SAJSET SAJSET

JOURNAL Savannah Journal of Science and Engineering Technology JOURNAL

Volume: 01; Issue: 04; Pages: 210-216; 2023.
ISSN: www.sajsetjournal.com.ng ISSN:
2992-3581 DOI: xx.xxxx.x/sajset-01-2023-0046 2992-3581

Riverbank Erosion, Sediment Transport and Reservoir Sedimentation: An

Overview
1Nda, M., 1Shabako, J. G., 1Yakubu, M., 2Godwin, A. and 1Justice, A. N.
1Department of Civil Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic Bida, Niger State, Nigeria
2Niger State Ministry of Works and Infrastructural Development, Niger State, Nigeria

Paper History Abstract:

Received: 17th July, 2023 Sedimentation is a key factor in determining the life of a reservoir. Because
Accepted: 08th August, 2023 sedimentation is determined by sediment yield, and sediment yield is determined by
Published: August, 2023 soil erosion, most sediment delivered by rivers is continuously trapped in dam
reservoirs. This reduces reservoir storage capacity and usable life while also
significantly modifying the material downstream, causing riverbank and channel
erosion, and damaging aquatic habitats. The aim of this article is to present an in-
depth overview of riverbank erosion and its measurement techniques, as well as
sediment transport and its conveyance modes. Additionally, the article outlines
sedimentation and its effects, as well as riverbank contributions to sediment load.
Therefore, the article presents a general outline regarding riverbank erosion and its
contribution to sediment yield as well as sedimentation and its conveyance.
Highlighting, sediment measurement techniques, the merits and demerits of riverbank
erosion and previous studies regarding sediment contribution due to riverbank erosion.
This overview will aid researchers in the choice of appropriate technique and
Corresponding author applicability of the technique chosen.
Nda, M.
[email protected] Keywords: Riverbank erosion, Reservoirs, Sediment Transport, Sedimentation

1. Introduction had an influence on the agricultural population and villages

Reservoir sedimentation has long been a key issue for in Serbia [6]. The loss agricultural land to erosion along the
dams around the world. Excessive sediment accumulation Nile in Africa leading to reduce farm output, with riverbank
in reservoirs may not only be responsible for dam storage erosion along the corridors of River Danube in Europe, Avon
capacity loss, but it may also result in a variety of negative and Heathcote rivers in New Zealand, the Murray, Darling
effects both within and downstream of reservoirs, such as and Gordon rivers in Australia and the Mississippi, Missouri
high turbidity, loss of flood-carrying capacity, and reduction and Haw rivers in the United States. In several of the
in water quality [1]. This implies that the reservoirs created examples mentioned above, erosion has resulted in the loss
along the river's natural course are subject to some level of of farmland as well as the threat to roads, buildings, and a
sediment intake and deposition. Sediment is naturally variety of riverbank services. The magnitude of the effects
transported through streams in a certain amount, but human on human settlements in each riverbank erosion situation is
activities are to blame for increasing general erosion rates, determined by the population density and economic
hence increasing the amount of sediment supplied to rivers conditions of the inhabitants in that location [6].
and other bodies of water [2]. Riverbank erosion is
considered a significant source of sediment contribution to 2. Riverbank Erosion
rivers and stream. Previous research reveals that one of the Human activities can alter sediment load and
primary sources of riverbed material is from sediment watershed hydrology, resulting in rapid channel changes,
eroded from riverbanks and in some instances accounting increased bank erosion rates, and lateral channel migration
for more than 80% of the total sediment load. Also, degraded in river dynamics [3, 7]. Fitzpatriick and Knox [8], for
banks constitute a substantial contributor in river nutrient example, discover that changes in flow after forest clearance
loading, the contribution of eroded sediment to total enhance riverbank and channel erosion, which serves as the
phosphorus loading in small catchments is estimated principal source of sediment downstream. Additionally,
between 40% and 47% [4, 5]. urbanization of a catchment can hasten riverbank and
Riverbank erosion affects different countries to varying channel erosion. Trimble [9] discovered that riverbank
degrees, resulting in varying degrees of landscape erosion is exacerbated by the increase of impermeable
deterioration and environmental and economic surfaces in the study region as a result of downstream
repercussions. People in Papua New Guinea, for example, urbanisation, which contributes approximately two-thirds of
have been permanently evacuated due to the erosion of the the delivered total sediment yield.
Busu River. The erosion of the Kolubara River's banks has

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Nda, et al.: Riverbank Erosion, Sediment Transport and Reservoir Sedimentation: An Overview

Besides, Clark and Wynn [10] suggest that riverbank 2.1 Riverbank Contribution to Sediment
alone can contribute about 85 % of sediment yield in a The amount of eroded riverbank materials and
catchment. Therefore, in the fluvial system, a substantial sediment load can be used to evaluate the link between
portion of sediments in rivers is contributed as a result of riverbank erosion and sediment load in a fluvial system [15],
riverbank erosion. Excess riverbank erosion can initiate [16]. According to Russell et al. [16], riverbank erosion is a
channel instability and sedimentation issues downstream major contributor to suspended sediment concentration in
[11]. Also, high sediment concentrations in rivers do not only specific catchments. The percentage variance in suspended
reduce water clarity but also, damaging to the aquatic sediment input owing to riverbank erosion varies greatly
ecosystem due to its ability to reduce fish food finding, light from one river to the next (Table 1). The rate of riverbank
needed for aquatic plants photosynthesis is reduced, erosion varies from one section of a river reach to the next
alteration in dissolved oxygen and temperature in water [12]. and is characterized by spatial heterogeneity dependent on
Entrainment and erosion of riverbank materials are watershed factors. The spatial diversity of riverbank erosion
caused by two main mechanisms: hydraulic action and mass rate is influenced by stream power, which is a function of
collapse [13]. The shear stress exerted on the boundary by discharge and slope. It is debatable whether the rate of
the flowing water entrains riverbank and bed materials. Mass riverbank erosion will accelerate if stream power is high and
failure, on the other hand, happens because of rotational slip the substrate is erodible [17, 18].
or slab failures. Because of weathering and gravitational
forces, the bank toe was removed due to hydraulic action,
leaving a protruded sediment mass hanging [14].

Table 1: Contribution of riverbank to sediment load in some rivers

Catchment area Riverbank sediment
River Type of land use Reference
(Km2) contribution (%)
St. Lawrence River, North
1000 Urban 65 [19]
America
Blue Earth River, Minnesota 9028 Agricultural 31-44 [20]
River Aire, England 1,004 Urban 43-84 [21]
River Torridge, England - Agricultural 23 [22]
437 Agricultural 7-19
River Frome, England [23]
River Piddle, England 183 Agricultural 7-21 [23]
Forth Corb, Oklahoma 800 Urban 46 [24]
Valley Creek, Pennsylvania 60.6 Urban 43 [25]
River Kennet, England 214 Agricultural 31 [26]

2.2 Riverbank Erosion Measurement measurement techniques such as erosion pins, erosion
Techniques painting, cross-section resurvey or photogrammetry. These
Estimating the amount of erosion that is likely to occur techniques are time tested, widely used and accepted for
over time is arduous and tasking. Researchers and scientist riverbank erosion estimates and can be used for small scale
generally employ the use of aerial photographs which are measurements [29]. Table 2 presents a summary of
aided with satellites and planes [27, 28]. Riverbank erosion riverbank measurements techniques, its mode of operation,
measurement can be achieved using conventional and field merits and demerits.

Table 0: Summary of riverbank erosion measuring techniques

Technique Operating principle Merits Demerits
Erosion pins Installed pins exposure or Low cost, sensitivity and simple Spatial sampling difficulties,
deposition are measured set up error due to pin movement
and pin loss
Survey Repetitive cross-sectional Easily set up and inexpensive. Established benchmark
measurements stability issues, requires on-
site personnel
Erosion painting Monitoring painted surface after Erosive events are easily Unreliable and requires on
erosive events are analysed noticed, easy setup. site personnel.
Photogrammetry Captured pictures are converted Multiple angles capturing Capturing clear images is
to DEMs and analysed possible, availability of image very challenging and
processing software. expensive.
Photo electronic Sensor cells exposure to light Continues quasi-time series Relatively expensive as more
erosion pin (PEEP) are measured change measurement, than one unit is required for
automatic measurement measurements
system
Lidar Technology Short light pulses released by Wide range of coverage from Areas with dense vegetation
laser scanners reproduced by multiple angles are prone to have voids.
earth surface are analysed

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 Nda, et al.: Riverbank Erosion, Sediment Transport and Reservoir Sedimentation: An Overview

3. Sediment Transport 3.1.2 Bedload

Rivers can be thought of as a combination of flowing The sediment transported by rolling or sliding down or
water and sediment. Rains (in the form of heavy near the river's floor (bed) creates the bed load. At low shear
precipitation or runoff) carry a significant volume of water stress, particles roll or slide along the riverbed. The particles
into rivers. Rainfall transports much eroded soil and other are constantly in touch with the bed, and the movement is
materials (debris) from the surrounding environment, some periodic. The contact load refers to the sediment material
of which are microscopic particles and others which are transferred in this manner. As shear stress increases, some
larger particles or boulders known as sediments [30, 31]. particles break contact with the bed and hop or bounce from
Most sediment is transported by water and is referred to as one place to another along the direction of flow. The
the fluvial process, such as river channel deposits and sediment particles moving in this manner are classified as
sandbars. Another method of transporting sediment is by siltation load. Bedload, often known as the bigger particles,
wind or glaciers, which is known as the aeolian process; is the sum of contact and siltation loads [36, 37]. The
sand dunes and desert deserts are examples of this mode summation of suspended load and bedload is the total
of transportation and deposition [32]. Sedimentation is the sediment load.
process by which sediments or particles are transferred from
their place of origin by natural or human-assisted means and 3.2 Sediment Transport Measurement
deposited in a location different from their source in water Techniques
bodies or on land surfaces [33, 34]. Fluvial processes are those that include the transport
or transfer of sediment in rivers and streams from one place
3.1 Sediment Transport Modes to another within a system, as well as erosion and deposition
Sediment transfer happens only when an erodible [38]. Sediment movement in rivers and streams is not easily
border contacts a flowing fluid. The behaviour at this separable into suspended sediment and bedload because
interface is extremely complex. Because two components there is rarely a clear distinction between the two types of
are involved once the sediment is delivered, the flow is no sediment transport. Given the regional and temporal
longer a simple fluid flow. There are two (suspended and variations in river discharge, sediment measurement is
bedload) ways sediment move in water bodies throughout difficult and time-consuming [39]. The collection of sediment
the conveyance process within the system. concentration data enables indirect sediment estimations to
be made by using general equations to anticipate the total
3.1.1 Suspended load sediment load [40, 41]. Investigations have revealed that the
The suspended load is suspended in the water column estimations from various indirect ways of measuring
in this mode (typically relevant to smaller particles). Because sediment loads varied significantly. Because of the wide
of the turbulent fluctuations, particles may become variability in sediment content estimations, extensive
suspended when water movement increases. Furthermore, sampling is required. There are numerous sampling
stream movement eventually transports them downstream. methods available for measuring silt concentrations in real
The sediment particles are referred to as suspended load. time.
Most natural rivers transmit sediment in the form of As a result, it will be impossible to propose a single
suspended load [35]. general approach that is appropriate for determining
sediment estimates in natural rivers and streams, either
theoretically or practically.

Table 0: Sediment Measurement Techniques for Suspended and Bedload Sediment

Suspended Measurement Concentration Particle Bedload Measurement required particle size
Technique required range (mg/l) size Technique range (mm)
range (mm)
Bottle mass of sediment n/a n/a Helley - Smith mass of sediment fine sand to
particles in sample particles in the sample gravel
Acoustic backscattered 0.1-10 0.1-10 PIHM mass of sediment fine sand to
sound particles in the sample gravel
Pump mass of sediment n/a n/a CSU/FU bedload mass of sediment fine sand,
particles in the trap particles in the sample gravel and
sample small coble
Laser diffraction laser angle 0.05-5000 0.001-0.5 River bedload trap mass of sediment fine sand,
diffraction (RBT) particles in the sample gravel and
small coble
Nuclear radiation 0.1-1000 n/a Pit and Trough mass of sediment >3
transmission particles in the sample
Optical backscattered light <3 < 0.063 Vortex tube mass of sediment fines < 0.5
backscatter particles in the sample
Optical light transmission < 10 < 0.063 Radioactive tracer sediment flow rate, fines to
transmission moving layer pebbles
thickness, average
motion velocity

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Nda, et al.: Riverbank Erosion, Sediment Transport and Reservoir Sedimentation: An Overview

Table 3, on the other hand, provides an overview of coarser materials drop out in suspension further upstream
selected field measuring methodologies for suspended and in the system, while the fines are carried and deposited
bedload sediment. lower down. The amount of silt retained behind a dam is
determined by the sediment transport parameters of the
4. Sedimentation in Reservoirs catchment. Influencing factors include land use, runoff,
Reservoirs are created when a river is dammed, the rainfall intensity and depth, geology, topography, cleared
sediments that used to flow along with the flowing water area for agricultural reasons, and urban growth [44].
naturally are in effect trapped in the reservoir. This is When managing the flow regime of a river system
because the presence of the dam now regulates the flow with a dam, two substantial geomorphological changes are
regime and causes most of the sediments to settle to the expected to occur: reduction in storage capacity and flow
bottom of the reservoir. The reservoirs slowly get filled up capacities upstream the dam. These alterations are the
with sediments and eventually make them unusable for their result of silt infilling behind the structure. Another issue that
intended purposes [42]. may occur upstream of the reservoir is the creation of in-
Sedimentation in reservoirs is a phenomenon due to stream delta deposits, which can significantly reduce
which the sediment particles get deposited in the form of bed stream capacity [45].
load and suspended load after separating from their origin. Figure 1 depicts the basic concept of conventional
In fluvial hydraulics, sedimentation is an important upstream impacts, demonstrating that the reservoir's total
parameter as it provides a probability of being used as a storage capacity is the sum of active and dead storage. In
capacity predicting device in all storage zones due to which the case of flood control dams, dead storage is located
life of a reservoir can be predicted as there is a unique below the low water level specified by the elevation of the
relationship between capacity and life of a reservoir. To be lowest outlet, whereas active storage comprises water that
more explicit, for a given reservoir, sedimentation is can be released for power generation or water supply or
dependent on sediment yield, which is defined as the can be reserved for flood mitigation purposes.
sediment dis- charge through a river outlet per unit Sedimentation has a negative impact on hydropower
catchment area per unit time [43]. output in two ways: the amount of power generated and
the rise in turbine maintenance needs. This is because
sedimentation reduces reservoir active storage, resulting
4.1 Upstream Sedimentation Effects in lower power generation. Furthermore, the presence of
Building a dam over a river result in near-still water silt passing through turbines built primarily of hard minerals
hydraulic conditions and reduced flow velocity in the can cause abrasion, necessitating maintenance. Similarly,
system. This effect causes the silt delivered from upstream water supply demands will experience limitations as
the dam to settle out over time, depending on sediment reservoir storage is reduced due to sedimentation [46].
size, settling velocity, and incoming flow velocity. The

Figure 1. Reservoir storage loss due to sedimentation [47]

4.2 Downstream Sedimentation Effects are responsible for both spatial and temporal variations in
The regulated flow associated with dams and other river morphology downstream.
similar structures in rivers is the main reason why the The river responds to changes according to the
amount of sediment transported downstream by water flow transport capacity and sediment available for transport to
has decreased [48]. Substantial, large materials carried by attain a balance in the system [50]. The river tends to erode
water are trapped upstream of the structure, with most of the its banks and beds in a bid to achieve equilibrium when the
smaller particles falling out to the crest, allowing just conveyance capacity exceeds the sediment supply.
suspended sediment to be transported downstream [49]. Adjustment in the morphology of a system downstream of a
The changes caused by flow regulation and sediment flux dam structure varies in response to some conditions, and a

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 Nda, et al.: Riverbank Erosion, Sediment Transport and Reservoir Sedimentation: An Overview

lot of likely outcomes will result. The river channel Schultz, R. C. and Tomer, M. D., (2014).
downstream of the dam is characterized by erosion and Streambank erosion rates and loads within a single
degradation when the river transport capacity exceeds the watershed: Bridging the gap between temporal and
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