Unit III: Geometry: Mensuration, Lines & Angles, Circles, Polygons, Triangles, Co-ordinate Geometry, Trigonometry, Probability &

Statistics: Mean,
Median & Mode, Permutation & Combination, Probability Set Theory & Venn Diagram.

VENN DIAGRAM

Venn Diagrams are used to represent the groups of data in circles, if the circles are overlapping, some elements in the
groups are common, if they are not overlapping, there is nothing common between the groups or sets of data.
John Venn, a famous logician gave the concept of diagrams in 1918, this is why the diagrams are named Venn
diagrams.

i. All Ps are A, Some As are P:

ii. Some As are B, Some Bs are A:

A B

iii. No As are B, No Bs are A:

A B

1. Animals, Dogs, Cats:

Animals – Dogs Animals – Cats Dogs – Cats
A A
D C

Hence, A
D C

2. Human-beings, Tall-men, Wise-men:

Human-being – Tall-men Human-being – Wise-men Tall-men – Wise-men
H H T W
T W

Hence, H
T W

3. Doctors, Male, Chemistry:

D M Ch
4. Doctors, Lawyers, Teachers:
D L T

5. Teachers, Players, Singers:

T P

S
6. Yellow, Cars, Carpets:
Cars Y Carpets

7. Male, Husbands, Lawyers:

M L
H

8. In a college, 200 students are randomly selected. 140 like tea, 120 like coffee and 80 like both tea and coffee.
▪ How many students like only tea?
▪ How many students like only coffee?
▪ How many students like neither tea nor coffee?
▪ How many students like only one of tea or coffee?
▪ How many students like at least one of the beverages?

Solution: The given information may be represented by the following Venn diagram, where T = tea and C = coffee.

▪ Number of students who like only tea = 60

▪ Number of students who like only coffee = 40
▪ Number of students who like neither tea nor coffee = 20
▪ Number of students who like only one of tea or coffee = 60 + 40 = 100
▪ Number of students who like at least one of tea or coffee = n (only Tea) + n (only coffee) + n (both Tea & coffee) = 60 + 40 + 80
= 180
9. The following Venn diagram shows games played by the number of students in a class:

→ How many students like only cricket and only football?

Solution:
As per the given Venn diagram,
 Number of students only like cricket = 7
Number of students only like football = 14
∴ Number of students like only cricket and only football = 7 + 14 = 21.
10. The following figure shows Rural area, Doctors, and Male:

i. Which number represents only Doctor?

ii. Which number represents who are male came from rural?
iii. Which number represents who are doctors came from rural as well as male persons?
iv. Male which number represent who are neither doctor from rural area?
v. Which numbers represents at least two categories above diagram?
Solutions:
i. 6
ii. 9
iii. 5
iv. 10
v. 7, 9, 5, 8.

PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

 PERMUTATIONS: (Arrangements):
The different arrangements of a given number of things by taking some or all at a time, are called as
permutations.
:

▪ Ex-1: All permutations (or arrangements) made with the letters A, B, C by taking two at a time are (AB, BA, AC, CA,
BC, CB).
▪ Ex-2: All permutations made with the letters A, B, C taking all at a time are: (ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA)
Formula: Number of all permutations of ‘n’ things, taken ‘r’ at a time, is given by:

Solution: Shortcut: 6 x 5 = 30
Solution: 7 x 6 x 5 = 210
A. Repetition Not Allowed Model: REMEMBER

I. (1 – 5): In how many arrangements can be made out of the letters of the following words? 0! = 1
1. THING
2. NUMBER 1! = 1
3. ELEMENT
4. BANANA 2! = 2
5. LETTER
3! = 6
Solution:
1. THING 4! = 24

5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 5! 5! =120
= 120
6! = 720
2. NUMBER
7! = 5040
6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 6!
8! = 40320
= 720

3. ELEMENT

4. BANANA

5. LETTER

= 6 x 5 x 2 x 3 = 180
II. (6 – 8): If no digit can be used more than once (not repetition), how many different 5 digits numbers can be formed
from:
6. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
7. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
8. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Solutions:
6. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 5!
= 120
7. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 = 6!
= 720
 8. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

6 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 = 2160

B. Repetition Allowed Model:

III. (9 – 11): If any digit can be used more than once, how many 4 digits numbers can be formed from:
9. 1, 2, 3, 4
10. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
11. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Solutions:
9. 1, 2, 3, 4,

4 x 4 x 4 x 4 = 256
10. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

5 x 5 x 5 x 5 = 625
11. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

5 x 6 x 6 x 6 = 1080
12. In how many ways can 3 scholarships of unequal value be awarded to 10 candidates?
Solution: 10 x 9 x 8 = 720 1st Prize 2nd Prize 3rd Prize
10 x 9 x 8 = 720
13. In how many ways can 4 prizes be given away to 3 boys, when each boy is eligible for all the prizes?
Solution:
Let us assume: Volley ball Cricket Hockey Tennis
1st Prize 1st Prize 1st Prize 1st Prize
3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 81

 COMBINATIONS: (Selections):

Each of the different groups or selections which can be formed by taking some or all of a number of
objects, is called as combination.
▪ Ex-1: Suppose we want to select two out of three boys A, B, C. Then, possible selections are: AB, BC, and CA.
→ Note that AB and BA represent the same selection.
▪ Ex-3: The only combination that can be formed of three letters A, B, C taken all at a time is ABC.
▪ Ex-4: Various groups of 2 out of four persons A, B, C, D are: AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, DC.
→ Note that AB and BA are two different permutations but they represent the same combination.
Formula: Number of all combinations of ‘n’ things, taken ‘r’ at a time, is given by:

o Note that we can apply this formula if ‘r’ is more than half of ‘n’.
1. In how many ways can a committee of 2 can be formed from a group of 5?
Solution:

Solution:

3. In how many ways can a committee consisting of 3 men and 2 women be formed from a group of 7 men and 5 women?
Ans: 7m 5w

= 35 x 10 = 350
4. From a bag containing 6 red balls and 4 blue balls in how many ways can 4 red balls and 3 blue balls be chosen?
Ans:

5. In a group of 16 persons, each person shakes hand with each other. In total how many shakehands will be taken place?

Ans:
 MEAN, MEDIAN & MODE

I. MEAN
The mean is the average of a given set of data. An average should be greater than the lowest value in a data
set and lower than the greatest value in the set. It should be somewhere in between, possibly in the center.
 Individual Series (Ungrouped Data): The formula to calculate the mean is:

Where
Xi = ith observation
n = Number of Observations

Example: The heights of five runners are 160 cm, 137 cm, 149 cm, 153 cm and 161 cm respectively. Find the mean
height per runner.
Solution:

Hence, the mean height is 152 cm.

 Discrete or Continuous Series (Grouped Data): Tabulated data means when we are given discrete frequency
distribution. In such a case, we have 3 methods to find out the arithmetic mean:

1. Direct Method
2. Assumed Mean Method
3. Step-deviation Method

Direct Method Assumed Mean Method Step Deviation Method

Where, Where, Where,

fi = Frequency of ith Cass a = Assumed mean a =Assumed mean
∑fi = n = The sum of all fi = Frequency of ith Cass ui = (xi – a)/h
frequencies di is equal to xi – a h is Class size
∑fi = the sum of all frequencies ∑fi = the sum of all
frequencies

Example: Find the mean of the following frequency distribution by using the direct method.
Marks Obtained 10 20 36 40 50 60

Number of Students 1 1 3 4 3 4
Solution:
Number of
Marks Obtained
Students fi . xi
(xi)
(fi)
10 1 10
 20 1 20
36 3 108
40 4 160
50 3 150
60 4 240
Total ∑fi =16 ∑ fi . xi = 688

1. Direct method:

Example: Find the mean of the following frequency distribution by using the assumed mean method.
Class Interval 10 – 25 25 – 40 40 – 55 55 – 70 70 – 85 85 – 100

Number of Students 2 3 7 6 6 6

Solution:
Class Mark No. of Students
Class Interval fi . xi
(xi) (fi)
10 – 25 17.5 2 35.0
25 – 40 32.5 3 97.5
40 – 55 47.5 7 332.5
55 – 70 62.5 6 375.0
70 – 85 77.5 6 465.0
85 – 100 92.5 6 555.0
Total -- ∑fi = 30 ∑ fi.xi = 1860

2. Assumed mean method:

Example: Find the mean of the following frequency distribution by using the assumed mean method.
Class Interval 10 – 25 25 – 40 40 – 55 55 – 70 70 – 85 85 – 100

Number of Students 2 3 7 6 6 6
Solution:
Class Mark No. of Students di = xi – A
Class Interval f i . di
(xi) (fi) A = 47.5
10 – 25 17.5 2 - 30 -60
25 – 40 32.5 3 -15 -45
40 – 55 47.5 7 0 0
 55 – 70 62.5 6 15 90
70 – 85 77.5 6 30 180
85 – 100 92.5 6 45 270
Total -- ∑fi = 30 ∑ fi . di = 435

3. Step Deviation Method:

Example: Find the mean of the following frequency distribution by using the step deviation method.
Class Interval 10 – 25 25 – 40 40 – 55 55 – 70 70 – 85 85 – 100

Number of Students 2 3 7 6 6 6

Solution:
Class Mark No. of Students
Class Intervals f i . ui
(xi) (fi)
A = 47.5
10 – 25 17.5 2 -2 -4
25 – 40 32.5 3 -1 -3
40 – 55 47.5 7 0 0
55 – 70 62.5 6 1 6
70 – 85 77.5 6 2 12
85 – 100 92.5 6 3 18
Total -- ∑fi = 30 ∑ fi . ui = 29

II. MEDIAN
The median is the middle value of data when arranged in an ascending or descending order. If the data
collection has odd numbers, the median is the middle number. If it has even values, the median is the middle two figures
averaged.
 Individual Series: In individual series, where data is given in the raw form, the first step towards median calculation is to
arrange the data in ascending or descending order. Now calculate the number of observations denoted by N. The next step is
decided by whether the value of N is even or odd.
 Formula:
▪ If ‘n’ is Odd:

▪ If ‘n’ is Even:

Example: What is the median of the following data set?

32, 6, 21, 10, 8, 11, 12, 36, 17, 16, 15, 18, 40, 24, 21, 23, 24, 24, 29, 16, 32, 31, 10, 30, 35, 32, 18, 39, 12, 20
Solution:
The ascending order of the given data set is:
6, 8, 10, 10, 11, 12, 12, 15, 16, 16, 17, 18, 18, 20, 21, 21, 23, 24, 24, 24, 29, 30, 31, 32, 32, 32, 35, 36, 39, 40
Number of values in the data set = n = 30
n/2 = 30/2 = 15
15th data value = 21
(n/2) +1 = 16
16th data value = 21
Median = [(n/2)th observation + {(n/2)+1}th observation]/2
= (15th data value + 16th data value)/2
= (21 + 21)/2
= 21

 Discrete Series:

Where,
N = Total of Frequency

Example: Find the median of the following frequency distribution by using the direct method.
Income 1000 2000 2500 3000 4500

Number of Workers 6 12 9 14 8
Solution:
Number of
Income Cumulative Frequency
Workers
(xi) (cf)
(fi)
1000 6 6
2000 12 18
2500 9 27
3000 14 41
4000 8 49
N = ∑fi =49
 Median (M) = 25th Item
Since the 25th item falls under the cumulative frequency 27 and the size of the distribution against this ‘cf’ value is
2500.
 Median = 2,500.
 Continuous Series:

Where,
L = Lower limit of the median class
f = Frequency of the median class
cf = Cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class
n = Sum of frequencies
h = Class size

Exercise: Calculate the median marks of students from the following distribution.
Marks 10 – 20 20 – 30 30 – 40 40 – 50 50 – 60 60 – 70 70 – 80

Number of Students 7 10 10 20 20 15 8
Solution:
No. of Students
Class Intervals CF
(fi)
10 – 20 7 7
20 – 30 10 17
30 – 40 10 27
40 – 50 20 47
50 – 60 20 67
60 – 70 15 82
70 – 80 8 90

Cumulative frequency greater and nearer to 45 is 47, which lies in the interval 40 – 50
Median class is 40 – 50.
Lower limit of the median class = 40
Class size = h = 10
Frequency of the median class = f = 20
Cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median class = cf = 27
As we know,
 Hence, the median marks of the students = 49.

III. MODE

Mode is the most frequently occurring value in the data set. One mode, several modes, or none at all if no
number repetitions can exist in a dataset.

Definition:

Mode may be defined as “ the value that occurs most frequently in a statistical distribution.”

 Individual Series: The terms are arranged in either ascending or descending (Preferably Ascending). If each term of the
series is occurring once, then there is no mode, otherwise the term that occurs Maximum Times is known as Mode.
Mode is often denoted by Z. (Note: - If all terms occur once or some terms occur equal number of times, we can’t find Z
by this method)

Example: Identify the mode for the following data set:

21, 19, 62, 21, 66, 28, 66, 48, 79, 59, 28, 62, 63, 63, 48, 66, 59, 66, 94, 79, 19 94
Solution:
Let us write the given data set in ascending order as follows:
19, 19, 21, 21, 28, 28, 48, 48, 59, 59, 62, 62, 63, 63, 66, 66, 66, 66, 79, 79, 94, 94
Here, we can observe that the number 66 occurred the maximum number of times.
Thus, the mode of the given data set is 66.

Example: Find the mode of the following data: 3, 9, 4, 7, 8, 7, 6, 1, 7, 9, 1, 8, 7, 5, and 7.

Solution:
Arranging data in ascending order:
1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9
Here we get we get 7 five times, 8 and 9 two times and other terms once only. Thus, mode = 7.

 Discrete Series: Here the mode is known by Inspection Method only. Here that variable is the^ Mode where the
frequency is highest. But this method is applicable only if:

→ There is a gradual rise or fall in the sequence of frequencies.

→ The highest frequency and the next highest frequency are not too close
→ Maximum frequency is not repeated.

Example: Find mode for the following data.

X: 4 7 11 16 25
f: 3 9 14 21 13
Solution:
In the above given series highest frequency is 21 and variable corresponding to this frequency is 16.
Thus, Mode (Z) is 16.
Special Note: - But, however sometimes it becomes impossible to locate Mode by inspection as concentration of
frequencies is not in a unique manner or fashion as desired for this method.
For such a distribution we have to prepare:
I. Grouping Table; and
II. Analysis Table
I. Grouping Table: It has Six Steps as given below:
i. Frequencies are taken.
ii. Frequencies are added in two(s).
iii. Leaving first item, frequencies are added in two(s)
iv. Frequencies are added in threes.
v. Leaving first frequency, frequencies are added in three (s)
vi. Leaving first two frequencies, frequencies are added in three (s).
In each case, take maximum total and put it in a circle or a box to distinguish it from others.
II. Analysis Table: It has following steps:

o Step I. Note highest total in each column.

o Step II. Note the variable and/or variable in each column corresponding to that total.
o Step III. Check if that total is of individual term or more (2 or 3) terms.
o Step IV. If the total consists of 2 or more frequencies, all such variables have to be marked as V or x
o Step V. Count a/ or x marks in each column.
o Step VI. Variable with maximum √ or x marks denotes mode.
Example: Find Mode from the following data:
X: 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
f: 1 3 4 9 11 12 3 2 2
Solution:
(Note: - Since we can’t make use of inspection method as the frequencies are not most concentrated about highest
frequency 12. Thus, we will have to proceed for the tables.)

Here 25 has occurred maximum times (5), thus Mode value is 25.
 Continuous Series:

Where,
L = Lower Limit of Modal Interval
f1 = Frequency corresponding to Modal Interval
f0 = Frequency preceding Modal Interval
f2 = Frequency succeeding Model Interval
h = Length of Model Interval

Example: Find the mode from the following frequency distribution:

Class Interval 0 – 20 20 – 40 40 – 60 60 – 80 80 – 100 100 – 120

Frequency 10 35 52 61 58 29
Solution:
Class Intervals Frequency
0 – 20 10
20 – 40 35
40 – 60 52 (f0)
60 – 80 61 (f1)
80 – 100 38 (f2)
100 – 120 29

Mode = 60 + 5.625 = 65.625