3 NERVOUS SYSTEM 2

The nervous system carries out its coordinating tasks in three ways:
 Information about changes in the body and external environment are detected by
sense organs and simple sensory nerve endings. This sensory information is
transmitted to the spinal cord and brain via ascending tracts.
 The spinal cord and brain process this information, relate it to past experience and
determine an appropriate response.
 Motor impulses are carried down the spinal cord in descending tracts acting on
muscle and gland cells to produce a response.
Many ascending tracts are named using the prefix spino- followed by a root denoting the
destination of its fibres in the brain, e.g. the spinothalamic tract. (Exceptions are;
gracile fasciculus and cuneate fasciculus.)
Many descending tracts are named with a word root denoting the point of origin in the
brain followed by the suffix -spinal e.g. the corticospinal tract.

After this topic you should be able to:

 Describe the functions of various parts of the CNS.
 Examine cross sections and diagrams of the spinal cord, identify the grey and white
matter regions and describe their functions.
 Describe neural pathways involved in a simple spinal reflex, an autonomic reflex, a
sensory pathway, and a motor pathway.
 Describe and perform exercises to illustrate how the brain interprets our world.

NOTE: There is no online pre-lab for this tutorial but it is expected that you will
come to the tutorial having completed the preparation questions overleaf. Your
tutorial preparation will be checked by your tutor.

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Preparation – to be completed before class

Below is a list of word roots for commonly used terms relevant to this topic.

pons bridge medulla central

decussate intersect, cross fasciculus small bundle

cuneo- wedge shaped gracilis slender

afferent carrying to efferent carrying from

stereo solid gnosis knowledge

proprio- one’s own -ception to receive

Grey and white matter

On naked eye observation, the nervous system appears to be made up of grey matter
and white matter.

i) What is the main component of grey matter? Why does grey matter appear grey?

ii) What is contained in white matter? Why does white matter appear white?

iii) How is grey and white matter arranged in the spinal cord in relation to the central
canal and outer surface?

iv) How is grey and white matter arranged in the cerebrum and cerebellum?

Conduction speed of nerve fibres

The speed at which a nerve signal travels along a nerve fibre (axon) depends on the
diameter of the fibre, the presence or absence of myelin and also the thickness of the
myelin.

Practice Exam Question. How does the diameter of a nerve fibre affect the
speed of transmission?

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Myelin
Myelinated fibres (axons) transmit signals much faster than unmyelinated fibres.

i) Name the cells which form myelin in the CNS.

ii) Name the cells which form myelin in the PNS.

iii) How fast can signals travel in myelinated fibres?

i) How fast do signals travel in unmyelinated fibres?

ii) Where are fast myelinated fibres likely to be found?

iii) Where are slow unmyelinated fibres likely to be found?

iv) Which is the more important sensation, proprioception (sense of self movement
and body position) or pain? Why?

v) Would you expect pain impulses to travel in fast thick nerve fibres or slow fine nerve
fibres?

vi) Would you expect proprioceptive signals to travel in fast thick nerve fibres or slow
thin nerve fibres?

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CNS function
Read the table below, which briefly describes the functions of the CNS. This list of
functions is not comprehensive.

Relays sensory input and motor responses via ascending and

descending tracts. Responsible for simple spinal reflexes which have a
Spinal cord
protective function. Damage causes paralysis and anaesthesia below
the lesion but reflexes remain intact.

Connects the cerebrum, diencephalon and cerebellum to the spinal

Brainstem cord. Composed of three regions: medulla oblongata, pons and
midbrain. Damage to the brainstem results in death.
All ascending and descending tracts between brain and spinal cord
pass through the medulla. Contains respiratory and cardiovascular
Medulla autonomic nuclei vital for life, networks involved in coughing, sneezing,
oblongata salivation, swallowing, gagging and vomiting reflexes, and nuclei for
the Glossopharyngeal, Vagus and Hypoglossal cranial nerves. Relays
sensory signals to the cerebellum and thalamus.
Sensory and motor tracts pass through to connect the brain and spinal
cord and the pons to the cerebellum. Involved in regulation of
Pons
breathing and sound localisation. Contains the sensory and motor
nuclei of Trigeminal, Abducens and Facial cranial nerves.
Relays voluntary commands from the primary motor cortex. Relays
sensory information through the thalamus. Produces the
neurotransmitter dopamine which influences control of movement,
Midbrain
emotional responses and experience of pleasure and pain. Houses
visual and auditory reflex centres. Integration centre for posture and
walking. Contains nuclei of Oculomotor and Trochlear cranial nerves.
Smooths and coordinates skeletal muscle movement initiated by the
cerebrum. Receives proprioceptive input to regulate body posture and
balance. Stores memories of movement patterns, e.g. playing a
Cerebellum
musical instrument. Cerebellar dysfunction is typified by errors of rate,
range, force and direction of willed movements (e.g. difficulty putting
finger on end of nose).
Two egg-shaped nuclear masses that sit deep to the cerebral cortex.
Thalami are “gatekeepers” to the cerebrum. They are critical
processing centres for all sensory information (except olfactory) before
Thalamus arrival at the cerebral cortex and play key roles in processing motor
information, integrating higher order cognitive and emotional
information, and regulating cortical activity. Damage may result in
reduced or exaggerated sensations, e.g. constant pain or none at all.
Has a key role in coordinating and integrating endocrine, autonomic
and homeostatic functions such as regulation of body temperature,
Hypothalamus food and water intake, sleep-wake cycles (circadian rhythm), growth &
reproduction. Damage affects regulation of homeostasis e.g. hungry
all the time (or not at all), emotional behaviour – rage all the time.
Origin and regulation of conscious thought processes and complex
intellectual functions, such as reasoning, memory and judgment.
Cerebral cortex
Involved in voluntary control of movement and the conscious
perception of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.

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Spinal cord
The principal ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) spinal tracts are labelled on
the figure below.
(To simplify the figure, ascending tracts are shown only on one half and descending
tracts only on the other half of the spinal cord. In reality all tracts are present on both
sides).

Transverse section of the spinal cord (above T6)

Like many things in anatomy the name of the structure often tells you something
about it. In the case of tracts the name may indicate the direction of the impulse
(ascending or descending). So a name like spinocerebellar tells you that it is
ascending because the spinal cord is lower than the cerebellum and sensory
impulses must travel via the spinal cord before reaching the cerebellum.

Fill in the table below.

Ascending/ Sensory/
Tract Function
descending motor

Lateral corticospinal &

Fine control of limbs
Anterior corticospinal

Pain, temperature, pressure,

Spinothalamic tickling, itching, and less
discriminatory aspects of touch.
Discriminative touch (e.g. fine two point
Dorsal (posterior) column
discrimination, vibration &,
(Gracile fasciculus & stereognosis) muscle position and
cuneate fasciculus) information on joint position.

In the table below, fill in the appropriate number of spinal nerves for each region.

Region of spinal cord Number of pairs of nerves Number of vertebrae

Cervical 7
Thoracic 12
Lumbar 5
Sacral 5
Coccygeal 4

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Tutorial
Spinal cord (Bloom’s: apply)
Look at the charts, pictures and models which illustrate the cross-sectional appearance
of the spinal cord at different levels.
i) Examine the spinal cord cross-sections A and B shown below. Label the following
principal features:
o ventral root
o dorsal root
o dorsal root ganglion
A B

Sections A & B are from different levels of the spinal cord, one from the cervical & one from
the sacral region.
ii) Which section has a higher ratio of white matter to grey matter?

iii) What is the functional reason for this difference?

iv) Which diagram, A or B, represents the section which is closest to the brain?

v) Explain why.

Look at the chart showing the structure of a peripheral nerve. Draw a rough sketch of
what you see in the lower right-hand region of the picture and label your diagram
appropriately. Estimate the number of axons making up the nerve fascicle in the lower
right-hand picture.
i) Axon Estimate:
ii) Are the axons the same diameter?
iii) Are the axons myelinated or unmyelinated?
iv) What does this tell you about speed of
transmission of axons in this nerve?

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Neuronal Pathways

Simple Reflex Pathways (Bloom’s understand)

The patellar tendon stretch reflex = a simple neuronal pathway.

Sit on a surface, which allows your leg (the part of your lower limb between the
knee and the ankle) to hang freely. A fellow student should tap your patellar tendon
sharply with the rubber hammer provided. Describe what happens to the leg.

The figure below shows the component parts of the nervous system involved in the
patellar reflex response. This pathway is a simple spinal reflex.

i) On the diagram label the following features:

o receptor (neuromuscular spindle) o dorsal (posterior) root
o effector muscle o dorsal (posterior) root ganglion
o motor axon o ventral (anterior) root
o motor neuron cell body o sensory axon

ii) Trace this pathway on the models provided, naming each component as you find it.

iii) Of what use are reflexes to the individual? (i.e. why do we have reflexes?)

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Autonomic reflex pathways (Bloom’s: understand)

The autonomic nervous system controls glands, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle
and is responsible for the body’s visceral reflexes. Autonomic reflex arcs involve
sensory receptors, afferent (sensory) neurons, an integrating centre in the CNS,
efferent (motor) neurons and an effector.

i) The diagram below shows an autonomic reflex arc. Trace this pathway on the
models provided, naming each component as you find it.

ii) What are the common names for cranial nerves IX and X?

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Sensory (ascending) pathways (Bloom’s: apply)

Fine two-point discrimination is the ability to identify two points applied to the skin as
two and not one. Different areas of the body discriminate different distances between
two points. This occurs because sensory neurons detect stimuli within an area called a
receptive field. For each receptive field, the same neuron is stimulated. Depending on
the region of the body, receptive fields can be quite large or very small.

i) Where on the body would you expect to be able to discriminate two points which
are very close together?

ii) Where on the body would the points have to be far apart for you to be able to
discriminate them as two separate points?

iii) Working in groups of three, use the instruments provided to test the distance
between two points which can be felt on different areas of the body. One person
should be the subject (looking away), one person to be the examiner and one
person to measure the distance between the points. Record your findings in the
table below. If time permits, repeat the experiment on another person.

Minimum distance at which points can be felt as two

Area of body Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Person 4

Palm

Tips of fingers

Back of forearm

Stereognosis (a complex ascending neuronal pathway) is the ability to recognise

objects simply by touching or feeling them. It travels by the same pathway as fine two-
point discrimination. Tactile receptors are a special class of mechanoreceptors which
provide information to the CNS about touch, pressure, vibration, and skin tension which
allows us to sense the precise position of parts of the body and the size, shape and
weight of an object. Together these receptors give us the ability to identify objects by
touch alone.

Testing stereognosis: You will be given a bag containing various items.

 Place your hand in the bag and try to identify all items by touch alone
(no looking!).
 Take note of any items that you cannot assign a name to.
 You may look at these once you have felt all items but do not let your
classmates see and do not name anything out loud because it will ruin the
exercise for others.
Why do you think there are some items you can describe but not name?

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The neuronal pathway involved in stereognosis and fine two-point discrimination is

illustrated in the figure below. (Bloom’s understand)

i) Trace this ascending pathway by using the diagram, models and photographs
provided. Make sure you can identify the following structures:

o dorsal root o dorsal horn o postcentral gyrus (& name the lobe)

o thalamus o midbrain o dorsal root ganglion

o receptors o spinal nerve o dorsal column of spinal cord

o 1st order neuron o 2nd order neuron o 3rd order neuron

ii) Where does this neuronal pathway decussate (cross-over)?

-

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Motor (descending) pathways

(Bloom’s: understand)
The neural pathway involved in fine motor movements is illustrated in the figure
below. Follow the darker coloured pathway (the lateral corticospinal tract).

i) Identify the following structures on the models in the room. Add labels to the
diagram where necessary.
o ventral root o mixed spinal nerve o pre-central gyrus (& name the lobe)

o lateral corticospinal tract o midbrain o cell body of upper motor neuron

o ventral horn o dorsal root o cell body of lower motor neuron

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ii) Trace the pathway for the lateral corticospinal tract on models and diagrams.
Identify and name each structure.

iii) If your left motor cortex was injured how would motor control on the left side of
your body be affected?

iv) What about the right side?

v) Explain why.

vi) Examine the diagram of the motor pathways (previous page). What difference do
you see between the lateral corticospinal tract and the anterior corticospinal tract?

Spinal reflex (Bloom’s understand)

i) Put the following features in the correct order to describe a simple spinal reflex:
o receptor (neuromuscular spindle) o dorsal root
o effector muscle o dorsal root ganglion
o motor axon o ventral root
o motor neuron (cell body) o sensory axon

ii) What information does a doctor obtain by testing a reflex?

iii) Which region of the spinal cord is being tested by the patellar tendon reflex (cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, or sacral)?

iv) What CNS functions would remain if the brain were destroyed and only the spinal
cord was functioning?

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Sensory (ascending) pathways (Bloom’s understand)

i) Starting at the receptor, list in the correct order, the structures involved in
transmitting a nerve impulse along the neural pathway for stereognosis: Choose
from:
o dorsal root o dorsal root ganglion o postcentral gyrus of cerebral cortex
o medulla o dorsal horn o midbrain
o thalamus o spinal nerve o receptor

o dorsal column of spinal cord

ii) Where is the cell body of the first order neuron? (1st neuron in this pathway).

iii) Where is the cell body of the second order neuron?

iv) Where is the cell body of the third order neuron?

v) Where does the pathway for stereognosis cross over? Which neuron’s axon is
this?

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Motor (descending) pathways (Bloom’s understand)

i) Starting at the motor cortex, list in the correct order the structures involved in
transmitting the nerve impulse along the lateral corticospinal tract. Choose from:

o motor axon (in ventral root) o effector muscle o midbrain

o upper motor neuron
o lateral corticospinal tract o pre-central gyrus
(cell body)
o lower motor neuron
o ventral horn o mixed spinal nerve
(cell body)

ii) Where is the cell body of the upper motor (1st order) neuron?

iii) Where is the cell body of the lower motor (2nd order) neuron?

iv) Where does the pathway for voluntary motor movements cross over and which
neuron’s axon is this (first order or second order)?

If this topic interested you, level 2 units that you could consider enrolling in include:

 ANHB2217 – Human Neurobiology

 PHYL2002 – Physiology of Cells
 SSEH2240 – Motor Learning and Control

https://handbooks.uwa.edu.au/

In addition to a career in teaching and / or research, other career pathways include:

 Speech / Language Therapist

 Occupational Therapist
 Physiotherapist
 Physical Therapy
 Kinesiotherapist
 Acupuncturist
 Anaesthetist

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