The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: 8 A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture Nader Ardalan ‘AS a practicing architect in the Islamic world, my views reflect the concerns of cone who has practically and philosophi- cally encountered the issues of traditional architecture and its potential integration within the contemporary context. My fifteen years of experience in this field have taught that Islamic art and archi tecture traditionally place the highest value on the achievement of beauty. This is a natural outgrowth of the Koran, the fountainhead of the Islamic perspective, which emphasizes goodness, truth and {knowledge while placing the primary concern upon ahsan al-‘amala (Beautiful Deeds). As another example of this ‘emphasis, the ninety-nine Holy Attributes ‘of God are referred to as asm’ al-husna (Beautiful Names). Therefore, itis under standable that in Islam the fundamental mandate of architecture, apart from ful- filing necessary functional requirements, should be to manifest a purposeful sense of beauty. Meaningful beauty in Islami architecture requires both a quantitative dimension of concern, achieved mainly through a process of pragmatic environ- mental adaptation, and a qualitative dimension, expressed principally through Islamic aesthetics. ‘This paper concentrates upon a few major themes of the aesthetics of Islamic architecture and is intended as a com- plement to the more quantitative con- siderations expressed by others in the seminar. In particular, i offers preliminary survey of the visual language ‘of symbolic forms found in the archi- tecture of the mosque. The mosque has been selected for study because it occurs in varying shapes and sizes as a funda- mental part of city planning in all Mustim cultures from Spain to China, and because it possesses the most charged set of visual symbols. An important reminder of the pivotal role of the mosque in Islamic ‘thought is the saying of the Prophet inscribed upon the gateway of the Qutb Minar: “He who builds a mosque for God, God will build for him a similar one in Paradise.” To achieve an understanding of the visual language of mosque design, a two-part methodology has been employed. First, by analyzing the origins of mosques and studying the transformation of ancient pre-Islamic building types into mosques, it is possible to discern a distinct set of ‘generic “Islamic” forms and typologies of spatial organization, Second, a compara- tive survey of the major mosques of the ‘Muslim world makes it possible to cata logue the relative occurrence of these ‘generic forms and typologies over the last fourteen hundred years. The results of this preliminary study, while still in the process ‘of completion, indicate the existence of a definite visual language possessing both vocabulary and a grammar. The vo- ccabulary basically deals with the aesthetic concepts and models of the parts of the ‘mosque. It concerns such issues as con- stituent forms, surface pattern, colour selection and modes of material usage. ‘The grammar, on the other hand, relates to various systems of organizing these parts into a coherent whole within the framework of Islamic concepts of place ‘making, Some qualifying remarks are, however, necessary. First, while there seems t0 be a distinct visual language that is uniquely Islamic, there exists a multiplicity of dialects related to various ecological and cultural regions of the Muslim people. Second, some parts of the vocabulary and ‘grammar have achieved, through accretion ‘and evolution, highly charged symbolic meanings upon which there may still be ‘general societal agreement, while other parts of the language are very regionally bound, An example of this is the dome, ‘which receives a high emphasis in the zone of Persian culture but is rather unde ‘veloped in the African, Saudi Arabian and Indonesian cultural zones. Third, the visual language to be presented is only a “kit of tools” related to a mode of architectural expression. Just as a diction ary and a handbook of style do not by themselves guarantee a masterpiece of literature, the different levels of aesthetic beauty depend upon the creative excel- lence of the user. Nevertheless, docu- ‘menting the parts and structural systems of this visual language is necessary for build- ing a bridge to the historical traditions of Islamic architecture that unfortunately have fallen into a state of obscurity Without concentrating on issues beyond the present scope of this study, we will address briefly the vast subject of the ‘meanings and intentions of this language. ‘Our work supports the position that art in Islam is rooted in the principle of Divine Remembrance and that the value of true creativity lis in the ability of that art to resonate a profound accord between man, nature and the Absolute, ‘Transformations as Beginnings ‘The study of the transformations of pre~ Islamic monuments is an important first step in the definition of what constitutes a visual vocabulary relevant to Islam. For ‘example, lessons can be gained by ob- serving those parts of pagan, Christian, Zoroastrian and Hindu buildings which ‘were maintained intact and those which ‘were modified or entirely removed t0 make them Islamic spaces. A similar lesson can be gained from the study of ‘what has been added. Thus, through a systematic study of inclusions and exclu- sions, we can trace the birth of Islamic architecture. In reviewing a number of notable trans- formations as representative samples of the different ecological/cuttural regions of the Islamic world, primary emphasis will be placed upon the Masjid al-Haram at Mecca and the Hagia Sophia. A more brief review of mosques at Damascus, Cordoba, Dethi and Fars, Iran, will show both the multiplicity and the unity of the earliest beginnings of mosque architecture. Mecca In terms of sacred geography, Mecca is considered by the Koran to be the “mother of all cities” and, in a meta- phorical sense, the “naval of the earth.”0 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture ‘The bait al—‘atig, the ancient howse located in Mecca, is our primary source of knowledge of this most sacred Islamic place. Mythology relates that Adam fist built the great cube of the Ka'ba, while the Koran records that Abraham was divinely ordered to construct this archetypal house of worship. It is instructive to remember here the Koranic admonition addressed to ‘Abraham: “Behold, we gave the site 10 ‘Abraham, of the [Sacred] House, [saying] “Associate not anything with me." (Sura XXI, 26) ‘This affirmative act of providing “some- thing” (the Ka‘ba), followed by a negating directive indicating “nothingness,” is an apparently paradoxical yet telling sign of the basic character of Islamic aesthetics ‘As a fundamental architectural criteria of ‘mosque design, itis similar to the Islamic testament of the shahada: la ilahailla lah (There is no god, but Allah). The shahada states a profound basic concept of a dynamic God, a simultaneously denying yet affirming perception of “Ultmate Reality.” Through the process of simili- tude, much used in Islamic logic, an extension of the shahdda concept regarding all manifestations of God may be possible. Taken in this light, the Koranic admonition to Abraham regarding the Ka'ba assumes additional meaning and helps to establish the basic principle of transcendence observable in great Islamic art and architecture, In addition to the philosophic irplications of the Koranic references to the Ka'ba, the historical transformations leading t0 the present Masjid al-Haram are instructive in our search for the basic vocabulary of Islamic forms. In this study it is valuable to distinguish the morphology of the Ka'ba proper from peripheral place changes. Fortunately, both aspects have been meticulously recorded in history. Legend has it that the Ka'ba constructed by Abraham and Isma'il was a roofless square about the height of 2 man with its ‘corners set to the cardinal directions. In the eastern comer the Black Stene was installed (al—hajar al-aswad) to mark the beginning of the citcumambulation. From its primary shape, the form came to be known as the Ka‘ba: “the Cube.” Some twenty-six hundred years later, by the time of the Prophet Mukammad, the form had evolved into a flat roofed cube constructed of alternating courses of stone ‘and teak wood. The interior walls con- tained pictures of Abraham, Mary and the Child amidst angels as well as trees and vegetal motifs. In the ensuing centuries the cube-like edifice was reconstructed several times, assuming different sizes, proportions, number of doors and varying interior structures and decorations. The present Ka'ba dates nearly four hundred yeats to the Ottoman period, but it rests ‘upon the foundation stones of Abraham's first construction. Isanbul, Turkey Hagia Sophia, dome Photo: V. Prentice ‘The walls of the Ka'ba have been en- shrouded since pre-Islamic times, and this ‘tradition has continued to the present. cloth has varied from a black and white striped pattern to all white, all red, red covered in black, and to the black brocade ‘that now adorns the Ka’ba. The metamorphosis of the Ka'ba attests to its essential constancy, for on the whole, very little has been added or taken away from this ancient house over the last four thousand years. Perhaps the only singular ‘monumental act of exclusion was per formed by the Prophet in eliminating from the outer perimeter the pagan idols which hhad surrounded the Ka'ba, Circumambulation of the Ka'ba has been an associated act of this sacred place since its inception. However, the growing ‘umber of annual pilgrims, together withThe Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 20 the growth in stature of the religion, has created the need periodically to expand and elaborate the surroundings of the Ka'ba. Originally, at the time of the Prophet, the Ka'ba, the associated ‘Zamzam Well and the station of Abraham were located in a small, open courtyard, forty metres in diameter, surrounded by houses of the city of Mecca, Gradually, the space was enlarged to include other symbolic objects such as several minbars and the four pavilions of prayer repre senting the four schools of Islamic thought. Finally, an arcade and mosque ‘emerged to encitcle the Ka'ba. This was completely rebuilt by Sinan in the six- teenth century in a most modest manner. ‘The Masjid al-Haram of the Ottoman period remained basically unchanged for nearly four hundred years until the recent ‘major extension and modifications com: pleted by the Government of Saudi Arabia. Today, the open space measures nearly 150 by 300 metres and the new ‘Masjid al-Haram can accommodate more than 100,000 people at one time. ‘The evolving design of the Masiid ‘al-Haram has been characterized by several distinct architectural forms occur- ring over the centuries: courtyard, arcade (portico), gateways, minaret and, in a ‘minor yet definite way, dome. The latter is found in all of the Sinan arcades and in the contemporary $afa-Marwa area of the mosque. lagia Sophia In Constantinople, nearly eight hundred years after the Hijra, on May 29, 1453, ‘one ofthe last Islamic transformations of significance took place. On that day, Sultan Mubammad marched triumphantly into the great “Cathedral of the Heavenly Wisdom,” the sum manifestation of the Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Holy Church, climbed upon the table of the sacraments, tured to Mecca, and said his prayers. This act inaugurated a series of changes whereby an architectural master- piece ofthe sixth century was made into a mosque. Of course, twentieth-century ‘Turkish culture has relegated the Hagia Sophia to museum status, but our concern is with the five hundred years ofits ‘Muslim usage. In the interior of the Hagia Sophia the altar and all liturgical objects of worship ‘were removed; all biblical figures, such as the mosaics depicting the Virgin and Child and St. John the Baptist were covered in plaster; the faces of two seraphim and two cherubim in the four pendentives of the dome were transfigured by gilded stars, and most notably, the image of Christ in the dome was replaced by a sunburst ‘medallion enriched with the Sura of Light. Among acts of inclusion in the interior ‘was the placement in the old apse of a milra, minbar, sultan's throne and raised places for the recitation of the Koran. ‘These objects were situated with a slight orientational adjustment to the south in the direction of Mecca. Opposite the ‘mihrdb space great fonts for ablution were placed. Considerably later, in the nine- teenth century, the series of large cal- ligraphic discs that now adorn the interior were installed. In sum, however, the spherical geometry of the interior space was left unaltered. Rather, the direction, the “furniture” and the signs were ‘changed, and hence, the particular sym- bolic meaning of space. On the exterior, aside from the removal of te cross atop the great come, additive steps predominate, Soon after the con- version ofthe Hagia Sophia, a wooden minaret was erected in the northeast, lator teplaced by a masonry minaret. Then a second minaret of stone was erected to the southeast. Finally, the twin minarets of Sinan were completed on the opposite comers in the sixteenth century. More than any other transformative act, the four minarets have changed the architectonic impression of the building. However, itis swat has remained untouched the space land form of a central domical plan-—that has had the most lasting influence. All subsequent grest mosques of Turkey have emulated the transformed and prototypical Hagia Sophia. Damascus, Cordoba, Delhi ‘The mosque of Damascus offers an instance of a double transformation. A ‘pagan Roman temple of the third century A.D., set within a temenos, was trans- formed first into a Christian and then @ Muslim place of worship. The plan of the cure lay on an east-west axis with the altar located in the apse to the west. With the Islamic conquest, the shell ofthe church was retained while an arcade was added to the north. In time, three rinarets were aso constructed, By virtue of its geosraphic location, the basilica space of the interior was dramatically altered by the placement of the mirab and minbar on the southern wall, changing by ninety degrees the spatial orientation of the building. Instead of looking down the large hierarchical nave, the emphasis was placed on the breadth of a seemingly endless space of equality Cordoba represents a reverse transforma tion. An Islamic place was here turned into a Christian place. The original Moorish mosque was unusual for several reasons, but i was most unique by virtue of its “room mirab” which remains even in the Christian period. Significantly, the small cathedral that now has been inserted into the vast arcaded space of the old ‘mosque is oriented almost ninety degrees from Mecca toward the rising sun, Aside from the minarets that have become bell towers and the floral decorations that have remained virtually unchanged, it would be hhard to discern the changes that have ‘occurred, The Qutb ad-Din Aybak Mosque and the adjacent Qu Minar in Delhi of the twetth century A.D. represent yet again another aspect of historical transforma- tion, Here, as in many examples elsewhere in the Musiim world, transformation involved borrowing the pats of existing pre-Islamic buildings. Although all the elements of the clssie mosque can be scen—gateway, courtyard, porch, sninaret {inthis case a towering giant of seventy five metres), mihrdb, dome and plinth— some ofthe actual stone columns and2 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Suedy of Mosque Architecture masonry used in the building construction belong to the Hindu temples upon whose foundation stones the mosque was con- structed, Chakar Tag and Eyvan Rather than review a particular historical building, our final example of a trans formation centres on two types of pre— Islamic building forms belonging to the Sasanian period: the chahar tag and the eyvan. These have influenced nearly all later Persian mosques, culminating in such masterpieces as the Friday Mosque and the Masjid-i Shah of Isfahan, Formed by a cubic base of four supporting, elements connected by arches and covered by adome, the chahar tag or tetrapyion ‘was the sacred place of the Zoroastrian ‘eternal flame. With the Islamic conquest, such sacred spaces were easily converted into mosques by the inclusion of « mihrab. Such a simple transformation can be seen in the small mosque at Yazd-i Kasht in Fars. From the great ceremonial halls of the Sasanians came the eyvan or great porch. ‘An example of the form, which was ‘quickly integrated into the architecture of Persian mosques, can be seen at Niriz in Fars in a mosque dating from 970 A.D. Visual Characteristics of Mosque Architecture From the preceding sample study of transformation, itis possible to deduce basic list of recurring generic forms as well as some principles of spatial organization. ‘There is a definite concern for orientation in space expressed both in the cosmic orientation of the Ka‘ba (set with comers to cardinal directions) and in the er- restral alignment of mosques toward Mecea. The architectural device for this purpose is the mihrab. A second principle is introversion, characterized by courtyard and central dome planning. This concern is also reflected in the gateway and portico, important parts of a “positive space” design attitude ‘The domical, mandalic form highlights a third principle of centrality and symmetry. ‘The dome, when in evidence, normally provides the special sacred space within Which the midrab is located. In Southeast Asia and other forest ecologies, this sacred space often takes the form of a pyramidal roof with wooden rafters. Regardless of the particular shape, the idea of centrality remains constant From the ritual of daily and congrega- tional prayer, two other generic forms have evolved: the minaret and the place of ablution. The plinth has come into being as a necessary consequence of single plane courtyard designs set upon land with a ‘minimum degree of topographic slope. ‘The symbolic value of a raised place is further in evidence in the placement of mosques on hilltops as in many Turkish ‘and Indo-Pakistani examples. ‘To reiterate, the following recurring forms Cf mosque architecture constitute the major elements of inclusion that have ‘evolved over the centuries: mifrab, minaret, gateway, courtyard, portico, place of ablution, plinth and dome. Acts ‘of exclusion are relatively few and are primarily restricted to the removal of specific imagery that would limit the transcendent unity of the Divine. This aspect is most telling of the eclectic and integrative nature of Islamic architecture. In an effort to determine the prevalence of the aforementioned generic forms and the rogional character of the spatial order of their organization, I have surveyed one hhundred and thirteen major mosques throughout the Islamic world. In this survey, the Muslim world is categorized according to regional, ecological and cultural variations as expressed by the typology of their mosque design, Six groups have been identified at this preliminary stage, but the number of categories could grow as more information is collected about the zones and the typologies of mosques. Each mosque was analyzed according to plans, photographs and, whenever possible, site visits to determine the relative level of emphasis of the eight generic forms and the regularity of adherence to a typology of spatial organization. In particular, information for Far Eastern mosques was inadequate and the results for this geographie zone are only tentative In reviewing the survey charts, some definite patterns are observable. For ‘example, the Arab cultures of Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, North Africa and Moorish Spain are heavily represented by the hypostyle mosque with a flat roof or a flat roof with dome accents. In East and West Africa the flat hypostyle type seems to predominate, although great dynamics of design, which could in time alter this trend, are evident. The interpretations here may also be misleading, as the sampling for this large region was small and the buildings were investigated only through plans and photographs. ‘The Indian subcontinent (including Pakistan and Bangladesh) represents a ‘unique cultural identity, although ecologi- cal variations have influenced the design ‘of mosques there considerably. Mosques in Tran, Central Asia and Afghanistan show strong affinities of type, Predominantly of the four-eyvdn variety, they rely heavily upon the chahdr tag concept of place- ‘making, Turkey is also one of the more homogeneous areas, having evolved the central dome plan within its own regional borders and being basically of one eco- logical zone. Despite the preliminary nature of this survey, itis important to note that all tight generic forms were found in each of the six geographic zones and that they appeared in no less than 83% of the mosques surveyed. The incidence of courtyards was 93%; minarets, 89%; domes (pyramidal also included), 83%; gateways, 100%; porticos, 869%; plinths, 87%; places of ablution, 97% and, of course, mihrabs, 100%. In the mosque typologies, the results are for the most part regionally bound, but there is also a spread of cultural types beyond the regional borders. Turkish