CHAPTER 2: Data Transmission

📦 Data Packets
A typical data packet is composed of three parts:
 Packet Header: Contains control information.
 Payload: Actual data being transmitted.
 Trailer: Includes error-checking information.
🔄 Packet Switching
Packet switching is a connectionless network switching technique where
messages are divided into packets and routed individually from source to
destination.
Packet switching is a connectionless network switching technique. Here, the
message is divided and grouped into a number of units called packets that
are individually routed from the source to the destination. There is no need
to establish a dedicated circuit for communication.
Each packet includes:
 Header: Addressing information for routing.
 Payload: The actual data.
Packets may take different routes and arrive out of order, requiring the
destination to reorder them.
✅ Advantages
 Reduced delay: Packets are sent immediately.
 Efficient storage: Switching devices don't need to store entire
messages.
 Resilience: Data delivery continues even with link failures by
rerouting packets.
 Simultaneous Usage: Allows multiple users on the same channel.
 Better bandwidth usage: Multiple sources can use the same link.
❌ Disadvantages
 Unsuitable for real-time applications: Not ideal for high-quality
voice calls due to potential delays.
 High installation costs.
  Complex protocols: Requires sophisticated protocols for delivery.
 Potential for network issues: Errors, delays, or loss of packets can
occur.
📡 Data Transmission Types
When transmitting data, three key factors must be agreed upon by both
sender and receiver:
 Direction: The flow of data.
 Method: How many bits are sent at once.
 Synchronization: Activity between devices.
🧭 Simplex Data Transmission
Simplex: Data can only be sent in one direction at a time.
Examples include:
 Computer to printer
 Microphone to computer
 Sensor to computer
↔️Half-Duplex Data Transmission
Half-duplex: Data is sent in both directions, but only one direction at a
time.
Example:
 Two-way radio (walkie-talkie)
📶 Full-Duplex Data Transmission
Full-duplex: Data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.
Examples:
 Telephone
 Instant messaging
 Broadband connection
 Video conferencing
🔢 Serial Data Transmission
Serial Data Transmission: is when data is sent, one bit at a time, over a
single wire or channel(bits are sent one after the other in a single stream).
(Note: bits can be transmitted as simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex)
Characteristics:
 Single wire is used.
 Bits arrive in order.
 Well-suited for long distances.
 Slower data rate compared to parallel transmission.
Applications:
 USB
 Wi-Fi
 Computer to modem
Parallel Data Transmission
Parallel Data Transmission: is when several bits of data (usually 1 byte)
are sent down several wires or channels at the same time; one wire or
channel is used to transmit each bit.(Note: bits can be transmitted as
simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex)
Characteristics:
 Multiple bits are sent simultaneously.
 Data is transmitted using multiple wires.
 Used for large amounts of data that need to be transferred quickly.
 Bits may arrive out of sequence.
 Well-suited for short distances.
 Can be used in integrated circuits, RAM, and connections in peripheral
devices such as printers.
Bits can become skewed (change direction or position) over longer
distances, causing them to lose synchronization.
🆚 Parallel vs. Serial

Feature Parallel Serial

Data Transfer Faster Slower

Feature Parallel Serial

Wiring Multiple wires Single wire

Cost More expensive Cheaper

More chance of Less likely to have

Interference interference interference

Distance Short range Longer distances

Bits may arrive out of

Data Order sequence Data is received in order

Higher chance of data Can reduce the rate of

Error Rate being skewed errors

Synchronizati Transmission can be

on Less synchronized synchronized

💾 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

The UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB) is an asynchronous serial data
transmission method.
Features:
 Standard for transferring data between a computer and devices.
 Consists of a four-wire shielded cable.
 Two wires for power and ground.
 Two wires for data transmission.
Methods of Error Detection
🤔 The Need for Error Checking
It's essential to check for errors after data transmission because computers
can't verify the correctness of text, only whether a word exists in their
dictionary. Several methods can detect and sometimes correct errors:
  Parity Checking
 Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
 Checksum
 Echo Checking
 Check Digits
📍 Parity Checking
Parity checking is one method used to check whether data has been
changed or corrupted following transmission from one device or medium to
another device or medium.
A parity bit is added to a byte of data before transmission. Systems use
either:
 Even Parity: An even number of 1-bits.
 Odd Parity: An odd number of 1-bits.
Before data transfer, the sender and receiver must agree on which parity
type to use, establishing a protocol.
If a byte is transmitted with even parity, an error is flagged if the received
byte has an odd number of 1-bits.
A parity byte may also be sent, containing parity bits from a vertical parity
check to indicate the end of a data block.
📝 Example
If byte 8 (row 8) has incorrect parity, and bit 5 (column 5) has incorrect
parity, the error is at the intersection of row 8 and column 5.
If two bits change value, locating the error may be impossible.
🔁 Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
AUTOMATIC REPEAT REQUEST (ARQ) also known as Automatic Repeat
Query isanother method used to check whether data has been correctly
transmitted.
ARQ uses:
 Acknowledgement (ACK): Message from the receiver confirming
correct data receipt.
 Timeout: The allowed time before an ACK is received.
If an ACK isn't received before the timeout, the message is automatically
resent.
➕ Checksum
CHECKSUM: is another way to check if data has been changed or
corruptedfollowing data transmission. Data is sent in blocks and an
additional value,the checksum, is also sent at the end of the block of data.
Data is sent in blocks with a checksum value at the end. If the sum of all
bytes in the transmitted block of data is less than or equal to 255, then the
checksum is this value. If the sum of all bytes in the data block is greater
than 255, then the checksum is found using the following algorithm.
If the sum of all bytes in the transmitted block of data is ≤≤ 255, then the
checksum is this value.
If the sum of all bytes in the transmitted block of data is >> 255, then the
checksum is found using the following algorithm: XX = sum of all bytes in the
data block
1. Y=floor(X/256)Y=floor(X/256)
2. Z=Y∗256Z=Y∗256
3. Checksum =X−Z=X−Z
📝 Example
Suppose the value of X is 1185, then:
1. Y=floor(1185/256)=4Y=floor(1185/256)=4
2. Z=4∗256=1024Z=4∗256=1024
3. Checksum =1185−1024=161=1185−1024=161
The checksum is calculated before transmission and sent with the data
block. The receiver recalculates the checksum and compares it to the
transmitted checksum. If they match, the data is error-free; otherwise, a
retransmission is requested.
Echo Check
ECHO CHECK: when data is sent to another device, this data is sent back
againto the sender. The sender compares the two sets of data to check if
any errorsoccurred during the transmission process.
Data is sent to another device and then sent back to the sender for
comparison. This method isn't very reliable because if errors are present, it's
unclear whether they occurred during the initial transmission or during the
return transmission.
🔒 Encryption
🤔 What is Encryption?
Encryption is a process that scrambles readable text so it can only be read
by the person who has the secret code, ordecryption key.
Encryption converts plain text into an unreadable format called ciphertext,
protecting data stored on computer systems or transmitted over networks.
Decryption translates the information back to its original form, requiring a
secret encryption key (algorithms that scramble and unscramble data).
🔑 Symmetric Encryption
Symmetric encryption uses a single key to encrypt and decrypt.
Also known as secret key encryption, as the key must be kept secret from
third parties.
🔓 Asymmetric Encryption
Asymmetric cryptography, also known as public-key cryptography, is a
process that uses a pair of related keys one publickey and one private key to
encrypt and decrypt a message and protect it from unauthorized access or
use.
Uses a pair of keys:
 Public Key: Used by anyone to encrypt a message.
 Private Key: Used by the intended recipient to decrypt the message.
When someone sends an encrypted message, they use the recipient's public
key. The recipient decrypts it using their private key. If the sender encrypts
with their private key, the message can only be decrypted using the sender's
public key, authenticating the sender.