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PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING: 8

Directed Motivational
Currents and
Language Education
Exploring Implications for
Pedagogy

Christine Muir

MULTILINGUAL MATTERS
Bristol • Blue Ridge Summit
DOI https://doi.org/10.21832/MUIR8854
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Names: Muir, Christine, author.
Title: Directed Motivational Currents and Language Education: Exploring
Implications for Pedagogy/Christine Muir.
Description: Bristol, UK; Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Multilingual Matters,
2020. | Series: Psychology of Language Learning and Teaching: 8 |
Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: ‘This book
presents empirical research which investigates directed motivational
currents (DMCs) in the context of second language learning and
motivation. The studies explore participants’ individual experiences of
DMCs, and the practical implications of DMC theory for L2 pedagogy
through the use of intensive group projects’ – Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020018824 (print) | LCCN 2020018825 (ebook) | ISBN
9781788928847 (paperback) | ISBN 9781788928854 (hardback) | ISBN
9781788928861 (pdf) | ISBN 9781788928878 (epub) | ISBN 9781788928885
(kindle edition)
Subjects: LCSH: English language – Study and teaching – Foreign speakers. |
Second language learning. | Motivation in education.
Classification: LCC PE1128.A2 M844 2020 (print) | LCC PE1128.A2 (ebook) |
DDC 428.0071 – dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020018824
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020018825
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN-13: 978-1-78892-885-4 (hbk)
ISBN-13: 978-1-78892-884-7 (pbk)
Multilingual Matters
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Copyright © 2020 Christine Muir.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any
means without permission in writing from the publisher.

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Contents

Figures and Tables ix

Acknowledgements xii
Preface xiii

Part 1: Introducing DMCs and Intensive Group Projects 1

1 Key Threads in the Field of L2 Motivation Research and
the Emergence of Directed Motivational Currents 3
From Macro to Micro Perspectives: Unavoidable Complexity 4
Changing Methodological Priorities and Perspectives 7
Possible Selves, the L2 Motivational Self System and Vision 8
Language Learner Self-concept 10
Language Learner Emotions 12
Group-level Investigation: Motivation, Agency,
Affect and Flow 14
The Emergence and the Significance of Directed
Motivational Currents 17
Conclusion  20
2 What Exactly is a DMC? Key Definitions and Core
Characteristics 22
(1) Goal Orientedness 24
(2) The Launch of a DMC 27
(3) DMC Structure 31
(4) Positive Emotional Loading 34
(5) The End of DMCs 38
Conclusion 41
3 DMCs in the L2 Classroom: Group DMCs and Intensive
Group Projects (‘with DMC Potential’) 43
Projects in the L2 Classroom 45
How Do Projects Align with Other Pedagogical Approaches
in SLA? 48

v
vi Contents

Introducing Group DMCs: Designing Projects ‘with DMC

Potential’ for the L2 Classroom 51
Conclusion 61
Part 1 Summary: Next Steps for DMC Research 63
Next Steps for DMC Research 63
Key Contributions of this Book 65

Part 2: DMCs Worldwide 67

4 Part 2 Methodology 69
Development of the DMC Disposition Questionnaire 69
Piloting the DMC Disposition Questionnaire 73
Procedure  74
Participants 74
Data Analysis 75
Conclusion 77
5 Investigating the Wider Relevance and Recognisability
of DMCs 78
First Look Results 78
Identifying DMCs in the Dataset 79
Creating a Composite DMC Disposition Scale  82
Interrogating the DMC Group: Comparisons with the
General Long-term Motivation Group 84
Interim Summary: What Do We Know So Far? 90
A Closer Look at the DMC Group: Who Experienced
DMCs?91
DMCs and Language Learning 94
Conclusion 97
6 Exploring Commonly Reported Triggers and the Experience
of DMCs 98
Investigating Commonly Reported Triggers 99
Reasons for or Against Wanting to Repeat the Experience 105
Conclusion 115
Part 2 Summary: Key Findings, Limitations and Pedagogical
Implications116
Summary of Findings 116
Methodological Decisions and Limitations  117
Pedagogical Implications 117
Concluding Thoughts 118
 Contents vii

Part 3: From Theory to Application: Group DMCs in the

L2 Classroom 119
7 Part 3 Methodology 123
Participants 123
Instruments 125
Procedure 129
Data Analysis 130
Conclusion 131
8 Group DMC Emergence: Assessing the Evidence 132
Was the Intervention Successful in Facilitating a
Group DMC? 133
Interim Summary: A Group DMC Emerged! 142
Benefits to Language Learning 143
How Did these Benefits Come About? 147
Conclusion 149
9 Intensive Group Projects ‘with DMC Potential’: Refining the
Key Criteria for Success 151
‘All Eyes on the Final Product’: Key Criteria for Success  151
Conclusion 171
Part 3 Summary: Key Findings, Limitations and Pedagogical
Implications172
Summary of Findings 172
Methodological Decisions and Limitations 173
Pedagogical Implications  174
Concluding Thoughts 175

Part 4: The Future of DMC Research 177

10 Revisiting the Seven Frameworks for Focused Interventions
and the Future of DMC Research 179
Revisiting the Seven Frameworks for Focused Interventions 180
Study Abroad 183
Longer-term Effects of Study Abroad Experiences 185
Longer-term Effects of DMC Experiences? 186
Key Contributions of this Book  189
The Future of DMC Research 192
Conclusion 201

vii
viii Contents

Afterword 203
Some Practical Advice 203
Useful Websites 206
Researching Projects ‘with DMC potential’ (A Guide to the
Appendices)207
Appendix 1: Full Questionnaire with Response/Routing
Options208
Appendix 2: Student Diary Template and a Sample
Completed Page 217
Appendix 3: Teacher Journal Template and a Sample
Completed Page 219
Appendix 4: Traditional School Timetable and the
Timetable for Week 1 of the Project 221
Appendix 5: Project Framework 224
References 225
Index 249
Figures and Tables

Figures
4.1 Description of DMCs used in the DMC Disposition
Questionnaire71
5.1 Duration of the experience for the DMC and
general long-term motivation groups  87
5.2 Ages of respondents within the DMC group versus
the sample as a whole  92
5.3 Age range of respondents in the Never group
compared to the sample as a whole 94
5.4 Language levels at the time that participants
experienced this type of motivation in the context
of language learning, for those who answered
‘Strongly Agree’ (N = 277) 96
5.5 Contexts in which DMCs were experienced
in the context of language learning, for those who
answered ‘Strongly Agree’ (N = 277) 96
Afterword.1 Sketch of a project on creating a video clip to be
used as class material 205

Tables
3.1 Seven frameworks for focused interventions  58
4.1 Number of responses from the top 20 most well represented
countries (in terms of number of respondents) 76
4.2 Number of responses broken down by continent  76
4.3 The age spread of respondents 77
5.1 Summary of responses to initial questions regarding
participants’ recognition and experience of this type of
intense motivation 79
5.2 Summary of responses to the question: ‘How often do you
think you have experienced a project to this kind of
motivational intensity?’ 79

ix
x Figures and Tables

5.3 Chi-square results: Level of intensity x whether

participants would like to repeat the experience 81
5.4 Results of the exploratory factor analysis (Extraction
method: Maximum Likelihood. Rotation method:
Oblimin with Kaiser normalisation) 83
5.5 Results of the exploratory factor analysis with a forced
two factor solution (Extraction method: Maximum
Likelihood. Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser
normalisation)83
5.6 Descriptive statistics for the four response groups
submitted to ANOVA to compare scores on the DMC
Disposition Scale 84
5.7 Descriptive statistics for the four response groups
submitted to ANOVA to compare scores in the level of
intensity reported 85
5.8 Descriptive statistics of responses on the DMC
Disposition Scale in the general long-term motivation
group for each of the seven age groups 85
5.9 Descriptive statistics of responses on the DMC
Disposition Scale from participants in the DMC group
for each of the four regrouped age categories  86
5.10 Chi-square analysis comparing the DMC and general
long-term motivation groups by way of the duration of
the experience 87
5.11 Descriptive statistics of the five groups put forward for
ANOVA: Both the DMC group and the general
long-term motivation group together (N = 1185;
1 = Not very intense, 5 = Very intense) 88
5.12 Descriptive statistics of the five groups put forward for
ANOVA: The general long-term motivation group
(N = 655) 88
5.13 Descriptive statistics of the five groups put forward for
ANOVA: The DMC group (N = 530) 89
5.14 Summary of responses to the question: ‘Have you seen
this type of intense motivation in people around you?’ 89
5.15 A 2 × 3 Chi-square analysis between participants’ own
experience of DMCs and whether they have witnessed
DMCs in others 90
5.16 Chi-square analysis comparing the DMC group and the
rest of the sample by way of the ages of participants 92
5.17 Nationality make-up of the DMC group and the sample
group as a whole for the top 15 most populous
nationalities represented 93
 Figures and Tables xi

5.18 Nationality breakdown of the top 15 most populous

nationalities in the Never group compared to the sample
as a whole 95
5.19 Summary of responses to the statement: ‘I have
personally experienced this type of intense motivation
specifically while learning a language’ 95
6.1 Group 1: Trigger linked to external influences
(positive connotation) 101
6.2 Group 2: Trigger linked to external influences
(negative connotation)  101
6.3 Group 3: Trigger outcome led 102
6.4 Group 4: Trigger connected to intrapersonal reasons  102
6.5 Summary of responses to the question: ‘How did this
period of intense motivation begin?’104
6.6 Why participants would like to experience this type of
motivation again. Group 1: Outcome-based reasons 107
6.7 Why participants would like to experience this type of
motivation again. Group 2: Process-based reasons 107
6.8 Why participants would like to experience this type of
motivation again. Group 3: More intrapersonal reasons 108
6.9 Why participants would like to experience this type of
motivation again. Group 4: General/other reasons 108
6.10 Summary of responses as to why individuals reported
wanting to repeat the experience 109
6.11 Why participants would not like to experience this type
of motivation again. Group 1: Personal emotional/health
reasons113
6.12 Why participants would not like to experience this type of
motivation again. Group 2: Project specific/other reasons  113
6.13 Summary of responses as to why individuals reported not
wanting to repeat the experience114
7.1 Overview of student participants 124
A4.1 Traditional course timetable 221
A4.2 Lesson outlines for Week 1 of the study described in Part 3 222
Acknowledgements

I am grateful to have been able to collaborate with Zoltán Dörnyei,

Alastair Henry and Zana Ibrahim in developing our understanding
of directed motivational currents, and I am indebted to Zoltán for his
dedicated and kind mentorship. My thanks go equally to the partici-
pants who freely gave of their time to participate in this research, and
to Jessica Florent and David Leach for their unending patience, enthusi-
asm and openness in allowing me into their classrooms. I look forward
to repaying this debt to all, with continued friendship and collaboration
over the years to come.

xii
Preface

The course of human history is replete with stories of individuals who

have accomplished extraordinary feats. Whether related to technolog-
ical or scientific innovation, remarkable discoveries about the world
around us, or astonishing feats of endurance, before such achievements
are realised it can often be hard to think them even possible. Take, for
example, two feats recently achieved by Tommy Caldwell and Alex
Honnold: after years of striving, both have succeeded in ‘impossible’
rock climbs up El Capitan. ‘El Cap’, as it is affectionately known, is one
of the crown jewels of Yosemite National Park. It is a 3000-foot sheer
granite rock face and a lifetime ambition of rock climbers the world
over. Caldwell ‘free climbed’ the – previously considered ‘unclimbable’ –
Dawn Wall route alongside Kevin Jorgeson, using ropes and other aids
only to save them from falls. Honnold later ‘free soloed’ the Freerider
route up El Cap, completing the entire ascent without any ropes, har-
nesses or other safety measures. Their remarkable stories are captured in
the recent feature length documentaries The Dawn Wall (2017) and Free
Solo (2018). The passion and drive required to see such projects through
to completion, enduring years of hardship and struggle in the process,
are nothing short of colossal. These are extraordinary, personal passion
projects, both of which led Caldwell and Honnold to experience remark-
ably robust outpourings of highly focused, intensely motivated, extended
goal striving.
Similarly motivated passion projects can be found in all arenas of
life. For another example, in a different learning context, let us turn to
the story of Rifath Sharook. Rifath was a young Indian boy who, in the
words of Forbes India, lived to both ‘breathe and eat space research’.1
He grew up spending evenings in the garden with his astronomer
father, gazing up at the night sky through a telescope. On watching the
explosion of the INSAT-4C satellite just 72 seconds after its launch in
2006, he struggled to understand the difficulties surrounding the launch
of a satellite into space. His father told him he would see for himself,
when he launched his own satellite in the future – Rifath quietly
committed to himself that he would. Rifath’s story took a turn when,
at the age of 10, his father died and he was left without his teacher.

xiii
xiv Preface

In his own words: ‘All the things I got is a slow 2G internet connection in
my village. So I used the internet as my teacher, I started learning about
all the space research and technology.’2 His passion and intense drive
later saw him join a team through Space Kidz India,3 and ultimately –
and while he was still in the process of completing his undergraduate
degree in physics – design the smallest satellite in the world, which was
launched into space by NASA in 2016.4
Through this project, Rifath and his teammates had clearly achieved
something extraordinary. Driven by an intensely personal goal – rooted
in his relationship and shared passion with his late father – he had
worked immensely hard to achieve it. In a TEDx talk discussing their
accomplishment, Rifath and one of his teammates, Mohammed Abdul
Kashif, emphasised the importance of leadership, team management
and positive group dynamics. Yet, as they described, having a common
goal and joint vision was core to their success. They had a crystal clear
idea of what it was they wanted to achieve, and this served both to block
out competing opportunities for action and to continually trigger their
attention back towards their goal. Indeed, their toughest hurdle was ulti-
mately overcome via inspiration sparked from eating gulab jamun (a type
of sweet and sticky fried dough ball) over dinner: What if they could
build a satellite just as small and light?
Remarkably, the reaction to their achievements was not universally
positive. As Rifath went on to describe in this TEDx talk:

Even a lot of big scientists and a lot of experts also told, why you stu-
dents are concentrating in this kind of research? You have to study first,
you have to settle up in the life, after that you can peacefully do the
research. But we don’t want to wait for that time.

They did not want to wait, and – in today’s world, where they were
able to access all the resources and support structures needed in order to
achieve their goals – why should they have had to?
I am unable to comment on the levels of Rifath’s engagement with
his physics degree throughout this period, but the question would surely
not be unwarranted. With such experiences of success and achievement
in his own time – experiences that allowed him to act wholly authenti-
cally to his most personal goals and ambitions – to what extent could
his formal studies have facilitated the same levels of engagement? In the
context of English language teaching (ELT), such a stark authenticity
gap has certainly been documented.
In Sweden, for example, students are not only surrounded by English
in their lives outside the classroom, but their using it as a means of
communication is becoming increasingly commonplace. As Henry
(2013) has explored, this includes through online gaming, a pastime
that offers a very real avenue of language learning for many around
 Preface xv

the world. Compared to the authenticity and autonomy that students

can experience in the context of playing video games, the dry reality of
classrooms can be unable to compete. As Henry describes, in order to
succeed, players are required to work collaboratively, creatively, develop
and draw on deep wells of knowledge, and interact not only with each
other but ‘with the game itself’ (Henry, 2013: 137). It is therefore unsur-
prising to read his subsequent observation: ‘the English of today’s
­classrooms may by comparison seem less meaningful. Less “real”. A
credibility problem seems to be emerging. There would appear to be an
authenticity gap between the two worlds’ (Henry, 2013: 139).
The students in our classrooms today live their lives in a world
different to that seen even as recently as two decades ago. They have
access to extraordinary resources and are increasingly technology savvy
(and increasingly technology equipped), entirely at home with ‘the
“twitchspeed” pace and multilayered delivery of modern media’ (Barcley,
2010: xi). Striving to establish motivating classroom conditions (cf.
Dörnyei & Muir, 2019) and facilitative learning environments may no
longer be sufficient to ensure that initial motivational impetus is trans-
lated into action and into productive learning behaviours (cf. Mercer,
2019; Mercer & Dörnyei, 2020).
One response to this challenge has been a resurgence in the use of
projects as educational tools. The lure of projects is rooted in their
potential to be able to facilitate for students the same intense surges of
motivation they experience when following their own passion projects
outside the classroom. Rifath’s story offers one such example of a moti-
vational project experienced in the extreme. By way of offering another,
I draw again on a quote describing the extraordinary outcome of a moti-
vational project that we offered in Dörnyei et al. (2016). In the following,
an EFL teacher is describing the outcome of a fundraising project that
students had recently completed together in her class, which raised
money for the Cancer Council:5

the autonomy the students worked with was beyond anything I had
seen before. The most telling thing came right at the end when we were
debriefing on the whole experience and sharing thank yous. The feed-
back from the students, in addition to the usual comments on making
new friends, having great memories and feeling more confident in their
English abilities, also included things like ‘having a new purpose,’
‘being useful,’ ‘seeing themselves as capable of new things,’ ‘wanting
to do it again,’ ‘wanting to teach others to do the same.’ All of these
ideas made me realize that on top of the massive high they were on
throughout the event and afterwards (as their success was celebrated
quite publicly at the school), that they had learnt much more than lan-
guage and new skills and knew that they could work with a heightened
level of intensity towards their English language goals. (Dörnyei et al.,
2016: xiv)