical diagnosis i.e. assisting
doctors with their diagnosis by
analyzing the reported symptoms or
image data such as X- rays.

6. ROBOTICS
Robotics is the study, design and use of
robots.
A robot is an automated device used to
perform tasks that are difficult and
dangerous for a human being. Also a
machine that is designed and
programmed to perform a specific set
of tasks without human interactions.
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Perception systems are sensing
devices that emulate the five common
senses of a human being i.e. sight,
hearing, touch, smell and taste.

Types of robots:
Types of robots include mobile robots,
industrial robots, perception robots.
They can be found in these areas:
 Manufacturing industry.
 The military.
 Space exploration.
 Transportation.
 Medical applications.

Uses of robots
oPerform dull and difficult jobs like
lifting heavy objects, painting,
handling chemicals and welding,
automobiles and manufacturing
industry i.e. car manufacturing.
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 oHigh risk jobs, in design field, space
based robots.

Advantages of robots
 They can work 24 hours, all year
round without getting bored or
taking a break.
 Can work faster with high
productivity than human beings.
 The output is of consistently high
quality.
 Performs repetitive tasks that are
monotonous to human beings.
 Are more accurate than humans.
 Can work in conditions that
would appear hostile or dangerous to
humans such as under water and in
radioactive environments.

Disadvantages

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  They are expensive to build,
install and maintain (too expensive
to buy and operate).
 They are not flexible as they are
designed to do one job.
 The robot may malfunction and
cause a lot of chaos or a batch of
faulty goods e.g. water heaters all
with electrical faults.
 They cause job replacement.
 Evil people may use robots in
war to manipulate biological
material.

Components of a robot
A robot is made up of:
 A microprocessor to process the
data from the sensors.
 Actuators and mechanical parts
e.g. motors, pistons, grippers,

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 wheels, gears. These help robots to
move or operate external devices.
 Sensors – for visional sight.

Expanded information
superhighway:
- This includes the integration of
cables and wireless technologies for
the purpose of data and information
transmission.
- Fiber- optic cables are used to carry
millions and millions of data items
per second.
- Information superhighway mainly
deals with communication on a
large scale base on cable networks
and more sophisticated wireless
communication. It is aimed at
making communication more
efficient and reliable.

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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss these applications of computers in our lives (4 marks)
Medicine
Commerce
Education
Military
2. (a) Explain with examples the following effects of computers on
employment:
(i) Job creation (2 marks)
(ii) Job replacement (2 marks)
(iii) Job displacement (2 marks)

(b) What is artificial Intelligence? (2 marks)

(c) Explain the following areas of artificial intelligence:
(i) Expert system (2 marks)
(ii) Natural language processing (2 marks)
(iii) Robotics (2 marks)
(d) Name one type of robot. (1 mark)

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