CURRICULUM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum design

Curriculum design is the deliberate organization of curriculum within a course or classroom.

It involves selection of content in line with the goals and objectives of the curriculum. The
selected content will have to be arranged in a form that will help the teacher in choosing and
organizing appropriate learning experiences for the classroom. Sometimes, curriculum design
is also referred to as ‘curriculum organization’. In short, designing the curriculum involves the
task of organising or arranging the four components; namely, objectives, subject matter,
teaching-learning experiences and evaluation procedures into a cohesive and comprehensive
plan since they are intertwined and interactive. By thinking about how their curriculum is
designed, teachers ensure they’ve covered all the necessary requirements. From there, they can
start exploring various approaches and teaching methods that can help them achieve their
goals.

The following are the basic types of curriculum design:

a) Subject-centered curriculum design: This is the oldest curriculum design in the world
(Armstrong et al, 2005). It revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline, such
as mathematics, chemistry, physics, literature or biology, etc. This type of curriculum
design tends to focus on the subject, rather than the student. It is the most common type
of standardized curriculum that can be found in Ugandan schools. Teachers compile lists
of subjects, and specific examples of how they should be studied. It’s major mode of
delivery is the traditional lecture method.
Strengths
i) It’s easy to implement since teachers are familiar and comfortable teaching the
specific subjects;
ii) It’s long term use, gives the sense of “tried and proven”, and therefore works for the
teachers and learners;
iii) It’s tight organization of content promotes quality and standardization;
iv) Easy to keep track of the learning progress due to its rigid sequence of the content;
v) Promotes easy design of tests and examinations since the content learnt is uniform at
national level;
vi) Enhances effectiveness and efficiency in the use of resources since a lot of content
may be taught and learnt within a short time.

Weaknesses
i) It does not consider the unique needs and interests of the learners;
ii) It is detached from the contemporary events and current trends in the society;

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 iii) Although it is satisfying to the teachers, it is a poor motivator of the learners;
iv) Presents knowledge in an increasing fragmented pattern that is difficult to integrate;
v) Promotes rote learning since learners are often required to recall information rather than
demonstrating deeper mastery and understanding.
vi) Failure rate is evidently high since “expert” teachers tend to teach the subject not the
learners.
b) The broad-fields curriculum design: This design is adopted as an attempt to integrate
traditional subjects to help learners have broad understanding in all areas. The broad-fields
curriculum design organizes learning areas around themes such as Social Studies (History,
Political Education, and Geography), Physical Science (Physics and Chemistry),
Biological Science (Biology, Botany, Zoology, Physiology, and Anatomy), Language Arts
(English, Literature, French, Arabic, Kiswahili, and Local Languages), Business Studies
(Entrepreneurship, Accounts, and Commerce) and Mathematics.
c) The core curriculum design: Aware of the challenges, innovative educators began to
escape the fragmentation that characterized the traditional (subject-centred) curricula, and
this resulted into a design called the core curriculum. Oliva (2005) identifies the following
characteristics of the core curricula:
i) They constitute a portion of the curriculum that is required of all students;
ii) They unify or fuse subject matter;
iii) Their content centres on problems that cut across the disciplines;
iv) The primary method of learning is problem solving using all applicable subject matter;
and
v) They are organized into blocks of time, usually two to three periods under a “core”
teacher.
d) Learner-centered curriculum design by contrast, revolves around student needs,
interests and goals. It acknowledges that students are not uniform but individuals, and
therefore should not, in all cases, be subject to a standardized curriculum. This approach
aims to empower learners to shape their education through choices. Differentiated
instructional plans provide an opportunity to select assignments, teaching and learning
experiences, or activities. This form of curriculum design has been shown to engage and
motivate students. The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it can create
pressure on the educator to source materials specific to each student’s learning needs. This
can be challenging due to teaching time constraints. Balancing individual student interests
with the institution’s required outcomes could prove to be a daunting task.
e) Problem-centered curriculum design teaches students how to look at a problem and
formulate a solution. Considered an authentic form of learning because students are
exposed to real-life issues, this model helps students develop skills that are transferable to
the real world. Problem-centered curriculum design has been shown to increase the
relevance of the curriculum and encourages creativity, innovation and collaboration in the

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 classroom. The drawback to this format is that it does not always consider individual
learning styles.
MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
A model is a representation of reality presented with a degree of form and order. It provides a
conceptual framework for designing a curriculum based on the specific purpose of that curriculum.
The concept of a curriculum has always been a point of great concern among educationist since
the late 18th century. Various models of curriculum development have been proposed by different
curriculum theorists and authors. For example:

1. Ralph Tyler’s model (1949)

2. Wheeler’s cyclic model (1971)
3. Nicholls and Nicholls (1972)
4. Giles
5. Walker’s model (1972)
6. Hilda Taba’s model (1962)

ALPH W. TYLER’S MODEL OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (1949)

Ralph W. Tyler’s model is one of the most influential models proposed for planning and
developing curriculum. It has been referred to as a classical model because it is believed that other
models drew inspiration from it. Tyler outlined four major questions which must be answered
when developing a curriculum and plan for instructions. These questions are;

i. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

ii. What education/learning experiences can be provided that are likely to help attain these
purposes?

iii. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

iv. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Tyler, encourages the instructional designers to determine basic educational issues such as purpose
of education, the content needed for achieving the set or determined purposes, activities and actions

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that would lead to their exploration and achievement, the best way to arrange and organize them
to best accomplish objectives as well as to determine whether desired outcomes have been
achieved or not. Tyler seems to have believed that the educationalist must be a sound person and
a very alert one too. In addition, he recommends that such an educationalist assesses the learning
experiences himself to determine which activities needed to be revised and improved upon for
future instructions. Tyler’s four fundamental questions represent the four-step sequence of
curriculum development:

1. Selection of curriculum goals and objectives

2. Selection of learning experiences for the achievement of identified aims, goals and objectives.

3. The organization of learning experiences.

4. Evaluation of the effectiveness of all aspects of steps 2 and 3 in achieving step 1

Ralph Tyler considers the steps as linear and logical activities. He shows an inclination towards
Skinner’s behaviourism (1957) and John Dewy’s progressive education (1963) as he says, “Since
the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring
about significant change in the students’ pattern of behaviour” (P.44). Tyler’s model is also
labelled “product model”. The model has very significant benefits.

HILDA TABA’S INTERACTIVE MODEL (1962)

Hilda Taba presented a model, also known as the “interactive model” or “instructional strategies
model” which mainly focuses on the planning of instructional strategies andconsiders it the basis
of the curriculum design. Her model includes seven mutually interactive elements of the teaching
and learning system:
1. Diagnosis of needs,
2. formation of objectives
3. Contents and
4. Learning experiences,
5. organization of learning experiences,
6. Teaching strategies, and

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 7. Evaluative measures

Strengths of Hilda Taba’s Model

Some of the innovative aspects of Taba’s model include determining required objectives and
related content, selection and organization of learning experiences in accordance with specific
criteria; selection of a variety of teaching strategies and evaluation procedures and measures. Her
model gives due consideration to external factors that may affect various components of a
curriculum including the vicinity and community of school’s location, the school area educational
policies, the goals, resources, and administrative strategies of the school, teachers' personal styles
and characteristics, the nature of the student population among others. The present focus on global
demands about educational practices and needs casts aspersions on these identified strengths.

Taba’s model of curriculum process has been criticized for its application difficulty in
heterogenous classrooms. Again, Taba’s inductive model restricted the development of
curriculum or planning to only the teachers rather than to the higher authorities. It is a
rigid model. The nature of teaching-learning, being unpredictable, one cannot be sure of
the learning outcomes. It becomes pertinent at this point to query. As well as consider
critically, the educational status of those authorities who are required to make inputs
aside the teacher. What are their interests? Whose opinions would they reflect? What
would be their major considerations as they draw their decisions, overall good or
personal and selfish goals? African education can be better positioned for a more lasting
legacy than is evident if the Nigerian situation can be used as a case in point.

WHEELER’S (1971) CYCLICAL MODEL

Wheeler developed a five-phased cyclical model of curriculum development which
seemingly took care of the criticism of Tyler’s model. His cyclical model has many
similarities with the linear and Taba’s interactive models. The key elements of Wheeler’s
model include:

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1. Selection of aims, goals and objectives
2. Selection of learning experiences
3. Selection of content (subject matter) through which certain types of experiences may be
offered.
4. The organization and integration of learning experiences and content with respect to the
teaching learning process within school and classroom.
5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of all aspects of all other phases in attaining the
objectives.

The Strengths of Wheeler’s Cyclical Models

The cyclic model is responsive to needs, which are on-going necessitating constant
updating of the curriculum process.They are flexible and relevant to learners in particular
situations. The dynamic nature makes it possible for adoptions and adaptations, when and where
necessary; provided that there is a useful purpose to be served by the actions.

This model view elements of the curriculum as interrelated and interdependent. It

accepts a degree of interaction between the various curriculum elements. In Cyclical
model, D.K. Wheeler extended the ideas forwarded by Tyler it did not necessarily upturn it. At
present, in Nigeria, there is an argument concerning the scrapping of post university matriculation
examination (post UME), why? What kind of Dynamism is the African trying to adopt and
preserve? The positive, progressive and problem resolving dynamism or the retrogressive, negative
and problem generating dynamism? Every situation must be critically analyzed to find a
worthwhile and suitable solution that matches it. No model is actually perfect.

Wheeler’s model is different from others in the sense that the “selection of learning
experience” comes before the “selection of content” creating confusion possibly as to whether the
selected learning experiences would suit the content or not. Again, it is not always practical to use
because of time constraints. Much as revisions can be made where discrepancies exist between
content and learning experiences selected to infuse them, where would anyone find time for these
trials and errors bearing in mind that school programs are highly chronologized? It is highly in
Undertaking detailed situational analysis that wheeler advocated a time consuming process that
could be difficult to practice in the hectic conditions of modern educational practice; especially
when the curriculum is suffering a heavy overload! This overload is becoming even heavier with
arguments, pressures and propositions that continue to mount for additional content to be added
into the bulge.

Activity:
1 Discuss the strengths of Ralph Tyler’s model

2 Identify any one other model of curriculum development and make brief notes about it.

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Theoretical Perspective on Curriculum Development
Curriculum is formulated based on the problem to which the developers are responding, for
example, if the identified problem is school’s lack of relevance to children’s lives then the content
that students can relate to everyday living will be developed.
In this unit, five views (assumptions) have been examined by different scholars. These theoretical
perspectives are primarily intended to guide the framework within which the curriculum would be
designed to address the following premise / central considerations:
i) Preservation of most important aspects of our culture (Traditional perspective)
ii) Inclusion of learning experiences that promote healthy growth of the individual (Experiential
perspective)
iii) Structure of the discipline of knowledge
iv) What the learners should be able to do after completing the curriculum (Behavioral
perspective)
v) Ability of the learners to think more productively and creatively to make sense of the world
(Constructivist theory)

Traditional Perspective
The advocates of the traditional perspective view curriculum as a tool that can be used to
deliberately transmit cultural heritage information from one generation to the next. They noted that
cultural heritage is needed to thrive in the modern world as children are made to learn to participate
in complex cooperative activities with other members of their community. They believe that
learners require values that promote good citizenship and international relations.

Experiential Perspective
This perspective places the experience of the child as a focal point in developing curriculum that
is relevant to the rapidly changing and complex world. The curriculum is practical if it is based on
the needs and interests of students (target group). The disciplines or subjects to be in the curriculum
should contribute to the holistic development of the leaner for a meaningful and productive life
after school.
Learners should have healthy and quality experiences to develop intelligence and useful skills to
think critically, take initiatives and eventually become increasingly autonomous in guiding their
future career development.

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Structure of the Discipline Perspective
The content of the disciplines in the curriculum should be well selected by the curriculum
developers to provide students with the fundamental concepts of the disciplines in order to solve
the problems in their society.
Involvement of university professors who are experts in the disciplines bridges the gap that would
perhaps exist between the high school curriculum and programs in the university that prepare
graduates for the world of work.

Behavioral Perspective
The curriculum disciplines should be enriched with the needed knowledge, skills, competencies
and values. The curriculum should have learning experiences (disciplines) that prepare today’s
learners for tomorrow by providing them opportunities to practice each skill learnt to the point of
mastery. Knowledge is not knowledge unless it is translated into performance.

Constructivist Perspective
Knowledge and ideas are innate and therefore curriculum disciplines should activate these ideas
by exposing learners to known concepts before teaching abstract concepts. They believe that
leaning occurs only when the leaner links the new content to their previous understanding.
In curriculum development, it is important to consider different theories of learning and understand
that not all what is taught may be necessarily learnt; and therefore students need to be provided
avenues to explore, construct their own knowledge based on their learning experiences and
develop realistic problem solving abilities.

Implication
i) Based on the traditional perspective, we need to establish and maintain a classroom climate
where students with different backgrounds, potentials and challenges learn to work with all
their classmates as they appreciate their uniqueness.
ii) A proper assessment tool needs to be developed to enable learners track their progress during
curriculum implementation; and feedback from continuous assessment can be used to improve
the curriculum, teaching and learning.

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iii) Since curriculum is at the core of any nation’s education system, it must be effectively
designed and modified to reflect the changes in the learners, school, society and the nation at
large.
iv) Currently, policy makers are putting too much emphasis on standards and goals. This makes
teachers to shift the focus of education away from students. Test scores are used as evidence
of school success and teachers are compelled to teach to the test while their students are
tempted to cheat for the purposes of achieving higher scores. Introduction and use of
continuous assessment results should help change this trend.
v) Parents need to be encouraged to take more responsibility for their children’s learning by
providing conducive environment for children to study and do their homework. They need to
be involved in curriculum development as reforms in our schools must start from the
grassroots.
vi) As instructional leaders, school administrators need to be involved in curriculum and
instructional planning to support teachers in carrying out action research to improve classroom
practices.
vii) The major role of teacher education colleges needs to be recognized for successful
implementation of the curriculum. They prepare teachers, help teachers assess the value of
each reform practice in the learners and support in-service teachers, curriculum developers
and instructional supervisors.
viii) Effective teaching helps students construct an organized set of concepts that relates new and
old ideas (Henson, 2006).
ix) As instructional leaders, a sound understanding of curriculum will make teachers appreciate
the central role they play in supporting reform changes that will prepare our students to live
and work positively in diverse settings.
x) Different approaches need to be employed to conduct inquiry to periodically modify the
dynamic and evolving subject matter. There should be a close link between the skills learners
attain at school and the skills to be applied in the world of work. The learning environment
should be structured to simulate the work environment where the graduates will spend their
entire life after school.