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Induction Machines Handbook
 Electric Power Engineering Series
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Induction Machines Handbook, Third Edition (Two-Volume Set)
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Induction Machines Handbook
Steady State Modeling and Performance

Third Edition

Ion Boldea
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accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Boldea, I., author.
Title: Induction machines handbook: steady state modeling and performance / Ion Boldea.
Description: Third edition. | Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2020. |
Series: Electric power engineering | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Contents: v. 1. Induction machines handbook: steady stat — v.
2. Induction machines handbook: transients
Identifiers: LCCN 2020000304 (print) | LCCN 2020000305 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367466121 (v. 1 ; hbk) | ISBN 9780367466183 (v. 2 ; hbk) |
ISBN 9781003033417 (v. 1 ; ebk) | ISBN 9781003033424 (v. 2 ; ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Electric machinery, Induction—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TK2711 .B65 2020 (print) | LCC TK2711 (ebook) |
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ISBN: 978-0-367-46612-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-03341-7 (ebk)

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Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Author.............................................................................................................................................. xix

Chapter 1 Induction Machines: An Introduction........................................................................... 1

1.1 Electric Energy and Induction Motors............................................................... 1
1.2 A Historical Touch ............................................................................................ 2
1.3 Induction Machines in Applications.................................................................. 4
1.4 Conclusion........................................................................................................ 13
References................................................................................................................... 14

Chapter 2 Construction Aspects and Operation Principles......................................................... 15

2.1 Construction Aspects of Rotary IMs................................................................ 16
2.1.1 The Magnetic Cores ........................................................................... 16
2.1.2 Slot Geometry..................................................................................... 17
2.1.3 IM Windings....................................................................................... 19
2.1.4 Cage Rotor Windings ......................................................................... 23
2.2 Construction Aspects of Linear Induction Motors........................................... 24
2.3 Operation Principles of IMs............................................................................. 26
2.4 Summary.......................................................................................................... 30
References................................................................................................................... 31

Chapter 3 Magnetic, Electric, and Insulation Materials for IM.................................................. 33

3.1 
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Soft Magnetic Materials .................................................................................. 33
3.3 Core (Magnetic) Losses.................................................................................... 36
3.4 Electrical Conductors....................................................................................... 41
3.5 Insulation Materials.......................................................................................... 44
3.5.1 Random-Wound IM Insulation............................................................ 45
3.5.2 Form-Wound Windings ...................................................................... 45
3.6 Summary.......................................................................................................... 46
References................................................................................................................... 47

Chapter 4 Induction Machine Windings and Their mmfs........................................................... 49

4.1 
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 49
4.2 The Ideal Travelling mmf of A.C. Windings .................................................. 49
4.3 A Primitive Single-Layer Winding ................................................................. 52
4.4 A Primitive Two-Layer Chorded Winding ...................................................... 53
4.5 The mmf Harmonics for Integer q .................................................................. 53
4.6 Rules for Designing Practical A.C. Windings.................................................. 58
4.7 Basic Fractional q Three-Phase A.C. Windings............................................... 64
4.8 Basic Pole-Changing Three-Phase A.C. Windings.......................................... 66
4.9 Two-Phase A.C. Windings............................................................................... 69
4.10 Pole Changing with Single-Phase Supply Induction Motors .......................... 73

vii
viii Contents

4.11 Special Topics on A.C. Windings .................................................................... 73

4.12 The mmf of Rotor Windings............................................................................ 79
4.13 The “Skewing” mmf Concept.......................................................................... 80
4.14 Multiphase and Multilayer Tooth-Wound Coil Windings................................ 82
4.15 Summary.......................................................................................................... 83
References................................................................................................................... 85

Chapter 5 The Magnetisation Curve and Inductance ................................................................. 87

5.1 
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 87
5.2 Equivalent Airgap to Account for Slotting ...................................................... 88
5.3 Effective Stack Length..................................................................................... 90
5.4 The Basic Magnetisation Curve....................................................................... 91
5.4.1 The Magnetisation Curve via the Basic Magnetic Circuit.................. 92
5.4.2 Teeth Defluxing by Slots .................................................................... 97
5.4.3 Third Harmonic Flux Modulation due to Saturation.......................... 97
5.4.4 The Analytical Iterative Model (AIM)................................................ 98
5.4.4.1 Magnetic Potential, A, Solution .......................................... 99
5.4.4.2 The Computer Program..................................................... 102
5.4.4.3 Model Validation on No Load........................................... 103
5.5 The EMF in an A.C. Winding........................................................................ 110
5.6 The Magnetisation Inductance ...................................................................... 113
5.7 Saturated Magnetisation Inductance by Curve Fitting.................................. 116
5.8 Summary........................................................................................................ 117
References................................................................................................................. 118

Chapter 6 Leakage Inductances and Resistances...................................................................... 119

6.1 Leakage Fields................................................................................................ 119
6.2 Differential Leakage Inductances.................................................................. 119
6.3 Rectangular Slot Leakage Inductance/Single Layer...................................... 123
6.4 Rectangular Slot Leakage Inductance/Two Layers........................................ 124
6.5 Rounded Shape Slot Leakage Inductance/Two Layers.................................. 126
6.6 Zig-Zag Airgap Leakage Inductances............................................................ 128
6.7 End-Connection Leakage Inductance............................................................ 130
6.8 Skewing Leakage Inductance......................................................................... 131
6.9 Rotor Bar and End Ring Equivalent Leakage Inductance............................. 131
6.10 Basic Phase Resistance................................................................................... 132
6.11 The Cage Rotor Resistance............................................................................ 132
6.12 Simplified Leakage Saturation Corrections................................................... 134
6.13 Reducing the Rotor to Stator.......................................................................... 136
6.14 The Brushless Doubly Fed Induction Machine (BDFIM)............................. 138
6.15 Summary........................................................................................................ 140
References ................................................................................................................ 141

Chapter 7 Steady-State Equivalent Circuit and Performance.................................................... 143

7.1 Basic Steady-State Equivalent Circuit ........................................................... 143
7.2 Classification of Operation Modes................................................................. 145
7.3 Ideal No-Load Operation............................................................................... 146
Contents ix

7.4 Short-Circuit (Zero Speed) Operation............................................................ 149

7.5 No-Load Motor Operation.............................................................................. 153
7.6 The Motor Mode of Operation....................................................................... 155
7.7 Generating to Power Grid............................................................................... 156
7.8 Autonomous Induction Generator Mode ....................................................... 158
7.9 The Electromagnetic Torque.......................................................................... 160
7.10 Efficiency and Power Factor........................................................................... 165
7.11 Phasor Diagrams: Standard and New............................................................. 168
7.12 Alternative Equivalent Circuits ..................................................................... 171
7.13 Unbalanced Supply Voltages.......................................................................... 173
7.14 One Stator Phase Is Open............................................................................... 176
7.15 Unbalanced Rotor Windings.......................................................................... 179
7.16 One Rotor Phase Is Open............................................................................... 181
7.17 When Voltage Varies Around Rated Value.................................................... 182
7.18 When Stator Voltages Have Time Harmonics................................................ 182
7.19 Equivalent Circuits for Brushless Doubly Fed IMs........................................ 183
7.20 Summary........................................................................................................ 185
References................................................................................................................. 186

Chapter 8 Starting and Speed Control Methods........................................................................ 189

8.1 Starting of Cage-Rotor Induction Motors...................................................... 189
8.1.1 Direct Starting................................................................................... 189
8.1.2 Autotransformer Starting.................................................................. 192
8.1.3 Wye-Delta Starting........................................................................... 193
8.1.4 Softstarting........................................................................................ 194
8.2 Starting of Wound-Rotor Induction Motors................................................... 197
8.3 Speed Control Methods for Cage-Rotor Induction Motors............................ 198
8.3.1 The Voltage Reduction Method........................................................ 199
8.3.2 The Pole-Changing Method.............................................................. 200
8.4 Variable Frequency Methods.......................................................................... 201
8.4.1 V/f Scalar Control Characteristics ................................................... 201
8.4.2 Rotor Flux Vector Control ................................................................ 205
8.5 Speed Control Methods for Wound-Rotor IMs.............................................. 208
8.5.1 Additional Voltage to the Rotor (the Doubly Fed Machine)............. 209
8.6 Control Basics of DFIMs................................................................................ 213
8.7 Summary........................................................................................................ 215
References................................................................................................................. 216

Chapter 9 Skin and On-Load Saturation Effects....................................................................... 219

9.1 
Introduction .................................................................................................... 219
9.2 The Skin Effect.............................................................................................. 221
9.2.1 Single Conductor in Rectangular Slot............................................... 222
9.2.2 Multiple Conductors in Rectangular Slots: Series Connection......... 222
9.2.3 Multiple Conductors in Slot: Parallel Connection............................ 226
9.2.4 The Skin Effect in the End Turns...................................................... 228
9.3 Skin Effects by the Multilayer Approach....................................................... 230
9.4 Skin Effect in the End Rings via the Multilayer Approach............................ 235
9.5 The Double Cage Behaves Like a Deep Bar Cage......................................... 237
x Contents

9.6 Leakage Flux Path Saturation – A Simplified Approach............................... 238

9.7 Leakage Saturation and Skin Effects – A Comprehensive Analytical
Approach������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 242
9.7.1 The Skewing mmf............................................................................. 246
9.7.2 Flux in the Cross-Section Marked by AB (Figure 9.25)................... 248
9.7.3 The Stator Tooth Top Saturates First ............................................... 249
9.7.4 Unsaturated Rotor Tooth Top............................................................ 250
9.7.5 Saturated Rotor Tooth Tip................................................................. 251
9.7.6 The Case of Closed Rotor Slots ....................................................... 252
9.7.7 The Algorithm................................................................................... 252
9.8 The FEM Approach........................................................................................ 253
9.9 Magnetic Saturation Effects on Current/Slip and Torque/Slip Curves ......... 258
9.10 Rotor Slot Leakage Reactance Saturation Effects.......................................... 260
9.11 Solid Rotor Effects ........................................................................................ 262
9.12 Standardised Line-Start Induction Motors..................................................... 264
9.13 Summary........................................................................................................ 265
References................................................................................................................. 266

Chapter 10 Airgap Field Space Harmonics, Parasitic Torques, Radial Forces, and
Noise Basics ............................................................................................................. 269
10.1 Stator mmf Produced Airgap Flux Harmonics.............................................. 269
10.2 Airgap Field of a Squirrel-Cage Winding ..................................................... 270
10.3 Airgap Permeance Harmonics....................................................................... 271
10.4 Leakage Saturation Influence on Airgap Permeance..................................... 272
10.5 Main Flux Saturation Influence on Airgap Permeance.................................. 273
10.6 The Harmonics-Rich Airgap Flux Density.................................................... 274
10.7 The Eccentricity Influence on Airgap Magnetic Permeance......................... 274
10.8 Interactions of mmf (or Step) Harmonics and Airgap Magnetic
Permeance Harmonics����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 276
10.9 Parasitic Torques............................................................................................. 277
10.9.1 When Do Asynchronous Parasitic Torques Occur?.......................... 277
10.9.2 Synchronous Parasitic Torques......................................................... 280
10.9.3 Leakage Saturation Influence on Synchronous Torques................... 283
10.9.4 The Secondary Armature Reaction.................................................. 285
10.9.5 Notable Differences between Theoretical and Experimental
Torque/Speed Curves����������������������������������������������������������������������� 286
10.9.6 A Case Study: Ns/Nr = 36/28, 2p1 = 4, y/τ = 1, and 7/9; m = 3 [7]......... 287
10.9.7 Evaluation of Parasitic Torques by Tests (after Ref. [1])................... 288
10.10 Radial Forces and Electromagnetic Noise Basics.......................................... 289
10.10.1 Constant Airgap (No Slotting, No Eccentricity) .............................. 290
10.10.2 Influence of Stator/Rotor Slot Openings, Airgap Deflection,
and Saturation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 291
10.10.3 Influence of Rotor Eccentricity on Noise.......................................... 292
10.10.4 Parallel Stator Windings................................................................... 292
10.10.5 Slip-Ring Induction Motors.............................................................. 293
10.10.6 Mechanical Resonance Stator Frequencies....................................... 294
10.11 Electromagnetic Vibration: A Practical View ............................................... 294
10.12 Summary........................................................................................................ 295
References................................................................................................................. 298
Contents xi

Chapter 11 Losses in Induction Machines................................................................................... 299

11.1 Loss
 Classifications........................................................................................ 299
11.2 Fundamental Electromagnetic Losses............................................................ 300
11.3 No-Load Space Harmonics (Stray No-Load) Losses in Nonskewed IMs...... 302
11.3.1 No-Load Surface Core Losses.......................................................... 302
11.3.2 No-Load Tooth Flux Pulsation Losses.............................................. 306
11.3.3 No-Load Tooth Flux Pulsation Cage Losses..................................... 309
11.4 Load Space Harmonics (Stray Load) Losses in Nonskewed IMs ................. 311
11.5 Flux Pulsation (Stray) Losses in Skewed Insulated Bars............................... 314
11.6 Interbar Current Losses in Uninsulated Skewed Rotor Cages....................... 315
11.7 No-Load Rotor Skewed Uninsulated Cage Losses........................................ 321
11.8 Load Rotor Skewed Uninsulated Cage Losses............................................... 321
11.9 Rules to Reduce Full-Load Stray (Space Harmonics) Losses........................ 322
11.10 High-Frequency Time Harmonics Losses...................................................... 323
11.10.1 Conductor Losses.............................................................................. 324
11.10.2 Core Losses....................................................................................... 325
11.10.3 Total Time Harmonics Losses.......................................................... 327
11.11 Computation of Time-Harmonics Conductor Losses .................................... 327
11.12 Time-Harmonics Interbar Rotor Current Losses........................................... 329
11.13 Computation of Time-Harmonic Core Losses .............................................. 331
11.13.1 Slot Wall Core Losses....................................................................... 331
11.13.2 Zig-Zag Rotor Surface Losses........................................................... 332
11.14 Loss Computation by FEM Basics................................................................. 333
11.15 Summary........................................................................................................ 334
References................................................................................................................. 337

Chapter 12 Thermal Modelling and Cooling.............................................................................. 339

12.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 339
12.2 Some Air Cooling Methods for IMs.............................................................. 339
12.3 Conduction Heat Transfer............................................................................... 341
12.4 Convection Heat Transfer............................................................................... 343
12.5 Heat Transfer by Radiation............................................................................. 345
12.6 Heat Transport (Thermal Transients) in a Homogenous Body ..................... 346
12.7 Induction Motor Thermal Transients at Stall................................................. 347
12.8 Intermittent Operation.................................................................................... 349
12.9 Temperature Rise (tON) and Fall (tOFF) Times ................................................ 350
12.10 More Realistic Thermal Equivalent Circuits for IMs.................................... 352
12.11 A Detailed Thermal Equivalent Circuit for Transients.................................. 354
12.12 Thermal Equivalent Circuit Identification...................................................... 356
12.13 Thermal Analysis through FEM.................................................................... 358
12.14 Summary........................................................................................................ 359
References................................................................................................................. 360

Chapter 13 Single-Phase Induction Machines: The Basics......................................................... 361

13.1 Introduction
 .................................................................................................... 361
13.2 Split-Phase Induction Motors......................................................................... 361
13.3 Capacitor Induction Motors............................................................................ 362
13.3.1 Capacitor-Start Induction Motors...................................................... 362
xii Contents

13.3.2 The Two-Value Capacitor Induction Motor ...................................... 363

13.3.3 Permanent-Split Capacitor Induction Motors.................................... 364
13.3.4 Tapped-Winding Capacitor Induction Motors................................... 364
13.3.5 Split-Phase Capacitor Induction Motors........................................... 364
13.3.6 Capacitor Three-Phase Induction Motors......................................... 365
13.3.7 Shaded-Pole Induction Motors.......................................................... 366
13.4 The Nature of Stator-Produced Airgap Field................................................. 367
13.5 The Fundamental mmf and Its Elliptic Wave................................................ 369
13.6 Forward–Backward mmf Waves.................................................................... 371
13.7 The Symmetrical Components’ General Model............................................ 372
13.8 The d-q Model ............................................................................................... 375
13.9 The d-q Model of Star Steinmetz Connection................................................ 376
13.10 PM-Assisted Split-Phase Cage-Rotor IMs .................................................... 378
13.11 Summary........................................................................................................ 379
References................................................................................................................. 381

Chapter 14 Single-Phase Induction Motors: Steady State........................................................... 383

14.1 Introduction
 .................................................................................................... 383
14.2 Steady-State Performance with Open Auxiliary Winding............................. 383
14.3 The Split Phase and the Capacitor IM: Currents and Torque......................... 388
14.4 Symmetrisation
 Conditions............................................................................ 392
14.5 Starting Torque and Current Inquires ........................................................... 394
14.6 Typical Motor Characteristics........................................................................ 397
14.7 Non-Orthogonal Stator Windings.................................................................. 398
14.8 Symmetrisation Conditions for Non-Orthogonal Windings.......................... 401
14.9 mmf Space Harmonic Parasitic Torques ....................................................... 407
14.10 Torque
 Pulsations........................................................................................... 408
14.11 Interbar Rotor Currents.................................................................................. 409
14.12 Voltage Harmonics Effects............................................................................. 409
14.13 The Doubly Tapped Winding Capacitor IM.................................................. 410
14.13.1 Symmetrisation
 Conditions............................................................... 414
14.13.2 Note on Magnetic Saturation and Steady-State Losses.................... 414
14.13.3 2/4 Pole Split-Phase Capacitor Induction Motor (after Ref. [11]) ..... 415
14.14 Summary........................................................................................................ 417
References................................................................................................................. 419

Index............................................................................................................................................... 421
Preface
MOTIVATION
The 2010–2020 decade has seen notable progress in induction machines (IMs) technology such as

• Extension of analytical and finite element modelling (FEM) for better precision and
performance
• Advanced FEM-assisted optimal design methodologies with multi-physics character
• Introduction of upgraded premium efficiency IM international standards
• Development and fabrication of copper cage rotor IM drives for traction on electric vehicles
• Extension of wound rotor induction generators (WRIG or DFIG) with partial rating
­A.C.–D.C.–A.C. converters in wind energy conversion and to pump storage reversible
power plants (up to 400 MVA/unit)
• Extension of cage rotor induction generators with full power pulse width modulation
(PWM) converters for wind energy conversion (up to 5 MVA/unit)
• Development of cage (or nested cage) rotor dual stator winding induction generators/
motors with partial rating power electronics for wind energy and vehicular technologies
(autonomous operation)
• Development of line-start premium efficiency IMs with cage rotor, provided with PMs
and/or magnetic saliency for self-synchronisation and operation at synchronism (three
phase and one phase), for residential applications, etc.
• Introduction of multiphase (m > 3) IMs for higher torque density and more fault-tolerant
electric drives.

All the above, reflected in a strong increase of line-start IMs and variable speed IM motor and gen-
erator drives markets, have prompted us to prepare a new (third) edition of the book.

VOLUME 1: INDUCTION MACHINE: STEADY STATE MODELING

AND PERFORMANCE, THIRD EDITION/437 PP.
Short DeScription
In essence, as a compromise between not confusing the readers of the second edition, but bringing
new knowledge in too, it was decided to introduce the new knowledge towards the end of each
chapter mainly, but not only, as new paragraphs.
Also the text, equations, figures, and numbers in the numerical examples have been checked
carefully with local corrections/improvements/additions wherever necessary.
Finally, new/recent representative references have been added and assessed in the text
(sometimes in the existing paragraphs) of each chapter.
The new paragraphs are

Chapter 4/4.14 – Multiphase and multilayer tooth-wound coil windings

Chapter 6/6.14 – The brushless doubly fed induction machine (BDFIM)
Chapter 7/7.19 – Equivalent circuits for brushless doubly fed IMs
Chapter 8/8.6 – Control basics of DFIMs
Chapter 9/9.9 – Magnetic saturation effects or current/slip and torque/slip curves
Chapter 9/9.10 – Rotor slot leakage reactance saturation effects
Chapter 9/9.11 – Closed slot IM saturation effects

xiii
xiv Preface

Chapter 10/10.11 – The origin of electromagnetic vibration: by practical experience

Chapter 13/13.10 – PM-assisted split-phase cage-rotor IMs.

All efforts have been made to keep the mathematics extension under control but introduce ready-
to-use expressions of industry parameters and performance computation. In compensation,
numerical examples have been generously spread all over the book to facilitate a strong feeling of
magnitudes which is, in our view, indispensable in engineering.
There are in total 14 chapters (1–14) in Volume I, which totalise about 437 pages.

contentS
As already mentioned, Volume I refers to steady-state modelling and performance of induction
machines, covering 14 chapters. Here is a short presentation of the 14 chapters by content.
Chapter 1: “Induction Machines: An Introduction”/16 pages.
Induction machines (IMs) are related to mechanical into electrical energy conversion via
magnetic energy storage in an ensemble of coupled electric and magnetic circuits. Energy is
paramount to prosperity, while electric energy conversion in electric power plants and in motion
digital control by power electronics is the key to higher industrial productivity with reasonable
impact on the environment. A historical touch is followed by IMs’ application examples in a myr-
iad of industries, with IM not only the workhorse but also one important racehorse of the industry
(at variable speed).
Chapter 2: “Construction Aspects and Operation Principles”/18 pages.
This chapter introduces the main parts of IMs and the principles of electromagnetic induction
(Faraday law) in producing electromagnetic force (torque) on the rotor (mover) made of a cage or
two- (three-) phase A.C. winding (coil) placed in a slotted laminated silicon-iron core. The prin-
ciples explained this way apply to both linear motion and rotary electric machines (where the torque
concept replaces the tangential force concept).
The recent premium IMs with PM and magnetic saliency added beneath the rotor cage are also
referred to.
Chapter 3: “Magnetic, Electric, and Insulation Materials for IM”/16 pages.
Main active materials – magnetic, electric, and insulation types – used in the IM fabrication are
presented with their characteristic performance, with additional data on recently developed such
materials (and pertinent source literature). Core loss basic formulae have been derived starting from
Maxwell equations, and tables illustrate core losses/kg of silicon steel at various flux densities and
a few frequencies of interest.
Chapter 4: “Induction Machine Windings and Their mmfs”/40 pages.
The fundamental concept of magnetomotive force (mmf) as the source of a travelling magnetic
field in the airgap of IMs is introduced, first produced with three-phase alternative current
(A.C.) windings (coils), then with two-phase A.C. windings (for single-phase A.C. source sup-
plies), and finally (new) with multiphase (5, 7, 2 × 3, 3 × 3 phases) A.C. windings, introduced
recently. The placement of A.C. windings in slots is discussed in detail. The winding factor’s three
components for distributed windings (integer or fractionary slot/pole/phase, q ≥ 1) are derived both
for the fundamental component (average torque producing) and for the m.m.f. space harmonics.
Finally, the “skewing” m.m.f. concept is introduced, only to be, later in this book, used to prove the
axially non-uniform magnetic saturation of the stator core, especially at high currents (above 2–3
p.u.; p.u. means relative values to rated current).
Chapter 5: “The Magnetisation Curve and Inductance”/32 pages.
The magnetisation curve (magnetisation fundamental airgap) flux linkage Ψm1 versus stator
fundamental phase current im10 (with zero rotor current and/or the magnetisation inductance
Lm = Ψm1/im10) are crucial to IM performance and are calculated first analytically by a simplified
and then by analytical iterative model (AIM) both accounting for magnetic saturation and for the
Preface xv

slotting influences, with results proved experimentally. The magnetic saturation airgap, teeth, and
back-iron flux density harmonics are illustrated as a basis to calculate iron losses in a later chapter.
The electromagnetic force (emf) induced in an A.C. winding is calculated illustrating the same
three components of the winding factors already derived for mmfs and the emf time harmonics,
produced essentially by the mmf and magnetic saturation-caused space harmonics.
Finally, finite element modelling (FEM) – numerical – computation of airgap flux density for zero
rotor currents (ideal no-load currents: at ideal (synchronous) no-load speed n1 of mmf wave funda-
mental: n1 = f1/p1; f1 – A.C. stator currents frequency, p1 – number of pole pairs (periods) of travelling
field along one revolution) is performed to illustrate the space fundamental and harmonics produced
by the slotting (and magnetic saturation). A numerical detailed example for the magnetisation curve
calculation gives a stronger feeling of magnitudes for its components in air and iron cores.
Chapter 6: “Leakage Inductances and Resistances”/25 pages.
The part of the magnetic field that does not embrace both stator and rotor windings, called
generically leakage field, being mostly in air, is decomposed in differential (space harmonics), slot
(distinct for different practical slot geometries), zig-zag – airgap and end – connection components
to give rise to respective leakage inductance components in the stator and in the rotor (Lsl and Lrl).
This important aspect of IM technology is presented quantitatively in ample detail. Numerical
examples illustrate the magnitudes, and very recent refined calculation methodologies of leakage
inductances – with FEM validation – are synthesised (new). The stator- and rotor-phase resistances
(Rs and R r) are calculated too.
Chapter 7: “Steady-State Equivalent Circuit and Performance”/47 pages.
Based on the main phase circuit parameters, extracted from magnetic field distribution (fluxes,
energy), – Lm, Lsl, Lrl, Rs, R r – the standard phase equivalent circuit of the IM with three phases
is introduced and then, particularised for: ideal no-load speed (n0 = n1 = n; S0i = (n1 − n)/n1 = 0),
no-load motoring (n = n0, S0 = (n1 − n0)/n1; S0 > S0i), on load (S = (n1 − n)/n1 > s0) but in the interval
of 0.05–0.005, with increasing power, generator to the grid, capacitor (self-excited) autonomous
generator, mechanical characteristic, efficiency, power factor, unbalanced stator or rotor operation,
voltage sags, swells, and time harmonics, with numerical examples. Finally, the steady-state equiva-
lent circuit of nested-cage dual stator winding IM and of cascaded – dual stator winding IM are
presented in view of their recent proposition for wind energy conversion (new).
Chapter 8: “Starting and Speed Control Methods”/31 pages.
Starting and close loop control of IMs is an art of itself – electric drives – but the principles of it
have to be derived first by a deep knowledge of IM operation modes. This chapter presents first the
starting and speed control methods of line-start (constant stator frequency) cage and wound rotor
IMs. Then the two main categories of close loop speed control: V/f control (with stabilizing loops
recently) and field-oriented control (FOC), illustrated by exemplary mechanical characteristics and
block (structural) control diagrams are unfolded and complimented by self-explanatory numerical
examples.
Chapter 9: “Skin and On-Load Saturation Effects”/51 pages.
Skin (frequency) and on-load magnetic saturation influence on IM resistances, inductances,
characteristics, and performance are investigated in detail in this chapter as they are key issues in
optimal design of IMs for various applications from industrial drives to wind generators, electric
vehicle propulsion, or deep underground (or underwater) fluid pump motors, etc., or home appliance
split-phase motors.
Both these phenomena are presented quantitatively, with practical methodologies of industrial
value. A comprehensive analytical non-linear approach for linkage saturation and skin effect in IMs
is unfolded to shed light on its various aspects, with experimental validation.
Finally, FEM is illustrated as a suitable approach to calculate skin effects in slots with multiple
conductors. New paragraphs deal with such subtle phenomena in very recent treatments (torque/slip
curves as influenced by saturation harmonics eddy currents in high-speed IM closed slot (saturation
effects)).
xvi Preface

Chapter 10: “Airgap Field Space Harmonics Parasitic Torques, Radial Forces, and Noise
Basics”/32 pages.
The airgap field space harmonics produced by mmf space harmonics, airgap magnetic permeance
harmonics, and magnetic saturation give rise to parasitic torques (time pulsations in the torque),
strong local variations in time of radial forces, and thus, additional vibration and more.
These phenomena are all treated quantitatively for uniform airgap and for the influence of static
and dynamic eccentricity, via many numerical examples. The main result is founding a way to
choose proper combinations of stator and rotor slot numbers for various number of pole pairs, which
is crucial in a good industrial IM design.
A new section (10.11) dealing with the origin of electromagnetic vibration by practical experience
is introduced.
Chapter 11: “Losses in Induction Machines”/41 pages.
Losses defined as the difference between input and output power of IM have many components.
There is, however, a notable difference between the losses measured under direct load and the ones
calculated from the separation of losses methods (in no-load and short-circuit tests). This difference
is called stray load losses, and they vary from 0.5% to 2.5% of full power; they occur even on motor
no-load operation.
This chapter attempts a rather exhaustive approach to calculate the additional (stray load) losses
produced by the magnetic field space harmonics in the presence of slotting and finally of current
(and magnetic flux) time harmonics so common in variable speed drives fed from PWM static
power converters. Numerical results illustrate the concepts step by step and offer a strong feeling of
magnitudes. Loss computation by FEM, which lumps in all aspects is also illustrated at the end of
this chapter. A comparison between sinusoidal source and PWM source inverter IM losses via an
experimental case study is added as new.
Chapter 12: “Thermal Modelling and Cooling”/24 pages.
A highly non-linear system, the thermal model of IM may be approached by a lump equivalent
circuit method or by FEM.
This chapter develops such an equivalent thermal circuit with expressions for its parameters, to
calculate steady-state temperatures in a few points (nodes). It also develops on temperature variation
in time (thermal transients) and on FEM computation of temperatures in the machine with lumped
thermal parameter estimation. As this subject represents an art of itself, recent/representative litera-
ture is added for the diligent reader to explore it further on his own.
Chapter 13: “Single-Phase Induction Machines: The Basics”/22 pages.
Single-phase A.C. sources are common in residential/building supply power technologies.
Line-start split-phase IMs have been developed for worldwide spread applications; so efficiency
is paramount.
A classification of them is offered, with the shaded-pole IM also added. The principle of operation
with two A.C. windings at start (at least) to create a strong forward travelling field is described
together with the symmetrical components’ general model and its complex-variable steady-state
equivalent circuit. The d-q model is introduced as a tool to investigate more complex topologies
(Steinmetz connection) and transients.
The new section (13.10) describes the model of the split-phase IM when PMs and (or) a magnetic
saliency are added to the cage rotor, to improve efficiency.
Chapter 14: “Single-Phase Induction Motors: Steady State”/41 pages.
This chapter starts with steady-state operation with open auxiliary winding: equivalent circuits,
mechanical characteristics, efficiency, and power factor, via a numerical example.
The split-phase capacitor IM steady state is then investigated by the complex equivalent
circuit defined in the previous chapter via another numerical example. Then, the symmetrisation
simetrization conditions, starting torque and current inquires, typical motor characteristics,
non-orthogonal winding modelling, via extended numerical graphical delta from a dedicated
Preface xvii

MATLAB® computer code, mmf space harmonics parasitic torques, interbar rotor currents, voltage
harmonics effects, the doubly tapped winding capacitor IM, a 2/4 pole split-phase capacitor motor
are all subjects treated quantitatively as issues of industrial importance (new).

Timisoara, 2019

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Author
Ion Boldea, IEEE Life Fellow and Professor Emeritus at University Politehnica Timisoara,
Romania, has taught, did research, and published extensively papers and books (monographs and
textbooks) over more than 45 years, related to rotary and linear electric motor/generator variable
speed drives, and maglevs. He was a visiting professor in the USA and UK for more than 5 years
since 1973 to present.
He was granted four IEEE Best Paper Awards, has been a member of IEEE IAS, IE MEC, and
IDC since 1992, was the guest editor of numerous special sections in IEEE Trans, vol. IE, IA, deliv-
ered keynote addresses at quite a few IEEE-sponsored International Conferences, participated in
IEEE Conference tutorials, and is an IEEE IAS distinguished lecturer since 2008 (with lecture in
the USA, Brasil, South Korea, Denmark, Italy, etc.). He held periodic intensive graduate courses for
Academia and Industry in the USA and Denmark in the last 20 years.
He was a general chair of ten biannual IEEE-sponsored OPTIM International Conferences
(www.info-optim.ro) and is the founding and current chief editor, since 2000, of the Internet-only
Journal of Electrical Engineering, “www.jee.ro”.
As a full member of Romanian Academy, he received the IEEE-2015 “Nikola Tesla Award” for
his contributions to the development of rotary and linear electric motor/generator drives and maglevs
modelling, design, testing, and control in industrial applications.

xix
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
 1 An Introduction
Induction Machines

1.1 ELECTRIC ENERGY AND INDUCTION MOTORS

The level of prosperity of a community is related to its capability to produce goods and services.
However, producing goods and services is strongly related to the use of energy in an intelligent way.
Motion and temperature (heat) control are paramount in energy usage. Energy comes into use in
a few forms such as thermal, mechanical, and electrical.
Electrical energy, measured in kWh, represents more than 30% of all used energy, and it is on the
rise. Part of electrical energy is used directly to produce heat or light (in electrolysis, metallurgical
arch furnaces, industrial space heating, lighting, etc.).
The larger part of electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy in electric motors.
Amongst electric motors, induction motors are most used both for home appliances and in various
industries [1–11].
This is so because they have been traditionally fed directly from the three-phase A.C. electric
power grid through electromagnetic power switches with adequate protection. It is so convenient.
Small-power induction motors, in most home appliances, are fed from the local single-
phase A.C. power grids. Induction motors are rugged and have moderate costs, explaining their
popularity.
In developed countries today, there are more than 3 kW of electric motors per person and most
of them are induction motors.
While most induction motors are still fed from the three- or single-phase power grids, some are
supplied through frequency changers (or power electronics converters) to provide variable speeds.
In developed countries, already 20% of all induction motor power is converted in variable speed
drive applications. The annual growth rate of variable speed drives has been 9% in the past decade,
while the electric motor markets showed an average annual growth rate of 4% in the same time.
Variable speed drives with induction motors are used in transportation, pumps, compressors,
ventilators, machine tools, robotics, hybrid or electric vehicles, washing machines, etc.
The forecast is that in the next decade, up to 50% of all electric motors will be fed through power
electronics with induction motors covering 60%–70% of these new markets.
The ratings of induction motors vary from a few tens of watts to 33,120 kW (45,000 HP).
The distribution of ratings in variable speed drives is shown in Table 1.1 [1].
Intelligent use of energy means higher productivity with lower active energy and lower losses at
moderate costs. Reducing losses leads to lower environmental impact where the motor works and
lower thermal and chemical impacts at an electric power plant that produces the required electrical
energy.
Variable speed through variable frequency is paramount in achieving such goals. As a side
effect, the use of variable speed drives leads to current harmonics pollution in the power grid and

TABLE 1.1
Variable Speed A.C. Drives Ratings
Power (kW) 1–4 5–40 40–200 200–600 >600
Percentage 21 26 26 16 11

1
2 Induction Machines Handbook

electromagnetic interference (EMI) with the environment. So power quality and EMI have become
new constraints on electric induction motor drives.
Digital control is now standard in variable speed drives, while autonomous intelligent drives to
be controlled and repaired via the Internet are on the horizon. And new application opportunities
abound: from digital appliances to hybrid and electric vehicles and more electric aircraft.
So much on the future, let us now go back to the first two invented induction motors.

1.2 A HISTORICAL TOUCH

Faraday discovered the electromagnetic induction law around 1831, and Maxwell formulated the
laws of electricity (or Maxwell’s equations) around 1860. The knowledge was ripe for the inven-
tion of the induction machine (IM) which has two fathers: Galileo Ferraris (1885) and Nikola Tesla
(1886). Their IMs are shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2.
Both motors have been supplied from a two-phase A.C. power source and thus contained two-
phase concentrated coil windings 1-1′ and 2-2′ on the ferromagnetic stator core.
In Ferrari’s patent, the rotor was made of a copper cylinder, while in Tesla’s patent, the rotor was
made of a ferromagnetic cylinder provided with a short-circuited winding.
Though the contemporary induction motors have more elaborated topologies (Figure 1.3) and
their performance is much better, the principle has remained basically the same.
That is, a multiphase A.C. stator winding produces a travelling field that induces voltages that
produce currents in the short-circuited (or closed) windings of the rotor. The interaction between the
stator-produced field and the rotor-induced currents produces torque and thus operates the induction
motor. As the torque at zero rotor speed is nonzero, the induction motor is self-starting. The three-
phase A.C. power grid capable of delivering energy at a distance to induction motors and other
consumers has been put forward by Dolivo-Dobrovolsky around 1880.

FIGURE 1.1 Ferrari’s induction motor (1885).

FIGURE 1.2 Tesla’s induction motor (1886).

Induction Machines: An Introduction 3

FIGURE 1.3 A state-of-the-art three-phase induction motor. (Source: ABB motors.)

In 1889, Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the three-phase induction motor with the wound rotor
and subsequently the cage rotor in a topology very similar to that used today. He also, apparently,
invented the double-cage rotor.
Thus, around 1900, the induction motor was ready for wide industrial use. No wonder that before
1910, in Europe, locomotives provided with induction motor propulsion were capable of delivering
200 km/h.
However, at least for transportation, the D.C. motor took over all markets until around 1985 when
the insulated gate bipolar transistor pulse width modulation (IGBT PWM) inverter has provided for
efficient frequency changers. This promoted the induction motor spectacular comeback in variable
speed drives with applications in all industries.
Mainly due to power electronics and digital control, the induction motor may add to its old
nickname of “the workhorse of industry” and the label of “the racehorse of high-tech”.
A more complete list of events that marked the induction motor history follows:

• Better and better analytical models for steady-state and design purposes
• The orthogonal (circuit) and space phasor models for transients
• Better and better magnetic and insulation materials and cooling systems
• Design optimisation deterministic and stochastic methods
• IGBT PWM frequency changers with low losses and high power density (kW/m3) for
moderate costs
• Finite element modellings (FEMs) for field distribution analysis and coupled circuit-FEM
models for comprehensive exploration of IMs with critical (high) magnetic and electric
loading
• Development of induction motors for super-high speeds and high powers
• A parallel history of linear induction motors with applications in linear motion control has
unfolded
• New and better methods of manufacturing and testing for IMs
• Integral induction motors: induction motors with the PWM converter integrated into one
piece.
4 Induction Machines Handbook

1.3 INDUCTION MACHINES IN APPLICATIONS

Induction motors are, in general, supplied from single- or three-phase A.C. power grids.
Single-phase supply motors, which have two-phase stator windings to provide self-starting, are
used mainly for home applications (fans, washing machines, etc.): up to 2.2–3 kW. A typical con-
temporary single-phase induction motor with dual (start and run) capacitor in the auxiliary phase
is shown in Figure 1.4.
Three-phase induction motors are sometimes built with aluminium frames for general-purpose
applications below 55 kW (Figure 1.5).
Standard efficiency (IE1), high efficiency (IE2), premium efficiency (IE3 and NEMA premium),
and super-premium efficiency (IE4) have been defined in the second edition of the IEC 60034-30.
Standard induction motors have been introduced to promote further energy savings both at constant
and variable speeds (Figure 1.6). For IE4 (IE5), line-start permanent magnet motors have been
considered (Table 1.2), but too large starting/rated current, the lower peak, rated and starting/rated
torque, size, and cost are issues to be dealt with (notice the cost of line start synchronous permanent
motor (LSPM) is 230% of IM cost in Table 1.2). However, even at this high cost, the payback time
of LSPM, for 6000 hours/year, is less than 3 years.

FIGURE 1.4 Start-run capacitor single-phase induction motor. (Source: ABB.)

FIGURE 1.5 Aluminium frame induction motor. (Source: ABB.)

Induction Machines: An Introduction 5

FIGURE 1.6 Rated efficiency class limits proposed in IEC60034-30 for four-pole motors (0.12–800 kW) [12].

TABLE 1.2
Commercial IE-2, IE-3, IE-4 Class 7.5 kW Four-Pole Motors [12]
Standard and the Year Published State
IEC 60034-1, Ed. 12, 2010, Rating and performance. Active.
Application: Rotating electrical machines.
IEC 60034-2-1, Ed. 1, 2007, Standard method for determining losses and efficiency from tests (excluding Active but
machines for traction vehicles). Establishes methods of determining efficiencies from tests and also under
specifies methods of obtaining specific losses. revision.
Application: D.C. machines and A.C. synchronous and IMs of all sizes within the scope of 1EC 60034-1.
IEC 60034-2-2, Ed. 1, 2010, Specific methods for determining separate losses of large machines from Active.
tests – supplement to IFC60034-2-I. Establishes additional methods of determining separate losses and to
define an efficiency supplementing IEC 60034-2-1. These methods apply when full-load testing is not
practical and result in a greater uncertainty.
Application: Special and large rotating electrical machines.
IEC 60034-2-3, Ed. 1, 2011, Specific test methods for determining losses and efficiency of convener-fed Not active.
A.C. motors. Draft.
Application: Convener-fed motors.
IEC 60034-30, Ed. 1, 2008, Efficiency classes of single-speed, three-phase, cage induction motors Active but
(IEC code). under
Application: 0.75–375 kW, 2,4, and 6 poles, 50 and 60 Hz. revision.
IEC60034-31, Ed. 1, 2010, Selection of energy-efficient motors including variable speed applications – Active.
application guide.
Provides a guideline of technical aspects for the application of energy – efficient, three-phase, electric
motors. It not only applies to motor manufacturers, original equipment manufacturers, end users,
regulators, and legislators but also to all other interested parties.
Application: Motors covered by IEC 60034-30 and variable frequency/speed drives.
IEC 60034-17, Ed 4, 2006, Cage induction motors when fed from conveners – application guide. Active.
Deals with the steady-state operation of cage induction motors within the scope of IEC 60034-12, when
fed from converters. Covers the operation over the whole speed setting range but does not deal with
starting or transient phenomena.
Application: Cage induction motors fed from converters.
6 Induction Machines Handbook

Cast iron finned frame efficient motors up to 2000 kW are built today with axial exterior air
cooling. The stator and the rotor have laminated single stacks.
Typical values of efficiency and sound pressure for such motors built for voltages of 3800–
11,500 V and 50–60 Hz are shown in Table 1.3 (source: ABB). For large starting torque, dual-cage
rotor induction motors are built (Figure 1.7).
There are applications (such as overhead cranes) where for safety reasons, the induction motor
should be braked quickly when the motor is turned off. Such an induction motor with an integrated
brake is shown in Figure 1.8.
Induction motors used in pulp and paper industry need to be kept clean from excess pulp fibres.
Rated to IP55 protection class, such induction motors prevent the influence of ingress, dust, dirt,
and damp (Figure 1.9).
Aluminium frames offer special corrosion protection. Bearing grease relief allows for greasing
the motor while it is running.
IMs are extensively used for wind turbines up to 2000 kW per unit and more [13]. A typical dual
winding (speed) such induction generator with cage rotor is shown in Figure 1.10.
Wind power conversion to electricity has shown a steady growth since 1985 [2].
50 GW of wind power were in operation, with 25% wind power penetration in Denmark, in 2005
and 180 GW were predicted for 2010 (source Windforce10). About 600 GW were expected to be
installed worldwide by 2019.

TABLE 1.3
Typical Values of Efficiency and Sound Pressure for
High-Voltage Induction Machines
Output Efficiency (%)

Typical Values of High-Voltage Four-Pole Machines

kW 4/4 load 3/4 load 1/2 load
500 96.7 96.7 96.1
630 97.0 97.0 96.4
710 97.1 97.1 96.5
800 97.3 97.2 96.8
900 97.4 97.4 96.9
1000 97.4 97.4 97.1
1250 97.6 97.7 97.5
1400 97.8 97.8 97.5
2000 97.9 97.8 97.5

Frame/rpm 3000 1500 1000 ≤750

Typical Sound Pressure Levels in dB (A) at 1 m Distance

315 79 78 76 –
355 79 78 76 –
400 79 78 76 75
450 80 78 76 75
500 80 78 76 75
560 80 78 76 75

The variation and measuring tolerance of the figures is 3 dB (A).

Induction Machines: An Introduction 7

FIGURE 1.7 Dual-cage rotor induction motors for large starting torque. (Source: ABB.)

FIGURE 1.8 Induction motor with integrated electromagnetic brake. (Source: ABB.)

The environmentally clean solutions to energy conversion are likely to grow in the near future.
A 10% coverage of electrical energy needs in many countries of the world seems within reach in the
next 20 years. Also, small power hydropower plants with induction generators may produce twice
as much that amount.
Induction motors are used more and more for variable speed applications in association with
PWM converters.
8 Induction Machines Handbook

FIGURE 1.9 Induction motor in pulp and paper industries. (Source: ABB.)

FIGURE 1.10 (a) Dual-stator winding induction generator for wind turbines. (b) Wound rotor induction
generator. (Source: ABB.) 750/200 kW, cast iron frame, liquid-cooled generator. Output power: kW and MW
range; shaft height: 280–560. Features: air or liquid cooled; cast iron or steel housing. Single, two-speed,
doubly-fed design or full variable speed generator.
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their approving of an armed hypocrisy,” was not more applicable to
the rulers of Barbary than to the people of England. “Puffed up with
their successes, they forgot their obedience, and these saints denied
the king the fifth part of their spoils.... By which it appeared that
they took up arms, not out of love for their country and zeal for their
religion, but out of desire of rule.” There is, indeed, nothing in these
utterances which need have prevented the writer from consistently
promoting the Revolution of 1688; yet his principles seem to have
carried him far in the opposite direction; and it is interesting to
remember that the assertor in Convocation of the doctrine of
indefeasible hereditary right was the father of the author of the
Whig Examiner and the Freeholder. However decidedly Joseph may
have dissented from his father’s political creed, we know that he
entertained admiration and respect for his memory, and that death
alone prevented him from completing the monument afterwards
erected in Lancelot’s honour in Lichfield Cathedral.
Of Addison’s mother nothing of importance is recorded. His second
brother, Gulston, became Governor of Fort St. George, in the East
Indies; and the third, Lancelot, followed in Joseph’s footsteps so far
as to obtain a Fellowship at Magdalen College, Oxford. His sisters,
Jane and Anna, died young; but Dorothy was twice married, and
Swift records in her honour that she was “a kind of wit, and very like
her brother.” We may readily believe that a writer so lively as
Lancelot would have had clever children, but Steele was perhaps
carried away by the zeal of friendship or the love of epigram when
he said, in his dedication to the Drummer: “Mr. Dean Addison left
behind him four children, each of whom, for excellent talents and
singular perfections, was as much above the ordinary world as their
brother Joseph was above them.” But that Steele had a sincere
admiration for the whole family is sufficiently shown by his using
them as an example in one of his early Tatlers:
“I remember among all my acquaintance but one man
whom I have thought to live with his children with
equanimity and a good grace. He had three sons and one
 daughter, whom he bred with all the care imaginable in a
liberal and ingenuous way. I have often heard him say he
had the weakness to love one much better than the other,
but that he took as much pains to correct that as any
other criminal passion that could arise in his mind. His
method was to make it the only pretension in his children
to his favour to be kind to each other, and he would tell
them that he who was the best brother he would reckon
the best son. This turned their thoughts into an emulation
for the superiority in kind and tender affection towards
each other. The boys behaved themselves very early with
a manly friendship; and their sister, instead of the gross
familiarities and impertinent freedoms in behaviour usual
in other houses, was always treated by them with as
much complaisance as any other young lady of their
acquaintance. It was an unspeakable pleasure to visit or
sit at a meal in that family. I have often seen the old
man’s heart flow at his eyes with joy upon occasions
which would appear indifferent to such as were strangers
to the turn of his mind; but a very slight accident, wherein
he saw his children’s good-will to one another, created in
him the god-like pleasure of loving them because they
loved each other. This great command of himself in hiding
his first impulse to partiality at last improved to a steady
justice towards them, and that which at first was but an
expedient to correct his weakness was afterwards the
measure of his virtue.”[5]
This, no doubt, is the set description of a moralist, and to an age in
which the liberty of manners has grown into something like license it
may savour of formalism and priggishness; but when we remember
that the writer was one of the most warm-hearted of men, and that
the subject of his panegyric was himself, full of vivacity and impulse,
it must be admitted that the picture which it gives us of the Addison
family in the rectory of Milston is a particularly amiable one.
Though the eighteenth century had little of that feeling for natural
beauty which distinguishes our own, a man of Addison’s imagination
could hardly fail to be impressed by the character of the scenery in
which his childhood was passed. No one who has travelled on a
summer’s day across Salisbury plain, with its vast canopy of sky and
its open tracts of undulating downland, relieved by no shadows
except such as are thrown by the passing cloud, the grazing sheep,
and the great circle of Stonehenge, will forget the delightful sense of
refreshment and repose produced by the descent into the valley of
the Avon. The sounds of human life rising from the villages after the
long solitude of the plain, the shade of the deep woods, the coolness
of the river, like all streams rising in the chalk, clear and peaceful,
are equally delicious to the sense and the imagination. It was,
doubtless, the recollection of these scenes that inspired Addison in
his paraphrase of the twenty-third Psalm:
“The Lord my pasture shall prepare,
And feed me with a shepherd’s care.
· · · · · ·
When in the sultry glebe I faint,
Or on the thirsty mountain pant,
To fertile vales and dewy meads
My weary wandering steps he leads,
Where peaceful rivers, soft and slow,
Amid the verdant landscape flow.”
At Amesbury he was first sent to school, his master being one Nash;
and here, too, he probably met with the first recorded adventure of
his life. It is said that having committed some fault, and being fearful
of the consequences, he ran away from school, and, taking up his
abode in a hollow tree, maintained himself as he could till he was
discovered and brought back to his parents. He was removed from
Amesbury to Salisbury, and thence to the Grammar School at
Lichfield, where he is said to have been the leader in a “barring out.”
From Lichfield he passed to the Charter House, then under the
charge of Dr. Ellis, a man of taste and scholarship. The Charter
House at that period was, after Westminster, the best-known school
in England, and here was laid the foundation of that sound classical
taste which perfected the style of the essays in the Spectator.
Macaulay labours with much force and ingenuity to prove that
Addison’s classical acquirements were only superficial, and, in his
usual epigrammatic manner, hazards the opinion that “his knowledge
of Greek, though doubtless such as was, in his time, thought
respectable at Oxford, was evidently less than that which many lads
now carry away every year from Eton and Rugby.” That Addison was
not a scholar of the class of Bentley or Porson may be readily
admitted. But many scattered allusions in his works prove that his
acquaintance with the Greek poets of every period, if cursory, was
wide and intelligent: he was sufficiently master of the language
thoroughly to understand the spirit of what he read; he undertook
while at Oxford a translation of Herodotus, and one of the papers in
the Spectator is a direct imitation of a jeu d’esprit of Lucian’s. The
Eton or Rugby boy who, in these days, with a normal appetite for
cricket and football, acquired an equal knowledge of Greek
literature, would certainly be somewhat of a prodigy.
No doubt, however, Addison’s knowledge of the Latin poets was, as
Macaulay infers, far more extensive and profound. It would have
been strange had it been otherwise. The influence of the classical
side of the Italian Renaissance was now at its height, and wherever
those ideas became paramount Latin composition was held in at
least as much esteem as poetry in the vernacular. Especially was this
the case in England, where certain affinities of character and
temperament made it easy for writers to adopt Roman habits of
thought. Latin verse composition soon took firm root in the public
schools and universities, so that clever boys of the period were
tolerably familiar with most of the minor Roman poets. Pope, in the
Fourth Book of the Dunciad, vehemently attacked the tradition as
confining the mind to the study of words rather than of things; but
he had himself had no experience of a public school, and only those
who fail to appreciate the influence of Latin verse composition on
the style of our own greatest orators, and of poets like Milton and
Gray, will be inclined to undervalue it as an instrument of social and
literary training.
Proficiency in this art may at least be said to have laid the
foundation of Addison’s fortunes. Leaving the Charter House in 1687,
at the early age of fifteen, he was entered at Queen’s College,
Oxford, and remained a member of that society for two years, when
a copy of his Latin verses fell into the hands of Dr. Lancaster, then
Fellow and afterwards Provost of the College. Struck with their
excellence, Lancaster used his influence to obtain for him a
demyship at Magdalen. The subject of this fortunate set of verses
was “Inauguratio Regis Gulielmi,” from which fact we may
reasonably infer that even in his boyhood his mind had acquired a
Whig bias. Whatever inclination he may have had in this direction
would have been confirmed by the associations of his new college.
The fluctuations of opinion in Magdalen had been frequent and
extraordinary. Towards the close of Elizabeth’s reign it was notorious
for its Calvinism, but under the Chancellorship of Laud it appears to
have adopted, with equal ardour, the cause of Arminianism, for it
was among the colleges that offered the stoutest opposition to the
Puritan visitors in 1647-48. The despotic tendencies of James II.,
however, again cooled its loyalty, and its spirited resistance to the
king’s order for the election of a Roman Catholic President had given
a mortal blow to the Stuart dynasty. Hough was now President, but
in consequence of the dispute with the king there had been no
election of demies in 1688, so that twice the usual number was
chosen in the following year, and the occasion was distinguished by
the name of the “golden election.” From Magdalen Addison
proceeded to his master’s degree in 1693; the College elected him
probationary Fellow in 1697, and actual Fellow the year after. He
retained his Fellowship till 1711.
Of his tastes, habits, and friendships at Oxford there are few
records. Among his acquaintance were Boulter, afterwards
Archbishop of Dublin—whose memory is unenviably perpetuated, in
company with Ambrose Phillips, in Pope’s Epistle to Arbuthnot,
“Does not one table Bavius still admit,
Still to one Bishop Phillips seem a wit?”—
and possibly the famous Sacheverell.[6] He is said to have shown in
the society of Magdalen some of the shyness that afterwards
distinguished him; he kept late hours, and read chiefly after dinner.
The walk under the well-known elms by the Cherwell is still
connected with his name. Though he probably acted as tutor in the
college, the greater part of his quiet life at the University was
doubtless occupied in study. A proof of his early maturity is seen in
the fact that, in his nineteenth year, a young man of birth and
fortune, Mr. Rushout, who was being educated at Magdalen, was
placed under his charge.
His reputation as a scholar and a man of taste soon extended itself
to the world of letters in London. In 1693, being then in his twenty-
second year, he wrote his Account of the Greatest English Poets; and
about the same time he addressed a short copy of verses to Dryden,
complimenting him on the enduring vigour of his poetical faculty, as
shown in his translations of Virgil and other Latin poets, some of
which had recently appeared in Tonson’s Miscellany. The old poet
appears to have been highly gratified, and to have welcomed the
advances thus made to him, for he returned Addison’s compliment
by bestowing high and not unmerited praise on the translation of the
Fourth Book of the Georgics, which the latter soon after undertook,
and by printing, as a preface to his own translation, a discourse
written by Addison on the Georgics, as well as arguments to most of
the books of the Æneid.
Through Dryden, no doubt, he became acquainted with Jacob
Tonson. The father of English publishing had for some time been a
well-known figure in the literary world. He had purchased the
copyright of Paradise Lost; he had associated himself with Dryden in
publishing before the Revolution two volumes of Miscellanies;
encouraged by the success which these obtained, he put the poet, in
1693, on some translations of Juvenal and Persius, and two new
volumes of Miscellanies; while in 1697 he urged him to undertake a
translation of the whole of the works of Virgil. Observing how
strongly the public taste set towards the great classical writers, he
was anxious to employ men of ability in the work of turning them
into English; and it appears from existing correspondence that he
engaged Addison, while the latter was at Oxford, to superintend a
translation of Herodotus. He also suggested a translation of Ovid.
Addison undertook to procure coadjutors for the work of translating
the Greek historian. He himself actually translated the books called
Polymnia and Urania, but for some unexplained reason the work was
never published. For Ovid he seems, on the whole, to have had less
inclination. At Tonson’s instance he translated the Second Book of
the Metamorphoses, which was first printed in the volume of
Miscellanies that appeared in 1697; but he wrote to the publisher
that “Ovid had so many silly stories with his good ones that he was
more tedious to translate than a better poet would be.” His study of
Ovid, however, was of the greatest use in developing his critical
faculty; the excesses and want of judgment in that poet forced him
to reflect, and his observations on the style of his author anticipate
his excellent remarks on the difference between True and False Wit
in the sixty-second number of the Spectator.
Whoever, indeed, compares these notes with the Essay on the
Georgics, and with the opinions expressed in the Account of the
English Poets, will be convinced that the foundations of his critical
method were laid at this period (1697). In the Essay on the Georgics
he seems to be timid in the presence of Virgil’s superiority; his
Account of the English Poets, besides being impregnated with the
principles of taste prevalent after the Restoration, shows deficient
powers of perception and appreciation. The name of Shakespeare is
not mentioned in it, Dryden and Congreve alone being selected to
represent the drama. Chaucer is described as “a merry bard,” whose
humour has become obsolete through time and change; while the
rich pictorial fancy of the Faery Queen is thus described:
 “Old Spenser next, warmed with poetic rage,
In ancient tales amused a barbarous age—
An age that yet uncultivate and rude,
Where’er the poet’s fancy led pursued,
Through pathless fields and unfrequented floods,
To dens of dragons and enchanted woods.
But now the mystic tale, that pleased of yore,
Can charm an understanding age no more;
The long-spun allegories fulsome grow,
While the dull moral lies too plain below.”
According to Pope—always a suspicious witness where Addison is
concerned—he had not read Spenser when he wrote this criticism on
him.[7]
Milton, as a legitimate successor of the classics, is of course
appreciated, but not at all after the elaborate fashion of the
Spectator; to Dryden, the most distinguished poet of the day,
deserved compliments are paid, but their value is lessened by the
exaggerated opinion which the writer entertains of Cowley, who is
described as a “mighty genius,” and is praised for the inexhaustible
riches of his imagination. Throughout the poem, in fact, we observe
a remarkable confusion of various veins of thought; an unjust
depreciation of the Gothic grandeur of the older English poets; a just
admiration for the Greek and Roman authors; a sense of the
necessity of good sense and regularity in writings composed for an
“understanding age;” and at the same time a lingering taste for the
forced invention and far-fetched conceits that mark the decay of the
spirit of mediæval chivalry.
With the judgments expressed in this performance it is instructive to
compare such criticisms on Shakespeare as we find in No. 42 of the
Spectator, the papers on “Chevy Chase” (73, 74), and particularly
the following passage:
“As true wit consists in the resemblance of ideas, and false
wit in the resemblance of words, according to the
 foregoing instances, there is another kind of wit which
consists partly in the resemblance of ideas and partly in
the resemblance of words, which, for distinction’s sake, I
shall call mixed wit. This kind of wit is that which abounds
in Cowley more than in any author that ever wrote. Mr.
Waller has likewise a great deal of it. Mr. Dryden is very
sparing in it. Milton has a genius much above it. Spenser
is in the same class with Milton. The Italians even in their
epic poetry are full of it. Monsieur Boileau, who formed
himself upon the ancient poets, has everywhere rejected it
with scorn. If we look after mixed wit among the Greeks,
we shall find it nowhere but in the epigrammatists. There
are, indeed, some strokes of it in the little poem ascribed
to Musæus, which by that, as well as many other marks,
betrays itself to be a modern composition. If we look into
the Latin writers we find none of this mixed wit in Virgil,
Lucretius, or Catullus; very little in Horace, but a great
deal of it in Ovid, and scarce anything else in Martial.”
The stepping-stone from the immaturity of the early criticisms in the
Account of the Greatest English Poets to the finished ease of the
Spectator is to be found in the notes to the translation of Ovid.[8]
The time came when he was obliged to form a decision affecting the
entire course of his life. Tonson, who had a wide acquaintance, no
doubt introduced him to Congreve and the leading men of letters in
London, and through them he was presented to Somers and
Montague. Those ministers perhaps persuaded him, as a point of
etiquette, to write, in 1695, his Address to King William, a poem
composed in a vein of orthodox hyperbole, all of which must have
been completely thrown away on that most unpoetical of monarchs.
Yet in spite of those seductions Addison lingered at Oxford. To retain
his Fellowship it was necessary for him to take orders. Had he done
so, there can be no doubt that his literary skill and his value as a
political partizan would have opened for him a road to the highest
preferment. At that time the clergy were far from thinking it
unbecoming to their cloth to fight in the political arena or to take
part in journalism. Swift would have been advanced to a bishopric,
as a reward for his political services, if it had not been for the
prejudice entertained towards him by Queen Anne; Boulter, rector of
St. Saviour’s, Southwark, having made himself conspicuous by
editing a paper called the Freethinker, was raised to the Primacy of
Ireland; Hoadley, the notorious Bishop of Bangor, edited the London
Journal; the honours that were awarded to two men of such second-
rate intellectual capacity would hardly have been denied to Addison.
He was inclined in this direction by the example and advice of his
father, who was now Dean of Lichfield, and who was urgent on his
son to rid himself of the pecuniary embarrassments in which he was
involved by embracing the Church as a profession. A few years
before he had himself seemed to look upon the Church as his future
sphere. In his Account of the Greatest English Poets he says:
“I leave the arts of poetry and verse
To them that practise them with more success.
Of greater truths I’ll now propose to tell,
And so at once, dear friend and muse, farewell.”
Had he followed up his intention we might have known the name of
Addison as that of an artful controversialist, and perhaps as a
famous writer of sermons; but we should, in all probability, have
never heard of the Spectator.
Fortunately for English letters, other influences prevailed to give a
different direction to his fortunes. It is true that Tickell, Addison’s
earliest biographer, states that his determination not to take orders
was the result of his own habitual self-distrust, and of a fear of the
responsibilities which the clerical office would involve. But Steele,
who was better acquainted with his friend’s private history, on
reading Tickell’s Memoir, addressed a letter to Congreve on the
subject, in which he says:
“These, you know very well, were not the reasons which
made Mr. Addison turn his thoughts to the civil world; and,
 as you were the instrument of his becoming acquainted
with Lord Halifax, I doubt not but you remember the
warm instances that noble lord made to the head of the
College not to insist upon Mr. Addison’s going into orders.
His arguments were founded upon the general pravity and
corruption of men of business, who wanted liberal
education. And I remember, as if I had read the letter
yesterday, that my lord ended with a compliment that,
however he might be represented as a friend to the
Church, he never would do it any other injury than
keeping Mr. Addison out of it.”
No doubt the real motive of the interest in Addison shown by Lord
Halifax, at that time known as Charles Montague, was an anxiety
which he shared with all the leading statesmen of the period, and of
which more will be said presently, to secure for his party the services
of the ablest writers. Finding his protégé as yet hardly qualified to
transact affairs of State, he joined with Lord Somers, who had also
fixed his eyes on Addison, in soliciting for him from the Crown, in
1699, a pension of £300 a year, which might enable him to
supplement his literary accomplishments with the practical
experience of travel. Addison naturally embraced the offer. He looked
forward to studying the political institutions of foreign countries, to
seeing the spots of which he had read in his favourite classical
authors, and to meeting the most famous men of letters on the
Continent.
It is characteristic both of his own tastes and of his age that he
seems to have thought his best passport to intellectual society
abroad would be his Latin poems. His verses on the Peace of
Ryswick, written in 1697 and dedicated to Montague, had already
procured him great reputation, and had been praised by Edmund
Smith—a high authority—as “the best Latin poem since the Æneid.”
This gave him the opportunity of collecting his various compositions
of the same kind, and in 1699 he published from the Sheldonian
Press a second volume of the Musæ Anglicanæ—the first having
appeared in 1691—containing poems by various Oxford scholars.
Among the contributors were Hannes, one of the many scholarly
physicians of the period; J. Philips, the author of the Splendid
Shilling; and Alsop, a prominent antagonist of Bentley, whose
Horatian humour is celebrated by Pope in the Dunciad.[9]
But the most interesting of the names in the volume is that of the
once celebrated Edmond, commonly called “Rag,” Smith, author of
the Ode on the Death of Dr. Pocock, who seems to have been
among Addison’s intimate acquaintance, and deserves to be
recollected in connection with him on account of a certain similarity
in their genius and the extraordinary difference in their fortunes.
“Rag” was a man of fine accomplishments and graceful humour, but,
like other scholars of the same class, indolent and licentious. In spite
of great indulgence extended to him by the authorities of Christ
Church, he was expelled from the University in consequence of his
irregularities. His friends stood by him, and, through the interest of
Addison, a proposal was made to him to undertake a history of the
Revolution, which, however, from political scruples he felt himself
obliged to decline. Like Addison, he wrote a tragedy modelled on
classical lines; but, as it had no political significance, it only pleased
the critics, without, like “Cato,” interesting the public. Like Addison,
too, he had an opportunity of profiting by the patronage of Halifax,
but laziness or whim prevented him from keeping an appointment
which the latter had made with him, and caused him to miss a place
worth £300 a year. Addison, by his own exertions, rose to posts of
honour and profit, and towards the close of his life became
Secretary of State. Smith envied his advancement, and, ignoring the
fact that his own failure was entirely due to himself, murmured at
fortune for leaving him in poverty. Yet he estimated his wants at
£600 a year, and died of indulgence when he can scarcely have been
more than forty years of age.
Addison’s compositions in the Musæ Anglicanæ are eight in number.
All of them are distinguished by the ease and flow of the
versification, but they are generally wanting in originality. The best
of them is the Pygmæo-Gerano-Machia, which is also interesting as
showing traces of that rich vein of humour which Addison worked
out in the Tatler and Spectator. The mock-heroic style in prose and
verse was sedulously cultivated in England throughout the
eighteenth century. Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot, and Fielding, developed
it in various forms; but Addison’s Latin poem is perhaps the first
composition in which the fine fancy and invention afterwards shown
in the Rape of the Lock and Gulliver’s Travels conspicuously
displayed itself.
A literary success of this kind at that epoch gave a writer a wider
reputation than he could gain by compositions in his own language.
Armed, therefore, with copies of the Musæ Anglicanæ for
presentation to scholars, and with Halifax’s recommendatory letters
to men of political distinction, Addison started for the Continent.
 CHAPTER III.

ADDISON ON HIS TRAVELS.

Travelling in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries involved an
amount of thought and precaution which would have seemed
inconvenient to the tourist accustomed to abandon himself to the
authority of guide-books, couriers, and railway companies. By ardent
spirits like Roderick Random it was regarded as the sphere of
enterprise and fortune, and not without reason, in days when
adventures were to be met with on almost every road in the country,
and in the streets and inns of the towns. The graver portion of
society, on the other hand, considered it as part of the regular
course of education through which every young man of position
ought to pass before entering into active life. French was the
universally recognised language of diplomacy. French manners and
conversation were considered to be the best school for politeness,
while Italy was held in the highest respect by the northern nations
as the source of revived art and letters. Some of the most
distinguished Englishmen of the time looked, it is true, with little
favour on this fashionable training. “Lord Cowper,” says Spence, on
the information of Dr. Conybeare, “on his death-bed ordered that his
son should never travel (it is by the absolute desire of the Queen
that he does). He ordered this from a good deal of observation on its
effects; he had found that there was little to be hoped, and much to
be feared, from travelling. Atwell, who is the young lord’s tutor
abroad, gives but a very discouraging account of it, too, in his
letters, and seems to think that people are sent out too young, and
are too hasty to find any great good from it.”
On some of the stronger and more enthusiastic minds the chief
effect of the grand tour was to produce a violent hatred of all foreign
manners. Dennis, the critic, for instance, who, after leaving
Cambridge, spent some time on the Continent, returned with a
confirmed dislike to the French, and ostentatiously displayed in his
writings how much he held “dragoons and wooden shoes in scorn;”
and it is amusing to find Addison at a later date making his Tory fox-
hunter declare this anti-Gallican temper to be the main fruits of
foreign travel.
But, in general, what was intended to be a school for manners and
political instruction proved rather a source of unsettlement and
dissipation; and the vigorous and glowing lines in which Pope makes
the tutor describe to Dullness the doings of the “young Æneas”
abroad, may be taken as a faithful picture of the travelled pupil of
the period:
“Intrepid then o’er seas and land he flew;
Europe he saw, and Europe saw him too.
There all thy gifts and graces we display,
Thou, only thou, directing all our way!
To where the Seine, obsequious as she runs,
Pours at great Bourbon’s feet her silken sons;
Or Tyber, now no longer Roman, rolls,
Vain of Italian arts, Italian souls:
To happy convents bosomed deep in vines,
Where slumber abbots purple as their wines:
To isles of fragrance, lily-silvered vales,
Diffusing languor in the panting gales:
To lands of singing or of dancing slaves,
Love-whispering woods, and lute-resounding waves.
But chief her shrine where naked Venus keeps,
And Cupids ride the lion of the deeps;
Where, eased of fleets, the Adriatic main
Wafts the smooth eunuch and enamoured swain.
Led by my hand, he sauntered Europe round,
And gathered every vice on Christian ground;
Saw every court, heard every king declare
 His royal sense of operas or the fair;
The stews and palace equally explored,
Intrigued with glory, and with spirit whored;
Tried all hors-d’œuvres, all liqueurs defined,
Judicious drank, and greatly daring dined;
Dropped the dull lumber of the Latin store,
Spoiled his own language, and acquired no more;
All classic learning lost on classic ground;
And last turned air, the echo of a sound.”
It is needless to say that Addison’s experiences of travel were of a
very different kind. He left England in his twenty-eighth year, with a
mind well equipped from a study of the best authors, and with the
intention of qualifying himself for political employment at home,
after familiarising himself with the languages and manners of foreign
countries. His sojourn abroad extended over four years, and his
experience was more than usually varied and comprehensive.
Crossing from Dover to Calais, some time in the summer of 1699, he
spent nearly eighteen months in France making himself master of
the language. In December, 1700, he embarked at Marseilles for a
tour in Italy, and visited in succession the following places: Monaco,
Genoa, Pavia, Milan, Brescia, Verona, Padua, Venice, Ferrara,
Ravenna, Rimini, S. Marino, Pesaro, Fano, Sinigaglia, Ancona, Loreto,
Rome (where, as it was his intention to return, he only visited St.
Peter’s and the Pantheon), Naples, Capri, whence he came back to
Rome by sea, the various towns in the neighbourhood of Rome,
Siena, Leghorn, Pisa, Lucca, Florence, Bologna, Modena, Parma, and
Turin. Thus, in the course of this journey, which lasted exactly a
twelvemonth, he twice crossed the Apennines, and made
acquaintance with all the more important cities in the northern part
of the Peninsula. In December, 1701, he passed over Mont Cenis to
Geneva, proceeding then by Fribourg, Berne, Soleure, Zurich, St.
Gall, Linden, Insbruck, Hall, to Vienna, where he arrived in the
autumn of 1702. After making a brief stay in the Austrian capital he
turned his face homewards, and having visited the Protestant cities
of Germany, and made a rather longer stay in Hamburg than in any
other, he reached Holland in the spring of 1703, and remained in
that country till his return to England, some time in the autumn of
the same year.
During his journey he made notes for his Remarks on Italy, which he
published immediately on his return home, and he amused himself,
while crossing Mont Cenis, with composing his Letter to Lord Halifax,
which contains, perhaps, the best verses he ever wrote. Though the
ground over which he passed was well trodden, and though he
possessed none of the special knowledge which gives value to the
observations of travellers like Arthur Young, yet his remarks on the
people and places he saw are the product of an original mind, and
his illustrations of his route from the Latin poets are remarkably
happy and graceful. It is interesting, also, to observe how many of
the thoughts and suggestions which occurred to him on the road are
afterwards worked up into papers for the Spectator.
When Addison landed in France, in 1699, the power of Louis XIV., so
long the determined enemy of the English Revolution of 1688, had
passed its climax. The Peace of Ryswick, by which the hopes of the
Jacobites were finally demolished, was two years old. The king,
disappointed in his dreams of boundless military glory, had fallen
into a fit of devotion, and Addison, arriving from England with a very
imperfect knowledge of the language, was astonished to find the
whole of French literature saturated with the royal taste. “As for the
state of learning,” says he, in a letter to Montague, dated August,
1699, “there is no book comes out at present that has not
something in it of an air of devotion. Dacier has bin forced to prove
his Plato a very good Christian before he ventures upon his
translation, and has so far comply’d with ye tast of the age that his
whole book is overrun with texts of Scripture, and ye notion of præ-
existence, supposed to be stolen from two verses of ye prophets.
Nay, ye humour is grown so universal that it is got among ye poets,
who are every day publishing Lives of Saints and Legends in Rhime.”
Finding, perhaps, that the conversation at the capital was not very
congenial to his taste, he seems to have hurried on to Blois, a town
then noted for the purity with which its inhabitants spoke the French
language, and where he had determined to make his temporary
abode. His only record of his first impressions of Paris is a casual
criticism of “ye King’s Statue that is lately set up in the Place
Vendome.” He visited, however, both Versailles and Fontainebleau,
and the preference which he gives to the latter (in a letter to
Congreve) is interesting, as anticipating that taste for natural as
opposed to artificial beauty which he afterwards expressed in the
Spectator.
“I don’t believe, as good a poet as you are, that you can
make finer Lanskips than those about the King’s houses,
or with all yor descriptions build a more magnificent
palace than Versailles. I am, however, so singular as to
prefer Fontainebleau to the rest. It is situated among
rocks and woods that give you a fine variety of Savage
prospects. The King has Humoured the Genius of the
place, and only made of so much art as is necessary to
Help and regulate Nature, without reforming her too
much. The Cascades seem to break through the Clefts and
Cracks of Rocks that are covered over with Moss, and look
as if they were piled upon one another by Accident. There
is an artificial wildness in the Meadows, Walks, and
Canals, and ye Garden, instead of a Wall, is Fenced on the
Lower End by a Natural Mound of Rock-work that strikes
the eye very agreeably. For my part, I think there is
something more charming in these rude heaps of Stone
than in so many Statues, and wou’d as soon see a River
winding through Woods and Meadows as when it is tossed
up in such a variety of figures at Versailles.”[10]
Here and there, too, his correspondence exhibits traces of that
delicate vein of ridicule in which he is without a rival, as in the
following inimitable description of Le Brun’s paintings at Versailles:
 “The painter has represented his most Xtian Majesty
under ye figure of Jupiter throwing thunderbolts all about
the ceiling, and striking terror into ye Danube and Rhine,
that lie astonished and blasted a little above the Cornice.”
Of his life at Blois a very slight sketch has been preserved by the
Abbe Philippeaux, one of the many gossipping informants from
whom Spence collected his anecdotes:
“Mr. Addison stayed above a year at Blois. He would rise
as early as between two and three in summer, and lie
abed till between eleven and twelve in the depth of winter.
He was untalkative while here, and often thoughtful;
sometimes so lost in thought that I have come into his
room and have stayed five minutes there before he has
known anything of it. He had his masters generally at
supper with him, kept very little company beside, and had
no amour whilst here that I know of, and I think I should
have known it if he had had any.”
The following characteristic letter to a gentleman of Blois, with
whom he seems to have had an altercation, is interesting as showing
the mixture of coolness and dignity, the “blood and judgment well
commingled” which Hamlet praised in Horatio, and which are
conspicuous in all Addison’s actions as well as in his writings:
“Sir,—I am always as slow in making an Enemy as a Friend, and am
therefore very ready to come to an Accommodation with you; but as
for any satisfaction, I don’t think it is due on either side when ye
Affront is mutual. You know very well that according to ye opinion of
ye world a man would as soon be called a Knave as a Fool, and I
believe most people wd be rather thought to want Legs than Brains.
But I suppose whatever we said in ye heat of discourse is not ye real
opinion we have of each other, since otherwise you would have
scorned to subscribe yourself as I do at present, Sr, yr very, etc.
 A. Monsr L’Espagnol,
Blois, 10br 1699.”
The length of Addison’s sojourn at Blois seems to have been partly
caused by the difficulty he experienced, owing to the defectiveness
of his memory, in mastering the language. Finding himself at last
able to converse easily, he returned to Paris some time in the
autumn of 1700, in order to see a little of polite society there before
starting on his travels in Italy. He found the best company in the
capital among the men of letters, and he makes especial mention of
Malebranche, whom he describes as solicitous about the adequate
rendering of his works into English; and of Boileau, who, having now
survived almost all his literary friends, seems, in his conversation
with Addison, to have been even more than usually splenetic in his
judgments on his contemporaries. The old poet and critic was,
however, propitiated with the present of the Musæ Anglicanæ; and,
according to Tickell, said “that he did not question there were
excellent compositions in the native language of a country that
possessed the Roman genius in so eminent a degree.”
In general, Addison’s remarks on the French character are not
complimentary. He found the vanity of the people so elated by the
elevation of the Duke of Anjou to the throne of Spain that they were
insupportable, and he felt no reluctance to quit France for Italy. His
observations on the national manners, as seen at Blois, are
characteristic:
“Truly, by what I have yet seen, they are the Happiest
nation in the world. ’Tis not in the pow’r of Want or
Slavery to make ’em miserable. There is nothing to be met
with in the Country but Mirth and Poverty. Ev’ry one sings,
laughs, and starves. Their Conversation is generally
Agreeable; for if they have any Wit or Sense they are sure
to show it. They never mend upon a Second meeting, but
use all the freedom and familiarity at first Sight that a long
Intimacy or Abundance of wine can scarce draw from an
 Englishman. Their Women are perfect Mistresses in this
Art of showing themselves to the best Advantage. They
are always gay and sprightly, and set off ye worst faces in
Europe with ye best airs. Ev’ry one knows how to give
herself as charming a look and posture as Sr Godfrey
Kneller cd draw her in.”[11]
He embarked from Marseilles for Genoa in December, 1700, having
as his companion Edward Wortley Montague, whom Pope satirises
under the various names of Shylock, Worldly, and Avidien. It is
unnecessary to follow him step by step in his travels, but the reader
of his Letter to Lord Halifax may still enjoy the delight and
enthusiasm to which he gives utterance on finding himself among
the scenes described in his favourite authors:
“Poetic fields encompass me around,
And still I seem to tread on classic ground;
For here the Muse so oft her harp has strung,
That not a mountain rears its head unsung;
Renowned in verse each shady thicket grows,
And every stream in heavenly numbers flows.”[12]
The phrase “classic ground,” which has become proverbial, is first
used in these verses, and, as will have been observed, Pope repeats
it with evident reference to the above passage in his satire on the
travels of the “young Æneas.” Addison seems to have carried the
Latin poets with him, and his quotations from them are abundant
and apposite. When he is driven into the harbour at Monaco, he
remembers Lucan’s description of its safety and shelter; as he
passes under Monte Circeo, he feels that Virgil’s description of
Æneas’s voyage by the same spot can never be sufficiently admired;
he recalls, as he crosses the Apennines, the fine lines of Claudian
recording the march of Honorius from Ravenna to Rome; and he
delights to think that at the falls of the Velino he can still see the
“angry goddess” of the Æneid (Alecto) “thus sinking, as it were, in a
tempest, and plunging herself into Hell” amidst such a scene of
horror and confusion.
His enthusiastic appreciation of the classics, which caused him in
judging any work of art to look, in the first place, for regularity of
design and simplicity of effect, shows it self characteristically in his
remarks on the Lombard and German styles of architecture in Italy.
Of Milan Cathedral he speaks without much admiration, but he was
impressed with the wonders of the Certosa near Pavia. “I saw,” says
he, “between Pavia and Milan the convent of the Carthusians, which
is very spacious and beautiful. Their church is very fine and curiously
adorned, but of a Gothic structure.” His most interesting criticism,
however, is that on the Duomo at Siena:
“When a man sees the prodigious pains and expense that
our forefathers have been at in these barbarous buildings,
one cannot but fancy to himself what miracles of
architecture they would have left us had they only been
instructed in the right way; for, when the devotion of
those ages was much warmer than that of the present,
and the riches of the people much more at the disposal of
the priests, there was so much money consumed on these
Gothic cathedrals as would have finished a greater variety
of noble buildings than have been raised either before or
since that time. One would wonder to see the vast labour
that has been laid out on this single cathedral. The very
spouts are loaden with ornaments, the windows are
formed like so many scenes of perspective, with a
multitude of little pillars retiring behind one another, the
great columns are finely engraven with fruits and foliage,
that run twisting about them from the very top to the
bottom; the whole body of the church is chequered with
different lays of black and white marble, the pavement
curiously cut out in designs and Scripture stories, and the
front covered with such a variety of figures, and overrun
with so many mazes and little labyrinths of sculpture, that
 nothing in the world can make a prettier show to those
who prefer false beauties and affected ornaments to a
noble and majestic simplicity.”[13]
Addison had not reached that large liberality in criticism afterwards
attained by Sir Joshua Reynolds, who, while insisting that in all art
there was but one true style, nevertheless allowed very high merit to
what he called the characteristic styles. Sir Joshua would never have
fallen into the error of imputing affectation to such simple and
honest workmen as the early architects of Northern Italy. The effects
of Addison’s classical training are also very visible in his descriptions
of natural scenery. There is in these nothing of that craving
melancholy produced by a sense of the infinity of nature which came
into vogue after the French Revolution; no projection of the feelings
of the spectator into the external scene on which he gazes; nor, on
the other hand, is there any attempt to rival the art of the painter by
presenting a landscape in words instead of in colours. He looks on
nature with the same clear sight as the Greek and Roman writers,
and in describing a scene he selects those particulars in it which he
thinks best adapted to arouse pleasurable images in the mind of the
reader. Take, for instance, the following excellent description of his
passage over the Apennines:
“The fatigue of our crossing the Apennines, and of our
whole journey from Loretto to Rome, was very agreeably
relieved by the variety of scenes we passed through. For,
not to mention the rude prospect of rocks rising one
above another, of the deep gutters worn in the sides of
them by torrents of rain and snow-water, or the long
channels of sand winding about their bottoms that are
sometimes filled with so many rivers, we saw in six days’
travelling the several seasons of the year in their beauty
and perfection. We were sometimes shivering on the top
of a bleak mountain, and a little while afterwards basking
in a warm valley, covered with violets and almond-trees in
blossom, the bees already swarming over them, though
 but in the month of February. Sometimes our road led us
through groves of olives, or by gardens of oranges, or into
several hollow apartments among the rocks and
mountains, that look like so many natural greenhouses, as
being always shaded with a great variety of trees and
shrubs that never lose their verdure.”[14]
Though his thoughts during his travels were largely occupied with
objects chiefly interesting to his taste and imagination, and though
he busied himself with such compositions as the Epistle from Italy,
the Dialogue on Medals, and the first four acts of Cato, he did not
forget that his experience was intended to qualify him for taking part
in the affairs of State. And when he reached Geneva, in December,
1701, the door to a political career seemed to be on the point of
opening. He there learned, as Tickell informs us, that he had been
selected to attend the army under Prince Eugene as secretary from
the King. He accordingly waited in the city for official confirmation of
this intelligence; but his hopes were doomed to disappointment.
William III. died in March, 1702; Halifax, on whom Addison’s
prospects chiefly depended, was struck off the Privy Council by
Queen Anne; and the travelling pension ceased with the life of the
sovereign who had granted it. Henceforth he had to trust to his own
resources; and though the loss of his pension does not seem to have
compelled him at once to turn homewards, as he continued on his
route to Vienna, yet an incident that occurred towards the close of
his travels shows that he was prepared to eke out his income by
undertaking work that would have been naturally irksome to him.
At Rotterdam, on his return towards England, he met with Jacob
Tonson, the bookseller, for whom, as has been said, he had already
done some work as a translator. Tonson was one of the founders of
the Kit-Kat Club, and in that capacity was brought into frequent and
intimate connection with the Whig magnates of the day. Among
these was the Duke of Somerset, who, through his wife, then high in
Queen Anne’s favour, exercised considerable influence on the course
of affairs. The Duke required a tutor for his son, Lord Hertford, and
Tonson recommended Addison. On the Duke’s approval of the
recommendation, the bookseller seems to have communicated with
Addison, who expressed himself, in general terms, as willing to
undertake the charge of Lord Hertford, but desired to know more
particulars about his engagement. These were furnished by the
Duke in a letter to Tonson, and they are certainly a very curious
illustration of the manners of the period. “I ought,” says his Grace,
“to enter into that affair more freely and more plainly, and tell you
what I propose, and what I hope he will comply with—viz., I desire
he may be more on the account of a companion in my son’s travels
than as a governor, and that as such I shall account him: my
meaning is, that neither lodging, travelling, nor diet shall cost him
sixpence, and over and above that my son shall present him at the
year’s end with a hundred guineas, as long as he is pleased to
continue in that service to my son, by his personal attendance and
advice, in what he finds necessary during his time of travelling.”
To this not very tempting proposal Addison replied: “I have lately
received one or two advantageous offers of ye same nature, but as I
should be very ambitious of executing any of your Grace’s
commands, so I can’t think of taking ye like employ from any other
hands. As for ye recompense that is proposed to me, I must take the
liberty to assure your Grace that I should not see my account in it,
but in ye hope that I have to recommend myself to your Grace’s
favour and approbation.” This reply proved highly offensive to the
Duke, who seems to have considered his own offer a magnificent
one. “Your letter of the 16th,” he writes to Tonson, on June 22,
1703, “with one from Mr. Addison, came safe to me. You say he will
give me an account of his readiness of complying with my proposal.
I will set down his own words, which are thus: ‘As for the
recompense that is proposed to me, I must confess I can by no
means see my account in it,’ etc. All the other parts of his letter are
compliments to me, which he thought he was bound in good
breeding to write, and as such I have taken them, and no otherwise;
and now I leave you to judge how ready he is to comply with my
proposal. Therefore, I have wrote by this first post to prevent his
coming to England on my account, and have told him plainly that I
must look for another, which I cannot be long a-finding.”
Addison’s principal biographer, Miss Aikin, expresses great contempt
for the niggardliness of the Duke, and says that, “Addison must
often have congratulated himself in the sequel on that exertion of
proper spirit by which he had escaped from wasting, in an
attendance little better than servile, three precious years, which he
found means of employing so much more to his own honour and
satisfaction, and to the advantage of the public.” Mean as the Duke’s
offer was, it is nevertheless plain that Addison really intended to
accept it, and, this being so, he can scarcely be congratulated on
having on this occasion displayed his usual tact and felicity. Two
courses appear to have been open to him. He might either have
simply declined the offer “as not finding his account in it,” or he
might have accepted it in view of the future advantages which he
hoped to derive from the Duke’s “favour and approbation;” in which
case he should have said nothing about finding the “recompense”
proposed insufficient. By the course that he took he contrived to
miss an appointment which he seems to have made up his mind to
accept, and he offended an influential statesman whose favour he
was anxious to secure.
To his pecuniary embarrassments was soon added domestic loss. At
Amsterdam he received news of his father’s death, and it may be
supposed that the private business in which he must have been
involved in consequence of this event brought him to England,
where he arrived some time in the autumn of 1703.
 CHAPTER IV.

HIS EMPLOYMENT IN AFFAIRS OF

STATE.
Addison’s fortunes were now at their lowest ebb. The party from
which he had looked for preferment was out of office; his chief
political patron was in particular discredit at Court; his means were
so reduced that he was forced to adopt a style of living not much
more splendid than that of the poorest inhabitants of Grub Street.
Yet within three years of his return to England he was promoted to
be an Under-Secretary of State—a post from which he mounted to
one position of honour after another till his final retirement from
political life. That he was able to take advantage of the opportunity
that offered itself was owing to his own genius and capacity; the
opportunity was the fruit of circumstances which had produced an
entire revolution in the position of English men of letters.
Through the greater part of Charles II.’s reign the profession of
literature was miserably degraded. It is true that the King himself, a
man of wit and taste, was not slow in his appreciation of art; but he
was by his character insensible to what was serious or elevated, and
the poetry of gallantry, which he preferred, was quite within reach of
the courtiers by whom he was surrounded. Rochester, Buckingham,
Sedley, and Dorset are among the principal poetical names of the
period; all of them being well qualified to shine in verse, the chief
requirements of which were a certain grace of manner, an air of
fashionable breeding, and a complete disregard of the laws of
decency. Besides these “songs by persons of quality,” the principal
entertainment was provided by the drama. But the stage, seldom a
lucrative profession, was then crowded with writers whose fertile, if
not very lofty, invention kept down the price of plays. Otway, the
most successful dramatist of his time, died in a state of indigence,
and as some say, almost of starvation, while playwrights of less
ability, if the house was ill-attended on the third night, when the
poet received all the profits of the performance, were forced, as
Oldham says, “to starve or live in tatters all the year.”[15]
Periodical literature, in the shape of journals and magazines, had as
yet no existence; nor could the satirical poet or the pamphleteer find
his remuneration in controversial writing the strong reaction against
Puritanism having raised the monarchy to a position in which it was
practically secure against the assaults of all its enemies. The author
of the most brilliant satire of the period, who had used all the
powers of a rich imagination to discredit the Puritan and Republican
cause, was paid with nothing more solid than admiration, and died
neglected and in want.
“The wretch, at summing up his misspent days,
Found nothing left but poverty and praise!
Of all his gains by verse he could not save
Enough to purchase flannel and a grave!
Reduced to want he in due time fell sick,
Was fain to die, and be interred on tick;
And well might bless the fever that was sent
To rid him hence, and his worse fate prevent.”[16]
In the latter part of this reign, however, a new combination of
circumstances produced a great change in the character of English
literature and in the position of its professors. The struggle of Parties
recommenced. Wearied with the intolerable rule of the Saints, the
nation had been at first glad to leave its newly-restored King to his
pleasures, but, as the memories of the Commonwealth became
fainter, the people watched with a growing feeling of disgust the
selfishness and extravagance of the Court, while the scandalous sale
of Dunkirk and the sight of the Dutch fleet on the Thames made
them think of the patriotic energies which Cromwell had succeeded
in arousing. At the same time the thinly-disguised inclination of the
King to Popery, and the avowed opinions of his brother, raised a
general feeling of alarm for the Protestant liberties of the nation. On
the other hand, the Puritans, taught moderation by adversity,
exhibited the really religious side of their character, and attracted
towards themselves a considerable portion of the aristocracy, as well
as of the commercial and professional classes in the metropolis—a
combination of interests which helped to form the nucleus of the
Whig party. The clergy and the landed proprietors, who had been
the chief sufferers from Parliamentary rule, naturally adhered to the
Court, and were nicknamed by their opponents Tories. Violent party
conflicts ensued, marked by such incidents as the Test Act, the
Exclusion Bill, the intrigues of Monmouth, the Popish Plot, and the
trial and acquittal of Shaftesbury on the charge of high treason.
Finding his position no longer so easy as at his restoration, Charles
naturally bethought him of calling literature to his assistance. The
stage, being completely under his control, seemed the readiest
instrument for his purpose; the order went forth, and an astonishing
display of monarchical fervour in all the chief dramatists of the time
—Otway, Dryden, Lee, and Crowne—was the result. Shadwell, who
was himself inclined to the Whig interest, laments the change:
“The stage, like old Rump pulpits, is become
The scene of News, a furious Party’s drum.”
But the political influence of the drama and the audience to which it
appealed being necessarily limited, the King sought for more
powerful literary artillery, and he found it in the serviceable genius of
Dryden, whose satirical and controversial poems date from this
period. The wide popularity of Absalom and Achitophel, written
against Monmouth and Shaftesbury; of The Medal, satirising the
acquittal of Shaftesbury; of The Hind and Panther, composed to
advance the Romanising projects of James II.; points to the vast
influence exercised by literature in the party struggle. Nevertheless,
in spite of all that Dryden had done for the Royal cause, in spite of
the fact that he himself had more than once appealed to the poet for
assistance, the ingratitude or levity of Charles was so inveterate that
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