SUBSTRUCTUERS

 The structural element that supports a building,

bridge, or other structure.
 It is the lowest part of a building and is
typically located below ground level.
 The primary purpose of a foundation is to
transfer the load of the structure (DEAD,
IMPOSED & WIND) to the ground and
distribute it in such a way that the building
remains stable and secure.
 Foundations provide a stable base for the
entire structure, preventing settlement, tilting,
or collapse.
Settlement and heaving are two opposite effects that can occur in
the context of foundations, and they both refer to changes in the
elevation of the ground or the structure.
Settlement:
Settlement is the downward movement of the ground or a
structure. It occurs when the soil beneath the foundation
compresses or consolidates under the applied load.
 Uniform settlement
 Differential settlement

Heaving:
Heaving, on the other hand, is an upward movement of the ground
or a structure. It occurs when the soil swells or expands, typically
due to an increase in moisture content.
Shallow Foundations (0.3 to 2m):
These foundations are typically located near the ground
surface, with their depth not exceeding three times the
foundation's smallest dimension.
 Strip foundations
 Pad /isolated foundations
 Raft/mat foundations

Deep Foundations ( >2m):

Deep foundations extend significantly below the ground
surface.
 Pile foundations
 Pad (deep pad)
 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Strip Foundations
Is a continuous strip of concrete that supports the load of a
linear or wall-like structure, such as load-bearing walls.
 Construction:
 Constructed by excavating a trench along the length of the load-
bearing wall. The trench is then filled with concrete to create the
continuous strip footing.
 Materials:
 Strip foundations are commonly made of reinforced concrete. The
reinforcement helps enhance the strength and stability of the
foundation.
 Use:
 Strip foundations are suitable for a wide range of structures,
including residential buildings, commercial buildings, and
industrial structures. They are particularly well-suited for
structures with uniform loads along load-bearing walls.
 Advantages:
 Strip foundations are cost-effective and relatively simple to
construct. They are well-suited for structures with continuous
walls or rows of columns.
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Stepped Strip Foundations
 On sloping sites, stepped strip foundations are used.
 This is to maintain the required levels throughout the building
 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Raft Foundations
Is a type of shallow foundation used to distribute the load of a structure over a large area of
soil. It is a continuous reinforced concrete slab that covers the entire footprint of the building,
supporting all the walls and columns.
 Coverage:
 A raft foundation covers the entire base of the structure, providing support to all load-bearing
elements such as walls and columns. It essentially "floats" on the soil, distributing the load over a
large area.

 Uniform Load Distribution:

 The primary function of a raft foundation is to evenly distribute the structural loads to prevent uneven
settlement and ensure stability. This is especially important in areas with variable or poor soil
conditions.

 Reinforcement:
 Raft foundations are typically reinforced with steel bars to enhance their strength and flexibility. The
reinforcement helps to withstand bending and shear forces that may occur due to loads and soil
movements.

 Construction Process:
 Constructing a raft foundation involves excavating the entire area of the building footprint, placing
the reinforcement, and then pouring concrete to create a continuous slab. The reinforcement is
designed to provide additional strength and flexibility.

 Use:
 Raft foundations are commonly used in areas with expansive soils, weak or variable soil conditions,
and for buildings with heavy loads or tall structures. They are suitable for a variety of construction
projects, including residential, commercial, and industrial buildings.

 Advantages:
 Uniform load distribution, reduced risk of differential settlement,
 the ability to accommodate irregular or complex building layouts.
 They are also cost-effective for projects with large footprints.
 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPm8MKxwFpc
 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
Pad Foundations https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MCp-A8emjZc

 A pad foundation, also known as an isolated footing or spread footing, is a type of shallow foundation that supports a
single point load, such as that from a column or a single point of a structure. Pad foundations are widely used in
construction, especially for individual columns or isolated loads. Unlike strip foundations, which are continuous and
support a linear load like a wall, pad foundations are isolated and support individual loads.

 Location:
 Pad foundations are located beneath individual columns or isolated points of a structure where the loads are concentrated.
They are designed to transfer these loads to the underlying soil.

 Shape:
 The shape of a pad foundation is typically square, rectangular, or circular, depending on the shape of the load it supports.
The dimensions of the pad are determined by the magnitude and distribution of the load.

 Load Distribution:
 The primary function of a pad foundation is to distribute the concentrated load from the column or point load evenly to the
soil. This helps prevent uneven settlement and ensures the stability of the structure.

 Construction:
 The construction of a pad foundation involves excavating a pit at the location of the column or point load, placing
reinforcement (if required), and then pouring concrete to create the pad. The size and depth of the pad are determined by
factors such as the structural load and soil conditions.

 Materials:
 Pad foundations are typically made of reinforced concrete. The use of reinforcement helps enhance the foundation's strength
and durability.

 Depth:
 The depth of a pad foundation is determined based on factors such as the type of soil and the magnitude of the load. In some
cases, the foundation may need to extend below the frost line or to more stable soil layers.

 Use:
 Pad foundations are commonly used in various construction projects, including residential, commercial, and industrial
buildings. They are especially suitable for structures with isolated loads, such as columns or point loads from equipment.

 Advantages:
 Pad foundations offer simplicity in design and construction, making them cost-effective for structures with individual column
loads. They are also versatile and can be used in a variety of soil conditions.
Pile Foundations
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
A pile foundation is a type of deep foundation that is used to transfer heavy loads from a structure to a deeper,
more competent layer of soil or rock below the ground surface. Pile foundations are particularly useful in
situations where the upper layers of soil are not able to support the structure adequately, either due to weak or
compressible soil conditions. Piles are long, slender columns .
Types of Piles:
 Driven Piles: These piles are forcefully driven into the ground using equipment like a pile driver. Common types of
driven piles include steel H-piles, concrete piles, and timber piles.
 Drilled (Bored) Piles: These piles are created by excavating a hole in the ground and then placing a concrete or
steel pile into the hole. The hole may be filled with concrete after placing the pile.

 Function:
The primary function of a pile foundation is to transfer the structural load from the building to a deeper, more stable layer
of soil or rock. Piles are designed to resist axial and lateral loads, as well as moments.

 Load Distribution:
Piles distribute the load vertically through the shaft of the pile to the deeper soil or rock layers. The load-bearing
capacity of the piles depends on factors such as the type of pile, soil conditions, and the design of the pile.

 Depth:
Piles extend deep into the ground until they reach a layer of soil or rock with sufficient bearing capacity. The depth of the
piles is determined based on factors like the structural load, soil conditions, and any potential for scour. They can go up
to 50m deep.

 Materials:
Piles can be made from various materials, including concrete, steel, timber, or a combination of these materials. The
choice of material depends on factors such as load requirements, soil conditions, and construction considerations.

 Uses:
Pile foundations are commonly used in various construction projects, including high-rise buildings, bridges, industrial
structures, and waterfront structures. They are especially beneficial in areas with soft or compressible soil conditions.

 Advantages:
 Pile foundations offer several advantages, including the ability to reach deeper, more stable soil layers, increased
load-bearing capacity, and the potential to resist lateral forces such as those caused by earthquakes.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
DEEP FOUNDATIONS
CLAY SOIL
Clay soil is usually found where streams and rivers once flowed or
in an area where water tends to sit after heavy rainfall. Clay is
composed of fine mineral materials and little organic materials.
 It is often sticky when wet and does not drain well.
 It is not an ideal soil to use when building a foundation because
it is not stable.
When wet, it expands and pushes against the foundation's wall
due to its tiny particles. And when it dries out, it shrinks and
causes the foundation to shift. It can lead to fissures and unequal
floors in a building if used without amendments.
To build a foundation on clay soil, the ground has to be dug
deeper to increase its stability.
The appropriate type of foundation is deep foundations
A slab-on-grade foundation regulates the soil's tendency to
expand and shrink after construction while a drilled pier
foundation increases its structural firmness or stability if dug
deeper.
SILTY SOIL
 This type of soil can be found near the river, lake, and other
water bodies. It is made up of rock and other mineral
materials.
 Silt soil is a very smooth and fine soil when felt with the
hands. It also contains small particles and can hold water for
a long period. When likened to sandy soil, it has much
smaller particles; hence, moving currents can easily
transport it.
 It is very fertile and can be used for agricultural purposes.
However, it is not a good soil to build a foundation because it
puts the building under stress. Silt does not dry out quickly
or easily when it holds water.
 It, therefore, drains poorly and expands to press against the
foundation. This makes it very weak support for construction.
LOAM SOIL
 This is the best soil for building foundations. Loam soil is also
called agriculture soil because it is the best soil for planting.
This is why it is found in areas where farming is very
successful.
 It is the ideal soil to build a foundation due to its sand, silt,
and clay constituents, which are the right combination for
construction.
 Loam soil handles moisture appropriately as it absorbs
moisture and dries out at an even rate. It also allows for air
circulation and drains nicely. However, it should be filtered of
undecomposed particles or materials before placing a
structure on it. This is to avoid future disastrous
consequences.
SANDY SOIL
 Sandy soil is formed from the breakdown of certain rocks like
granite, quartz, and limestone. It is low in nutrients and
cannot hold water.
 As for building foundations, sand and gravel are suitable
because they have large particles, which aid the quick
drainage of water. This means that there is less risk of putting
a building under stress.
 Stress in a building can lead to the formation of both
structural and non-structural fissures that could eventually
lead to the collapse of the building. For better stability or
support, sand and gravel can be compacted with other good
soil types like loam soil.
 A lasting foundation technique for this soil type is screw piles
or helical plier. It prevents the sand from washing away and
also holds the foundation firmly.
ROCK OR BEDROCK
 Rock is the right choice to use for the construction of larger
buildings like skyscrapers and multistory buildings; this is
because of its high bearing capacity. Rocks offer a limited
risk of the formation of cracks or fissures in a building
because they have a high bearing capacity.
 Rocks include granite, hard chalk, limestone, shale, and
sandstone. They have great stability and depth. You can place
your structure on any rock of your choice but ensure that they
are well leveled before building the structure.
 Bedrock is a layer of rock that is beneath a soil surface. It is
made up of igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock. It is
stable and can resist water damage. This makes it a good
choice for construction.