CHAPTER THREE

FOUNDATION OF GROUP BEHAVIOR

In this chapter we try to study the second level of analysis in organizational behavior. Before we
discuss them, examine your own attitude toward working in groups. The objectives of this chapter
is to introduce you to basic group concepts, provide you with a foundation for understanding how
groups work, and show you how to create effective teams.
3.1 Defining Teams and/or Groups
It is important for managers to understand group member behavior and deal effectively with the
group because of the synergy they provide. Group members should be able to achieve greater
(volume and quality) than the sum total of individual contribution. This is achieved by joint idea
generation, finding out various courses open, and selecting and implementing the best course of
action.
Group: is collection of two or more individuals, working for a common goal and are
interdependent.
Consider a collection of people waiting at a bus stop for a series of buses. Do these people
constitute a group? No! These people are simply that a collection of people. As a collection of
people waiting for buses, they probably do not interact, they lack cohesion (as they may be heading
off in different directions), and they are unlikely to see any commonality of interest between them.
Team: Are “a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common
purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.
Similarities and Differences between Work Teams and Work Groups
Similarities
✓ Stages of group formation apply to the development of teams.
✓ Teams start out as groups.
✓ Teams, like groups, have norms.
✓ Members of teams, like those of groups, have roles.
✓ Role ambiguity, role conflict and social loafing are evident in both groups and teams.
✓ Cohesiveness is important for both groups and teams.

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Difference

Thus while not all groups are teams, all teams can be considered groups. Much of what we discuss
in this chapter applies equally well to both
3.2. Classifying teams and/or groups
3.2. 1 Types of Groups
We can better understand and manage groups if we recognize the various types of groups that may
exist within organizations. In general, groups within organizations fall in two major categories:
formal & informal groups.
1. Formal Groups
A designated work group defined by the organization’s structure is formal group. Formal groups
are groups brought into existence by the structure of an organization. In formal groups, the
behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals.
Formal groups can be further classified as Command Groups and Task Groups.
Command group is a group which is determined by the organizational chart depicting the
approved formal connections between individuals in an organization. Examples of command

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group are Director and the faculty members in a business school, school principal and teachers,
production manager and supervisors, etc.
Task groups, comprising some individuals with special interest or expertise, are created by the
organizational authorities to work together in order to complete a specific task. Task groups are
often not restricted to the organizational hierarchy and can be cross functional in nature. Examples
of task group might be people working on a particular project.
2. Informal Groups
Informal group is a group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined;
appears in response to the need for social contact. In other words, informal groups are those groups
that arise spontaneously in an organization or within formal groups. Informal groups may form
around friendships between coworkers or interests shared by employees in different formal groups.
Because membership of informal groups is voluntary, and only happens if existing group members
consent to a new person being admitted, an informal group can often exert a far more powerful
influence on a person’s behavior than formal groups. Sometimes informal groups exist because a
formal group does not satisfy people’s psychological needs. An informal group emerges, in other
words, in response to employee’s personal goals, desires, ambitions, and frustrations.
Two specific types of informal groups are interest and friendship.
1. Interest Groups: consist of persons who share common interests. Individuals who may not be
members of the same command, task group, or team may come together to achieve some mutual
objective.
2. Friendship Groups: Those brought together because they share one or more common
characteristics. Many groups form because the members have something in common such as age,
political beliefs, or ethnic background. These friendship groups often extend their interaction and
communication to off -the-job activities.
Reference groups are the groups, with which individuals identify and compare themselves. These
could be within the organization when a middle level executive compares himself with the higher
level executive. The reference group might exist outside the organization as well when an
individual compares himself with his batch mates working in other organizations or an ideal group
of people he likes to become.

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3.2. 2 Types of teams
Teams are a special type of task group, consisting of two or more individuals responsible for the
achievement of a goal or objective. All teams exist to solve problems. Teams can be classified in
a number of ways based on their duration and objectives: problem-solving, virtual, cross-
functional, and self-directed work teams.
1. Problem-solving: teams are formed on a temporary basis to address a specific problem that is
confronting the organization. For the most part, problem solving teams are composed of
individuals from the same department or area of an organization who meet together to address and
solve a specific problem. Once the problem is solved, the team disbands.
2. Virtual Teams: Defined as “a team that relies on interactive technology to work together when
separated by physical distance,” they can draw on a variety of interactive technology that includes
traditional e-mail, instant messaging, teleconferencing, videoconferencing etc.
3. Cross-Functional Teams: teams that are composed of individuals from different departments
or work areas those come together on a task or project basis. These groups, called cross-functional
teams, monitor, standardize, and improve work processes that cut across different parts of the
organization.
4. Self-Managed Work Teams: Self-managed work teams bring together separate tasks, once
performed by individuals led by a supervisor, giving team member’s responsibility for task
accomplishment. This type of team exists at all organizational levels. Self-managed work teams
motivate group members to perform at a higher level and increase job satisfaction.
3.3 Why do people form and join groups?
Work groups form for a variety of reasons. No single reason explains why individuals join groups.
Since most people belong to a number of groups, it's obvious that different groups provide different
benefits to their members. Formal and informal groups form for various reasons. Some reasons
involve needs, proximity, attractions, power, and goals.
1. The Satisfaction of Needs
Security: By joining a group, individuals can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. People feel
stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and are more resistant to threats when they are part of a group.

Status: a person’s relative rank, prestige, or standing in a group. Inclusion in a group that is viewed
as important by others provides recognition and status for its members.

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Self-Esteem: Self-esteem is a belief about one’s own worth based on an overall self-evaluation.
As suggested by Maslow, people have a basic desire for self -esteem. Group membership may
nurture self-esteem. If one belongs to a successful group, the self-esteem of all members may be
boosted.

Affiliation: is the desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others. Groups
can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interaction that comes with group membership.
Humans are by nature gregarious. Groups provide a natural way for people to gather in order to
satisfy their social needs. For many people, these on-the-job interactions are their primary source
for fulfilling their needs for affiliation.

2. Proximity and Attraction

Interpersonal interaction can result in group formation. Two important facets of interpersonal
interaction are proximity and attraction. Proximity involves the physical distance between
employees performing a job. Attraction designates the degree to which people are drawn to each
other because of perceptual, attitudinal, performance, or motivational similarity.

3. Power: What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible through group action.
There is power in numbers.

4. Goal Achievement: There are times when it takes more than one person to accomplish a
particular task there is a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power in order to get a job completed.
3.4 Group Development (GD Stages)

Group members must resolve several issues and pass through several stages of development before
emerging as an effective work unit. They must get to know each other; understand their respective
roles, discover appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, and learn how to coordinate their work or
social activities. This is an ongoing process because groups change as new members join and old
members leave. The group development stages according to five-stage model are forming,
storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
1. FORMING(Orientation)
In this stage a primary concern is the initial entry of members to a group. During this stage,
individuals ask a number of questions as they begin to identify with other group members and with

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the group itself. Their concerns may include: “What can the group offer me?” “What will I be
asked to contribute?” “Can my needs be met at the same time I contribute to the group?” It is
characterized by much uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership. This stage
is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group.
2. STORMING(Power Struggle)
This stage is a period of high emotionality and tension among the group members. During this
stage, hostility and infighting may occur, and the group typically experiences many changes. It is
characterized by intra-group conflict. Here individual members become more proactive by taking
on specific roles and task responsibilities. It is marked by interpersonal conflict as members
compete for leadership and other roles. A relatively clear hierarchy of leadership exists within the
group, when this stage is complete.
3. NORMING(Cooperation and Integration)
Sometimes called initial integration, is the point at which the group really begins to come together
as a coordinated unit. It is characterized by close relationship and cohesiveness. There is now a
strong sense of group identity and friendship. It is complete when the group structure solidifies
and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct members
behavior.
4. PERFORMING (Synergy)
This stage marks the emergence of a mature, organized, and well-functioning group. The group
structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to
know and understand each other to performing the task.
5. ADJOURNING(Closure)
It is especially important for the many temporary groups that are increasingly common in the new
workplace, including task forces, committees, project teams and the like. It is characterized by
concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. The group prepares for its
disbandment. Members shift their attention from task attention to socio-emotional focus as they
realize that this relationship is ending.
3. 5 Obstacles to group productivity
Workgroups do not exist in isolation. They are a part of a larger organization. So every workgroup
is influenced by external conditions imposed from outside it. The workgroup itself has a distinct
set of resources determined by its membership. This includes things such as intelligence and

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motivation of members. It also has an internal structure that defines member roles and norms.
Finally, the type of task that the group is working on moderates the group process-performance /
satisfaction relationship.
A. External conditions imposed on the group
These are factors which are in and around the work group’s environment influencing the
group’s performance.
1) Organization strategy: Strategy outlines the organization’s goals and the means for attaining
these goals. For example, it might direct the organization toward reducing costs, improving
quality, or expanding market share. The strategy that an organization is pursuing, at any given
time, will influence the power of various work groups, which, in turn will determine the
resources that the organization’s top management is willing to allocate to it for performing its
tasks.
2) Authority structures: Organizations have authority structures that define who reports to
whom, who makes decisions, and what decisions individuals or groups are empowered to
make. Authority structures typically determine where a given group is placed in the
organization’s hierarchy. So while someone who emerges informally from within the group
might lead a workgroup, the formally designated leader – appointed by management – has
authority that others in the group don’t have.
3) Formal Regulations: Organizations create rules, procedures, policies, and other forms of
regulations to standardize employee behavior. The more formal regulations that the
organization imposes on all its employees, the more the behavior of workgroup members will
be consistent and predictable.
4) Organizational resources: The presence or absences of resources such as money, time, raw
materials, and equipment – which are allocated to the group by the organization – therefore,
have a large bearing on the group Performance and satisfactions.
5) Personnel selection process: Members of any workgroup are, first, members of the
organization of which the group is a part. The kind of people in workgroups is determined by
criteria used by organization in the selection process.
6) Performance evaluation and reward system: Since workgroups are part of the larger
organizational system, group member’s behavior will be influenced by how the organization
evaluates performance and what behaviors are rewarded.

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7) Organizational culture: Every organization has an unwritten culture that defines for
employees standards of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Members of workgroup have
to accept the standards implied in the organizations dominant culture if they are to remain in
good standing.
8) Physical work setting: the physical work setting‟ that is imposed on the group by external
parties has an important bearing on workgroup behavior. These create both barriers and
opportunities for workgroup behavior.
B. Group Member Resources
A group’s potential level of performance is, largely dependent, on the resources that its members
individually bring to the group. The resources that have received the greatest amount of attention
are Abilities and Personality characteristics.
1. Abilities: Part of a group’s performance can be predicted by assessing the task- relevant and
intellectual abilities of its individual members. Group performance is not merely the
summation of its individual members‟ abilities. However, these abilities set parameters for
what members can do and how effectively they will perform in a group.
2. Personality characteristics: Positive personality characteristics such as sociability, self-
reliance, and independence tend to be positively related to group productivity, morale, and
cohesiveness. Negative personality characteristics such as authoritarianism, dominance, and
unconventionality tend to affect group performance by strongly influencing how the individual
will interact with other group members.
C. Group Structure
Workgroups are not unorganized mobs. Workgroups have a structure that shapes the behavior of
members and makes it possible to explain and predict a large portion of individual behavior within
the group as well as the performance of the group itself. The structural variables include formal
leadership, roles, norms, group size, status, and composition of the group.
1. Formal leadership
Almost every workgroup has a formal leader. He/she is typically identified by titles such as
unit/dept manager, supervisor, foreman, project leader, or the like. This leader can play an
important part in the group’s success.

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 2. Roles
Shakespeare said, all the world is a stage, and all the men and women merely players. Using the
same metaphor, all group members are actors, each playing a role. By this term (role), we mean a
set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
The understanding of role behavior would be dramatically simplified if each of us chose one role
and „played it out‟ regularly and consistently. Unfortunately, we are required to play a number of
diverse roles, both on & off the jobs. One of the tasks in understanding behavior is grasping the
role that a person is currently playing. The issue should be clear: we are all required to play a
number of roles, and our behavior varies with the role we are playing. That is so different groups
impose different role requirements on the individuals.
i. Role identity: When there are certain attitudes and actual behaviors consistent with a role, they
create the role identity.
ii. Role Perception: Role perception is one’s view of how one is supposed to act in a given
situation. Based on an interpretation of how we believe we are supposed to behave, we engage
in certain types of behaviors.
iii. Role Expectations: defined as how others believe you should act in a given situation. How
you behave is determined to a large extent by the role defined in the context in which you are
acting.
iv. Role Conflict: Role conflict is a situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent
role expectations. Role conflict exists when an individual finds that compliance with one role
requirement may make more difficult the compliance with another.
3. Norms
All groups have established norms. Norms are acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by
the group’s members. Norms tell members what they ought or ought not to do under certain
circumstances. From an individual’s standpoint, they tell what is expected of you in certain
situations. Norms differ among groups, communities, and societies, but they all have them.
Formalized norms are written up in organizational manuals, setting out rules and procedures for
employees to follow. By far, the majority of norms in organizations are informal. The important
common classes of norms that appear in most workgroups are mentioned as follows:
Performance norms: Workgroups typically provide their members with explicit cues on how hard
they should work, how to get the job done, their output level, appropriate communication channels,

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and the like. These norms are extremely powerful in affecting an individual employee
performance.
Appearance norms: These factors include things like appropriate dress, loyalty to the workgroup
or organization, when to look busy, and when it is acceptable to goof off.
Social Arrangement Norms: This norm is basically centered on how we should behave in social
settings. Again here, there are clues we need to pick up on when we are out with friends or at social
events that help us fit in and get a closer connection to the group.
4. Group size:
The size of the group affects group’s overall behavior. Workgroups can be found in sizes like large
and small. The impact of size on a group’s performance depends upon the type of task in which
the group is engaged. Larger groups are more effective in fact-finding activities. Smaller groups
are more effective in action-taking tasks. Large groups are good for gaining diverse input “but
'smaller groups are better at doing something productive with that input. One of the most important
findings related to group size is „social loafing.‟ social loafing occurs when individuals within a
group hold back what they contribute to the group’s effort and performance. Is where group size
and individual performance are inversely related. It may be due to a belief that others in the group
are not carrying their fair share, Social loafing directly challenges the logic that the group
productivity as a whole should at least equal the sum of the productivity of each individual in that
group. So if management uses larger groups, efforts should be made to provide individual
performance within the group.
5. Status
Status can be defined as a social position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
Status may be formally imposed through organizational titles or amenities.
A person’s status reflects group members‟ perceptions of what the person contributes to the group.
Status has some implications on the enforcement of norms and conformity requirements. High-
status people usually leverage on their status to gain more freedom from norms and withstand
conformity pressures. In understanding human behavior, status is an important factor because it
has significant motivational utilities. Status has also major behavioral consequences when
individuals perceive a disparity between what they believe their status to be, and what others
perceive it to be. Status inequities create frustration and can adversely influence productivity and
the willingness to remain with an organization.

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6. Composition
Most group activities require a variety of skills and knowledge. Heterogeneous groups would be
more likely to have diverse abilities and information and should be more effective. This group may
be more conflict-laden and less expedient as diverse positions are introduced and assimilated.
However, the evidence generally supports the conclusion that heterogeneous groups are more
effective than homogeneous groups. An offshoot of the composition issue has recently received a
great deal of attention by group researchers. ‟ Group demography is the degree to which members
of a group share common demographic attributes such as age, sex, race, educational level or length
of service in the organization, and the impact of these attributes on turnover”.

To conclude, it can be said that the composition of a group may sometimes prove to be a critical
factor in its total performance and turnover. Whereas diversity to a certain extent can result in
higher group productivity, large differences tend to enforce conflicts and negative behavior leading
to turnover. Essentially, the logic goes like this: Turnover will be greater among those with
dissimilar experiences because communication is more difficult. Conflict and power struggles are
more likely and more severe when they occur. The increased conflict makes group membership
less attractive, so employees are more likely to quit. Similarly, the losers in a power struggle are
more apt to leave voluntarily or be forced out. The implication of this line of inquiry is that the
composition of a group may be an important predictor of turnover.
7. Group cohesiveness
It is the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.
Studies consistently show that the relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the
performance -related norms established in that group. Members of cohesive groups have a strong
desire to stay in the group. Attractiveness is a key ingredient in cohesiveness.
Determinants of cohesiveness
Cohesiveness can be affected by such factors as time spent together, the severity of initiation,
group size, external threats, and previous successes.
1. Time spent together: the amount of time spent together influences cohesiveness. As people
spend more time together, they become friendlier. They naturally begin to talk, respond,
gesture and engage in other interactions. These interactions typically lead to the discovery of
common interests and increased attraction.

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2. Severity of Initiation / Difficulty of Entry: The more difficult it is to get into a group, the
more cohesive that group becomes, and the more status the group is likely to have for someone
desiring membership.
3. Group Size: As a group, size increases the group cohesiveness decreases. Smaller groups
tend to be more cohesive than larger groups. Larger groups tend to have interaction and
organization problems.
4. External Threats: Group cohesiveness can increase dramatically if the group comes under
attack from external threats. Differences between members become less important as they pull
together to protect themselves and resist the threat.
5. Previous Successes: If a group has a history of previous successes, it builds an esprit de corps
that attracts and unifies members. Successful firms find it easier to attract and hire new
employees. The same holds true for successful research groups, well-known and prestigious
universities.
D. Group Tasks
Tasks can be generalized as either simple or complex. Complex tasks are ones that tend to be novel
or non-routine. Simple ones are routine and standardized. We would hypothesize that the more
complex the task, the more the group will benefit from discussion among members on alternative
work methods. If the task is simple, group members don't need to discuss such alternatives. They
can rely on standardized operating procedures for doing the job. Similarly, if there is a high degree
of interdependence among the tasks that group members must perform, they'll need to interact
more. Effective communication and minimal levels of conflict, therefore, should be more relevant
to group performance when tasks are interdependent.
3.6 Group Behavior

Group behavior has been a subject of interest in social psychology for a long time, and many
aspects of group behavior have been studied over the years. The work group is usually the primary
source of social identity for employees. The nature of the group can affect their performance at
work as well as relationships outside the organizations. Groups interact and affect one another’s
behavior. The interaction that exists among group members and between groups is called Group
Dynamics–that involves both intra-group and inter-group behavior. Intra-group: is the

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interaction that occurs between group members. Inter-group: occurs between two or more work
groups, social groups work together in an organization.

Group dynamics is concerned with interaction and forces between group members in a social
situation. A group may attack and resolve problems, creatively explore possibilities or alternatives,
or execute well-developed plans, among other activities. It is therefore important for managers to
understand group member behavior and deal effectively with the group because of the synergy
they provide.
3.7 Implication for performance and satisfaction

Performance
Any predictions about a group’s performance must begin by recognizing that workgroups are part
of a larger organization and those factors such as the organization's strategy, authority structure,
selection procedures, and reward system can provide a favorable or unfavorable climate for the
group to operate within. A number of structural factors show a relationship to performance. Among
the more prominent are role perception, norms, status inequities, and the size of the group, its
demographic makeup, the group's task, and cohesiveness. There is a positive relationship between
role perception and an employee’s performance evaluation. The degree of congruence that exists
between an employee and his or her boss in the perception of the employee's job influences the
degree to which the boss will judge that employee as an effective performer. To the extent the
employee's role, perception fulfills the boss's role expectations; the employee will receive a higher
performance evaluation. Norms control group member behavior by establishing standards of right
and wrong. If managers know the norms of a given group, it can help explain the behaviors of its
members.

Status inequities create frustration and can adversely influence productivity and the willingness to
remain with an organization. Among those individuals who are equity sensitive, incongruence is
likely to lead to reduced motivation and an increased search for ways to bring about fairness (i.e.,
taking another job). The impact of size on a group's performance depends on the type of task in
which the group is engaged. Larger groups are more effective at fact-finding activities. Smaller
groups are more effective at action-taking tasks. Our knowledge of social loafing suggests that if
management uses larger groups, efforts should be made to provide measures of individual

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performance within the group. We found the group's demographic composition to be a key
determinant of individual turnover. Specifically, the evidence indicates that group members who
share a common age or date of entry in to the workgroup are less prone to resign. Finally, we found
that cohesiveness could play an important function in influencing a group's level of productivity.
Whether or not it does depends on the group's performance-related norms.
Satisfaction
As with the role perception-performance relationship, high congruence between a boss and
employee about the perception of the employee's job shows a significant association with high
employee satisfaction. Similarly, role conflict is associated with job-induced tension and job
dissatisfaction. Most people prefer to communicate with others at their own status level or a higher
one rather than with those below them. As a result, we should expect satisfaction to be greater
among employees whose job minimizes interaction with individuals who are lower in status than
they are. The group size-satisfaction relationship is what one would intuitively expect: Larger
groups are associated with lower satisfaction. As size increases, opportunities for participation and
social interaction decrease, as does the ability of members to identify with the group's
accomplishments.

3.8 Group Decision Making

Group decision making- involves solving a problem by a group of two or more individuals. Many
of the decisions in large complex organizations are made by groups - through shared power,
bargaining activities and need for compromise present in most group decisions that further
complicate decision making process.

The increased complexity of the world in which the organization operates makes increasingly
difficult for a single manager to make complex decisions independently. Individuals can handle
most programmed decisions efficiently in their own, in contrast; non-programmed decisions are
often group effort.

3.8.1Group Decision-Making Techniques

A group can make decisions by working together through the basic decision making
process. However, group decisions can be enriched when the group uses techniques that

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stimulate creativity in group processes. The following are among the most widely used
techniques.
1) Brainstorming

Brainstorming is the process of suggesting many possible alternatives/ideas without evaluation or

criticism.

Brainstorming is based on observing the following rules:

✓ Group members are encouraged to state any idea that comes to mind,
✓ Group members are encouraged to use and build on another’s ideas.
✓ Group members may not criticize any idea.
✓ Only after brainstorming is completed does the group evaluate ideas and possibly select
one to develop and implement.
Brainstorming is a good technique for generating alternatives. It is not appropriate, however, for
evaluating alternatives or selecting solutions. For resolving issues that require innovative or
imaginative responses, a group can benefit from using brainstorming in the early stages of
decision-making process.

2) Nominal group technique

It is a structured approach to decision making that focuses on generating alternatives and

choosing one alternative by voting. It technique has the following distinct steps:

a) Individuals silently list their ideas.

b) Ideas are written on a chart one at a time until all ideas are listed.
c) Discussion is permitted, but only to clarify the ideas. No criticism is allowed.
d) A written vote is taken secretly to select the alternative.
The nominal group techniques reduces the roadblocks to group decision making by (1)
separating brainstorming from evaluation, (2) promoting balanced participation among group
members, and (3) incorporating mathematical voting techniques in order to reach consensus.

Nominal group technique is a good technique to use in a situation where group members fear
criticism from others.

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3) Delphi technique

It is a group decision making process that anonymously generates ideas or judgments from
physically dispersed experts through questionnaires and feedback.

The group coordinator sends out questionnaires asking about the issue to its members, and then
sends out another round of questionnaires that summarizes the responses from the first
questionnaire and asks for further opinions. The process is repeated until the participants reach a
consensus.

4) Interacting group decision (consensus)

Consensus is the process of presenting opinions and gaining agreement to support a

decision. Group members openly discuss, argue about and agree on the best alternative(s).

According to a decision-making expert, a consensus “is reached when all members can say they
either agree with the decision or have had their „day in court‟ and were unable to convince
the others of their viewpoint. In the final analysis, everyone agrees to support the outcome.”
This definition indicates that consensus does not require unanimous agreement because group
members may still disagree with the final decision but are willing to work toward its success.

3.8.2 Groupthink and Group shift

Two by-products of group decision making have received a considerable amount of attention by
researchers in OB. As we'll show, these two phenomena have the potential to affect the group's
ability to appraise alternatives objectively and arrive at quality decision solutions.

Group-think is the tendency of cohesive group members to lose their critical evaluative
capabilities and it is a behavior that support conformity and team harmony at the expense of other
team priorities. Highly cohesive groups demand conformity; their members tend to become
unwilling to criticize one another’s ideas and suggestions. Desires to hold the group together and
to avoid unpleasant disagreements lead to an overemphasis on agreement and an underemphasize
on critical discussion. The possible result is a poor decision.

Group-shift: is a change in decision risk between the group's decision and the individual decision
that members within the group would make; can be either to ward conservatism or greater risk.

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What appears to happen in groups is that the discussion leads to a significant shift in the positions
of members toward a more extreme position toward the direction in which they were already
leaning before the discussion. So conservative types become more cautious and more aggressive
types assume more risk. The group discussion tends to exaggerate the initial position of the group.
Group shift can be viewed as a special case of groupthink. The group’s decision reflects the
dominant decision-making norm that develops during the group’s discussion. Whether the shift in
the group’s decision is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant pre-discussion
norm.

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