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CHAPTER - 9
LIGHT - REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS 2024)

Reflection of light by curved surfaces; Images formed by spherical mirrors, centre
of curvature, principal axis, principal focus, focal length, mirror formula (Derivation
not required), magnification.
Refraction; Laws of refraction, refractive index.
Refraction of light by spherical lens; Image formed by spherical lenses; Lens
formula (Derivation not required); Magnification. Power of a lens.

LIGHT: The form of energy which gives vision through our eyes. This has
phenomenon like Reflection and Refraction.
Reflection of Light: The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same
medium by the smooth surface is called reflection. Highly polished (smooth)
surfaces such as a mirror reflect most of the light falling on it.
Incident light: Light which falls on the surface is called incident light.
Reflected light: Light which goes back after reflection is called reflected light.
The angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
An angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Laws of reflection: There are two laws of reflection:

a) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie
in the same plane.
b) Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection i.e. i = r
Image: If light rays coming from a point and after reflection or refraction meet at
another point or seems to meet at another point, then second point is called
image of the first point. There are two types of image, i.e.-
a) Real image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, actually meet at
a point, the image formed by these rays is said to be real. Real images can be
obtained on a screen.
b) Virtual image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, appear to
meet at a point, then the image formed by these rays is said to be virtual. Virtual
screen.
Mirror: The shiny/polished surface which can reflect the light is a mirror. Mirror is
of two types:
1. Plane Mirror: If the reflecting surface is a plane then the mirror is plane.
2. Spherical Mirror: If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere then the
 61

mirror is a spherical mirror.

The spherical mirror is of two types:
a. Convex mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is curved outwards (convex). It
diverges the light so it is also called a diverging mirror.
b. Concave mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is curved inwards (concave). It
converges the light so it is also called converging mirror.
Pole (Vertex): The central point of a mirror is called its pole.
Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is
called the centre of curvature. It is denoted by C.

Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is
called the radius of curvature. It is denoted by R.
Principal axis: The straight line passing through the pole and the centre of
curvature is called the principal axis.
Principal focus: It is a point on the principal axis at which the rays parallel to the
principal axis meet after reflection or seem to come from it. For a concave mirror,
the focus lies in front of the mirror and for a convex mirror, it lies behind the mirror.
In short, a concave mirror has a real focus while a convex mirror has a virtual
focus.
Focal plane: A plane, drawn perpendicular to the principal axis and passing
through the principal focus.
Focal length: The distance between the pole and the focus is called the focal
length. It is represented by f. The focal length is half the radius of curvature. f=R/2
Reflection by Spherical mirror: A ray of light which is parallel to the principal
axis of a spherical mirror, after reflection converges or diverges from focus.
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RULE OF REFLECTION IN CURVED MIRROR

A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a spherical mirror, after
reflection converges or diverges from focus.

A ray of light passing through or appearing from the center of curvature of

spherical mirror is reflected back along the same path.

A ray of light passing through or appearing from the focus of spherical mirror
becomes parallel to the principal axis.

A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a spherical mirror is reflected back
making same angle with principal axis.

IMAGE FORMATION OF CONCAVE MIRROR

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IMAGE FORMATION OF CONCAVE MIRROR

SIGN CONVENTIONS OF SPHERICAL MIRROR

All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror as the origin.
Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive.
Distances measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are taken as
negative.
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Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
positive.
Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken
as negative.
IMAGE FORMATION OF CONVEX MIRROR

POSITION OF POSITION OF IMAGE SIZE OF IMAGE NATURE OF

OBJECT IMAGE

At Infinity At the focus F, behind Highly diminished Virtual and Erect

the mirror

Between Infinity and Between P and F, Diminished Virtual and Erect

the Pole behind the mirror

USES OF CONCAVE MIRROR USES OF CONVEX MIRROR

Shaving mirrors Rear-view mirrors of all the vehicles.

Head light of vehicles Security purposes in school, hotel, and
hospital galleries.
Ophthalmoscope
Astronomical telescopes In ATM to view the behind person

Headlights Telescopes
Sunglasses
Solar furnaces
Street light

Magnification by Mirrors
 65

Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab

Light emerges from the glass slab in direction parallel with that in which it enters the
glass slab. Perpendicular distance between incident ray and emergent ray coming
out of glass slab is called lateral displacement.

REFRACTIVE INDEX
Absolute refractive index is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum or air to speed of
light in the medium. (n = c/v)
Relative refractive index
n21 = Speed of light in medium-1 / Speed of light in medium-2
(Refractive index of medium-2 wrt medium 1 is known as refractive index of medium
n12 = Speed of light in medium 2 / Speed of light in medium 1
(Refractive index of medium 1 wrt medium 2 is known as refractive index of medium 1)

When light goes from rarer medium to denser medium than refracted ray bend
toward normal.
When light goes from denser medium to rarer medium than refracted ray bend
away from the normal.
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Refractive index depends on nature of material of medium, density of medium,

colour or wavelength of light.

REFRACTION BY SPHERICAL LENSES

i. Convex lens: Lens which converge the light after the refraction is known as
converging lens.
ii. Concave lens: Lens which diverge the light after refraction is known as diverging
lens.

IMAGE FORMATION OF CONVEX LENS

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IMAGE FORMATION OF CONCAVE LENS

SIGN OF DATA WITH LENS

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USES OF CONCAVE LENS USES OF CONVEX LENS

Concave lens used in peepholes/spy Used in making microscope

holes.
These are used on spectacles to
These are also used in flashlights. correct the vision.
They are also used in terrestrial These are used in the camera to focus
telescopes, binoculars. on a single object.
These are used on spectacles to Convex lenses are used widely in the
correct the vision. camera, focusing on an image and
magnifying it.
These are used as a magnifying glass.
Convex lenses are used widely in the
overhead projectors.

Magnification by Lens
Increase in the image size produced by spherical lens with respect to the
object size is known as magnification.
It is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
It is denoted as m.

POWER OF LENS: - The ability of lens to converse or diverge light rays is

called power of lens. It depends on focal length of lens.
P = 1/f, the SI unit of power of lens is dioptre (D).
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Chapter- 10
HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD

CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS 2024)

Functioning of a lens in human eye, defects of vision and their corrections,
applications of spherical mirrors and lenses.
Refraction of light through a prism, dispersion of light, scattering of light,
applications in daily life. (Excluding color of the sun at sunrise and sunset).

The Human Eye: It is a natural optical organ which is used to see the objects by
human. It is like a camera which has a lens and screen system.

NAME DETAILS RESULT

Retina It is a light sensitive screen Captures the light rays focused by

inside the eye on which an the lens and send electric signals to
image is formed. It contains the brain.
rods and cones.

Cornea It is a thin membrane which It acts like a lens which refracts the
covers the eye trail. light entering the eye.

Aqueous It is fluid which fills the space Medium for light travel from cornea
between cornea and eye lens to retina
humour

Eye lens It is a convex lens made of

transparent and flexible jelly ciliary muscles to focus light on
like material. retina

Pupil It is a hole in the middle of iris Opens and closes in order to

through which light enters the regulate and control the amount of
eye. It appears black because light.
light falling on it goes into the
eye and does not come back.

Ciliary These are the muscles which Modify the shape of eye lens which
muscles are attached to eye lens. leads to the variation in focal length

Iris Covered part of pupil Controls light level similar to the

aperture of a camera

Optical nerve Nerves between Retina black Transmit the image to the brain in
spot and Brain the form of electrical signals
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The pupil of an eye provides a variable aperture, whose size is controlled by iris.
(a) When the light is bright: Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the eye.
(b) When the light is dim: Iris expands the pupil, so that more light enters the eye.
Pupil opens completely when iris is relaxed.
Color Blindness: A person having defective cone cells is not able to distinguish
between the different colors (red and green spectrum). This defect is known as
Color Blindness.
Defects of Vision:
Myopia (Short-sightedness): It is a kind of defect in the human eye due to which
a person can see nearby objects clearly but he cannot see the distant objects
clearly.
Causes of Myopia
(i) Excessive curvature of the eye lens.
(ii) Elongation of eyeball.
Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness): It is a kind of defect in the human eye due
to which, a person can see distant objects properly but cannot see the nearby
objects clearly.
Causes of Hypermetropia
(i) Decrease in the power of eye lens i.e., increase in focal length of eye lens.
(ii) Shortening of eyeball.
Presbyopia: It is a kind of defect in human eye which occurs due to ageing.
Causes of Presbyopia
(i) Decrease in flexibility of eye lens. Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles.
(ii) In this, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia.
Astigmatism: It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person cannot
see (focus) simultaneously horizontal and vertical lines both.
Cataract: Due to the membrane growth over eye lens, the eye lens becomes
 72

hazy or even opaque. This leads to a decrease or loss of vision. This problem is
called a cataract. It can be corrected only by surgery.

Prism: A prism is a transparent refracting medium bounded by two plane surfaces,

inclined to each other at a certain angle. It has one triangular base and three
rectangular lateral surfaces.
Refraction of light through a prism: When a ray of light is incident on a
rectangular glass slab, after refracting through the slab, it gets displaced laterally.
As a result, the emergent ray comes out parallel to the incident ray. Unlike a
rectangular slab, the side of a glass prism is inclined at an angle called the angle
of prism.
Angle of Prism: Angle between two lateral faces is called angle of prism.
Angle of Deviation: The angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.

Dispersion of white light by a glass prism: The phenomenon of splitting of white

light into its seven constituent colors when it passes through a glass prism is
called dispersion of white light. The spectrum sequence VIBGYOR. The different
component colors of light bends at a different angle with respect to the incident
angle. The violet light wavelength is minimum, frequency is maximum so bends
the least while the red wavelength is maximum and frequency is minimum so
bends the most.
 73

Monochromatic light: Light consisting of single color or wavelength is called

monochromatic light, example; sodium light.
Polychromatic light: Light consisting of more than two colors or wavelengths is
called polychromatic light, example; white light.
Recombination of white light: Newton found that when an inverted prism is placed
in the path of dispersed light then after passing through the prism, they recombine
to form white light.

Rainbow: It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature due to complete internal

reflection. The water droplets act like small prism. They refract and disperse the
incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it comes
out of the raindrop. Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different

The formation of rainbow involves a series of physical phenomena refraction,

dispersion and internal reflection.
Rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the sun, i.e. sun is
always behind the observer.
Red color appears on top and violet at the bottom of rainbow.
Atmospheric Refraction:
(having air layers of varying optical densities) is called Atmospheric Refraction.
 74

Appearance of Star Position:

Reason: Atmospheric refraction of star light.
The temperature and density of different layer of atmosphere creates different
undergoes refraction
continuously, due to changing refractive index i.e., from Rarer to denser. It bends
towards the normal. Due to this, the apparent position of the star is different from
actual position. The star appears higher than its actual position.

Twinkling of Star:
Reason: Atmospheric refraction.
Physical condition o
keeps deviating from its path, the apparent position of star keeps on changing.
The amount of light enters our eyes fluctuate sometimes bright and sometime dim
results into twinkling effect of stars.

Scattering of light:
4

wavelength.
Blue color of the sky: The sunlight that reaches the earth atmosphere is
scattered in all directions by the gases and dust particles. Sky appears blue; this
is because the size of the particles in the atmosphere is smaller than the
wavelength of visible light, so they scatter the light of shorter wavelength (blue
end of spectrum). The blue colour is scattered more and hence the sky appears
blue.
Red Danger Signal: The danger signal or sign is made of red colour because red
colour scatters the most when strikes the small particle of fog and smoke because
it has the maximum wavelength (visible spectrum). Hence, from large distance
also, we can see the red colour clearly.
 75

At noon sun appears white: At noon, the sun is overhead and sunlight would
travel shorter distance relatively through the atmosphere. Hence, at noon, the sun
appears white as only little of the blue and violet colours are scattered.
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 77
Chapter-11
ELECTRICITY
CONTENTS (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS 2024)
Electric current, potential
Resistivity,
Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends. Series combination of
resistors, parallel combination of resistors and its applications in daily life.
Heating effect of electric current and its applications in daily life. Electric power,
Interrelation between P, V, I and R.

Important Definitions-
Electric Current: The rate of flow of charge is called electric current.

Potential: The work done require to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a
particular point is called potential of that point
Potential Difference: The work done require to bring a unit positive charge from
one point to another is called potential between those points.
Battery: The device which offer potential difference.
Resistance: The hindrance or obstacle offered by a conductor in the path of
electric current is called resistance.
Resistor: It is a device that provides resistance in a circuit is resistor.
Resistivity: The ability of material to offer resistance (resist the path of electric
current) is called resistivity.
Electric power: The rate of doing work or consuming electrical energy is called
electric power.
Voltmeter: The device that is used to measure potential difference between two
points.
Ammeters: the device used to measure electric current in a circuit.
Circuit: The path taken by electric current. It is always a closed loop
Circuit diagram: The symbolic representation of a circuit.
Heating effect of electric current: When electric current is supplied to a purely
resistive conductor, the energy of electric current is dissipated entirely in the form
of heat and as a result, resistor gets heated. The heating of resistor because of
dissipation of electrical energy is commonly known as Heating Effect of Electric
Current.
Galvanometer: It is a device to detect current in an electric circuit.
Conductors and Insulators: A substance which offers comparatively less
opposition to the flow of current is known as conductors. Substances which offer
larger opposition to the flow of electric current are insulators.
Electric Potential and Potential Difference: The electric potential at a point is
defined as work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
The potential difference between two points is defined as the difference in electric
potentials between the two given points. It is de
 78
Equation: V=W/Q
SI Unit of charge is Volt(V)
o 1 Volt is the potential difference between two points when 1 Joule of work done is
required to move a charge of one coulomb across them.
o A Voltmeter is used to measure potential difference.
Conductors and Insulators
A cell is a source of potential difference, which is created inside it due to internal
chemical reactions.
A combination of cells is called a battery.
Electric Current
The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current,

I=Q/t
The direction of flow of electric current is from positive terminal to negative
terminal, i.e., opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
SI Unit of electric current is Ampere(A).
1 Ampere is the current constituted by the flow of 1C charge in 1s.
An Ammeter is used to measure electric current.
Electric circuit and circuit diagram
A closed-loop path which a current take is called an electric circuit.
Representation of an electric circuit through symbols is called a circuit diagram.

If the physical condition remains same, the current flowing through a

conductor is directly proportional to the applied potential difference between the
two ends of the conductor and vice a versa. For the current I flowing through a
conductor having potential difference V across its ends, we have:

o V I
o V = IR
Here R is the constant of proportionality and known as the resistance of the
conductor.
Value of resistance does not change on changing electric current or potential
difference.
Resistance: Resistance is a measure of the opposition offered to the current flow
in an electric circuit.
 79
Factors affecting Resistance
Resistance is: directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
R l
Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
R 1/A
Combining the two we have
R l/A

Resistivity-The electrical resistance offered by a substance of unit length and unit

cross-sectional area is called resistivity.
SI Unit of resistivity is
Factors affects resistivity: Resistivity depends on
o Temperature
o Material of the conductor

Combination of Resistors-
Resistors in series: Two resistors are said to be combined in series if they
carry the same current. In this circuit the following applies.
o I1 = I2 = I3 = I
o Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
o
o IRs=IR1+IR2+IR3
o IRs=I (R1+R2+R3)
o So, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

So, the resultant resistance of the combination of the resistors in the series is the
sum of all resistance.
Resistors in parallel: Two resistors are said to be combined in parallel if the
same potential difference is applied to them. In this circuit,
o I =I1+I2+I3
o
o V/Rp=V/R1+V/R2+V/R3
o V/Rp=V(1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)
o 1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3
 80

Heating Effect of Electric Current: When current passes through a conductor, it

produces heat. This phenomenon is called heating effect of electric current. The
amount of heat produced can be given by Joules law. By definition
o Power P = work done W/time t
o P=W/t
o P=H/t (work done = energy and heat is a form of energy)
o H=PX t
o H=VIt (P=W/t = VQ/t =VI)
o H=I2Rt (V=IR)

o Heat (H) square of the current (I).

o H Resistance of the given circuit.
o H Time (t) for which current flows through the conductor.
o So, H=I2Rt
When a potential difference is established, it causes electrons to move, i.e., flow
of current.
Electric Power: The rate of doing work or rate of consumption of electrical energy
is called Electric Power.
If W is work done in time t, then P=W/t.
o P= VQ/t (V=W/Q => W=VQ)
o P =VI (Q/t= I)
o P= I2R (V=IR)
o P= V2/R (I=V/R)
o S.I unit of power is Watt (W).
One watt of power is consumed when 1 A of current flows at a potential difference
of 1 V.
Electrical Energy
o SI unit of energy is Joule(J)
o The commercial unit of electrical energy is a kilowatt-hour (kWh).
o 1kWh = 3,600,000J = 3.6×106 J
One kilowatt-hour is defined as the amount of energy consumed when 1kW of
power is used for 1 hour.
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 82

CHAPTER 12
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
CONTENT (reference: CBSE SYLLABUS 2024)
Magnetic effects of current: Magnetic field, field lines
field due to a current carrying conductor,
field due to current carrying coil or solenoid;
-Hand Rule,
Direct current. Alternating current: frequency of AC.
Advantage of AC over DC. Domestic electric circuits.

Magnet: Magnet is an object that attracts objects made of iron, cobalt and nickel.
Magnet comes to rest in South direction, when suspended freely.
Properties of Magnet
a. A free suspended magnet always points towards the north and south direction.
b. The pole of a magnet which points toward north direction is called north pole or
north-seeking.
c. The pole of a magnet which points toward south direction is called south pole or
south seeking.
d. Like poles of magnets repel each other while unlike poles of magnets attract each
other.
Use of Magnets:
a. In refrigerators.
b. In radio and stereo speakers.
c. In audio and video cassette players.
d.
Magnetic field: The area around a magnet where a magnetic force is
experienced is called the magnetic field. It is a quantity that has both direction and
magnitude, (i.e., Vector quantity).
Magnetic field and field lines: The influence of force surrounding a magnet is
called magnetic field. In the magnetic field, the force exerted by a magnet can be
detected using a compass or any other magnet.
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Direction of field line:

Outside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from North Pole to
South Pole.
Inside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from South Pole to
North Pole.

Strength of magnetic field: The closeness of field lines shows the relative
strength of magnetic field, i.e. closer lines show stronger magnetic field and vice
versa. Crowded field lines near the poles of magnet show more strength.

Magnetic field lines due to current a current carrying straight conductor

A current carrying straight conductor has magnetic field in the form of concentric
circles, around it. Magnetic field of current carrying straight conductor can be
shown by magnetic field lines.

The direction of magnetic field through a current carrying conductor depends upon
the direction of flow electric current.
Note: Let a current carrying conductor be suspended vertically and the electric
current is flowing from south to north. In this case, the direction of magnetic field
will be anticlockwise. If the current is flowing from north to south, the direction of
magnetic field will be clockwise.
The direction of magnetic field - In relation to direction of electric current
through a straight conductor can be depicted by using the Right-Hand Thumb

forward movement of screw shows the direction of the current, then the direction
of rotation of screw shows the direction of magnetic field.

Right-Hand Thumb Rule: If a current carrying conductor is held by right hand,

keeping the thumb straight and if the direction of electric current is in the direction
of thumb, then the direction of wrapping of other fingers will show the direction of
magnetic field.
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Properties of magnetic field

The magnitude of magnetic field increases with increase in electric current and
decreases with decrease in electric current.
The magnitude of magnetic field produced by electric current decreases with
increase in distance and vice versa. The size of concentric circles of magnetic
field lines increases with distance from the conductor, which shows that magnetic
field decreases with distance.
Magnetic field lines are always parallel to each other inside the magnet.
No two field lines cross each other.

Magnetic field in circular current carrying conductor: The magnetic field is

produced in the same manner as it is in case of a straight current carrying
conductor.
In case of a circular current carrying conductor, the magnetic field lines would be
in the form of iron concentric circles around every part of the periphery of the
conductor. Since, magnetic field lines tend to remain closer when near to the
conductor, so the magnetic field would be stronger near the periphery of the loop.
On the other hand, the magnetic field lines would be distant from each other when
we move towards the center of the current carrying loop. Finally, at the center, the
arcs of big circles would appear as a straight line.
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The direction of the magnetic field in loop conductor

o . Let us assume that the current is moving in anti-
clockwise direction in the loop. In that case, the magnetic field would be in
clockwise direction, at the top of the loop. Moreover, it would be in an anti-
clockwise direction at the bottom of the loop.
o Clock Face Rule: A current carrying loop works like a disc magnet. The polarity
of this magnet can be easily understood with the help of Clock Face Rule. If the
current is flowing in anti clockwise direction, then the face of the loop shows
North Pole. On the other hand, if the current is flowing in clockwise direction, then
the face of the loop shows South Pole.
Magnetic field and number of turns of coil: Magnitude of magnetic field gets
summed up with increase in the number of t

turn of coil. The strength of the magnetic field at the center of the loop(coil)
depends on -
o The radius of the coil: The strength of the magnetic field is inversely proportional
to the radius of the coil. If the radius increases, the magnetic strength at the
center decreases
o The number of turns in the coil: As the number of turns in the coil increase, the
magnetic strength at the centre increases, because the current in each circular
turn is having the same direction, thus, the field due to each turn adds up.
o The magnetic field produced by current carrying coil is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the current passing through it.

Magnetic field due to a current in a Solenoid:

o Solenoid is the coil with many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped
closely in the shape of a cylinder.
o A current carrying solenoid produces similar pattern of magnetic field as a bar
magnet. One end of solenoid behaves as the North Pole and another end
behaves as the South Pole.
o Magnetic field lines are parallel inside the solenoid, similar to a bar magnet,
which shows that magnetic field is same at all points inside the solenoid.
o The strength of magnetic field is proportional to the number of turns and
magnitude of current.
o By producing a strong magnetic field inside the solenoid, magnetic materials can
be magnetized. Magnet formed by producing magnetic field inside a solenoid is
called electromagnet.

Electromagnet: An electromagnet consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire

wrapped on a soft iron.
 86

Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field: A current carrying

conductor exerts a force when a magnet is placed in its vicinity. Similarly, a
magnet also exerts equal and opposite force on the current carrying conductor.
This was suggested by Marie Ampere, a French Physicist and considered as
founder of science of electromagnetism.
The direction of force over the conductor gets reversed with the change in
direction of flow of electric current. It is observed that the magnitude of force is
highest when the direction of current is at right angles to the magnetic field.

-Hand Rule: If the left hand is stretched in a way that the index
finger, the middle finger and the thumb are in mutually perpendicular directions,
then the index finger and middle finger of a stretched left hand show the direction
of magnetic field and direction of electric current respectively and the thumb
shows the direction of motion or force acting on the conductor.
Many devices, such as electric motor, electric generator, loudspeaker, etc. work
d Rule.

A.C. & D.C. CURRENT

A.C. Current Alternate Current: Current in which direction is changed
periodically is called Alternate Current. In India, most of the power stations
generate alternate current. The direction of current changes after every 1/100
second in India, i.e., the frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz.
D.C. Direct Current: Current that flows in one direction only is called Direct
current. Electrochemical cells produce direct current.

Advantages of A.C. over D.C.

o A.C is transmitted up to a long distance without much loss of energy is advantage
of A.C. over D.C.
o Cost of generator of A.C is much less than that of D.C.
o A.C can be easily converted to D.C.
o A.C can be controlled by the use of choke which involves less loss of power
whereas; D.C can be controlled using resistances which involves high energy
loss.
o AC machines are stout and durable and do not need much maintenance.
Disadvantages of AC
o AC cannot be used for the electrolysis process or showing electromagnetism as it
reverses its polarity.
o AC is more dangerous than DC.
 87

Domestic Electric Circuits: We receive electric supply through mains supported

through the poles or cables. In our houses, we receive AC electric power of 220 V
with a frequency of 50 Hz. (The AC changes direction after every 1/100 second).
The 3 wires in domestic circuits are as follows
o Live wire (Red insulated, Positive)
o Neutral wire (Black insulated, Negative)
o Earth wire (Green insulated) for safety measure to ensure that any leakage of
current to a metallic body does not give any serious shock to a user.

The potential difference (or voltage) which is supplied in India is 220V.

The electric current in house is first passed through a circuit called a fuse (High
resistant and low melting point metal/ore conductor wire). If any high voltage,
overloading, voltage fluctuation or short circuit occurs, the fuse wire melts thereby
restricting the current supply and preventing the high voltage from reaching the
electric appliances.
These wires are passed to different electric appliances of the house through the
meter board.
Generally, 2 types of electric circuits are used for household use:
o 15A: Appliances that have higher power ratings. i.e. Geysers, ACs, Refrigerators.
o 5A: Appliances that have lower power ratings. i.e. Television, Fans, Bulbs.

Short Circuit: Short-circuiting is caused by the touching of live wires and neutral
wire and sudden a large current flow. It happens due to
o Damage of insulation in power lines.
o A fault in an electrical appliance.
o Overloading of an Electric Circuit: The overheating of electrical wire in any circuit
due to the flow of a large current through it is called overloading of the electrical
circuit.
o A sudden large number of current flows through the wire, which causes
overheating of wire and may cause fire also.

Electric Fuse: It is a protective device used for protecting the circuit from short-
circuiting and overloading. It is a piece of thin wire of material having a low melting
point and high resistance.
o Fuse is always connected to live wire.
o Fuse is always connected in series to the electric circuit.
o Fuse is always connected to the beginning of an electric circuit.
o Fuse works on the heating effect.
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