Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 175 (2023) 108249

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Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering

Review on dynamic response of road pavements to moving vehicle loads;

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This review paper presents and critically discusses the developments in the area of the dynamic response of road
Dynamic analysis pavements to moving vehicle loads during the last 72 years (1951–2023) in two parts: the present part 1 deals
Rigid pavements with rigid pavements, while part 2 in the companion paper with flexible pavements. Rigid pavements consist of
Moving loads
an elastic concrete plate or jointed plates resting on a supporting foundation. This foundation is modeled as a
Analytical methods
Numerical methods
system of springs and dashpots or as a homogeneous or layered half-space. Both two-dimensional (plane strain)
Elastic foundation and three-dimensional pavement models are considered. The material behavior of the foundation layers can be
Layered half-space isotropic or anisotropic elastic, viscoelastic, poroelastic, or inelastic. The vehicles are usually simulated by
constant concentrated or distributed over a finite area moving loads. More advance vehicle models involving
multi-degree of freedom mass-spring-dashpot moving systems can also be used. The dynamic pavement response
is obtained by analytical, analytical/numerical and purely numerical methods, like the finite element method,
working in the time or frequency domain. Comparisons of the results of those methods against experimental
results in the field as well as comparisons of the methods with respect to accuracy and efficiency are discussed.
Some special topics on rigid pavement dynamics, such as critical vehicle speed, pavement surface roughness or
variable with time vehicle speed are also briefly presented. Finally, conclusions are drawn and recommendations
are made for future research in the field.

1. Introduction indicated in his studies that field deflections of flexible pavements were
predicted by dynamic analysis better than by static analysis. Cebon [4]
Structural design of rigid and flexible road pavements is mainly determined that even for a smooth (without roughness) flexible pave­
based on their response to traffic loads. Determination of this response ment, dynamic analysis can increase their response over the static one
has to be done by dynamic analysis since traffic loads are vehicle loads by 10%–15%. Zafir et al [5] in studying the dynamic response of flexible
moving with constant or variable speed. However, pavement design pavement to moving vehicle loads found out that these loads are
codes, such as the previous AASHTO [1] or the current (MEPDG 2008, important and should not be ignored. Wu and Shen [6] in dynamically
2020) USA codes, still determine pavement response by elastostatic estimating deflections in concrete pavements observed an increase of the
analysis. This use of static analysis for a clearly dynamic phenomenon, dynamic deflection over the static one by 18%. Yoo and Al-Qadi [7]
even though is unrealistic, is done because of the obvious complexities of found in their studies on flexible pavements that dynamic analysis
dynamic analysis in comparison with the static one and the familiarity of response results are higher than quasi-static ones by 10%–39%.
practicing engineers with the latter one. Furthermore, it has been found that dynamic analysis of flexible visco­
Many researchers have pointed out the importance of dynamic elastic pavements produces response results in close agreement with
analysis (including inertia and damping) in pavement response deter­ field tests (e.g., Refs. [8–10]). All the above examples clearly indicate
mination. For example, Eason [2] has shown theoretically that dynamic that dynamic analysis associated with inertia, damping, and moving
deflections in an elastic half-space due to a moving load are higher than loads is not only natural and realistic but important as well. However,
the static ones and increase with increasing speed. Mamlouk [3] establishing a connection between filed test and simulation is still a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (E.V. Muho).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2023.108249
Received 3 July 2023; Received in revised form 10 September 2023; Accepted 11 September 2023
Available online 1 October 2023
0267-7261/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.D. Beskou and E.V. Muho Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 175 (2023) 108249

challenging task due to the complex nature of the moving load/pave­ 4) Works dealing with stationary dynamic loads on pavements, usually
ment interaction. At this point, it should be clearly stated that, the associated with the falling weight deflectometer (FWD) test method,
reliability of vehicle/pavement models and their methods of analysis is simply because they are not moving.
judged by how close the predicted pavement response to vehicle loads is 5) Works dealing with moving loads on pavements under quasi-static
to the one obtained by field tests. However, establishing a connection conditions because inertia and damping effects are not taken into
between field test and simulation is still a challenging task due to the account. This quasi-static approximation of the dynamic case, as
complex nature of the moving load/pavement interaction. mentioned at the beginning of this introduction, leads to response
In this two-parts state-of-the-art review article on the dynamic results with significant error [7].
response of rigid and flexible road pavements to moving vehicle loads, 6) Works dealing with stationary repeated or cyclic load usually used
the authors have considered works in the period of the last 72 years for studying pavement fatigue, rutting and crack propagation. Pres­
(1951–2023). This period starts with the two celebrated works of ently, study of these phenomena is done by approximate methods
Sneddon [11,12], which initiated work on moving loads on beams on because full dynamic analysis including moving loads and complex
elastic foundation or the elastic half-plane, which are the simplest nonlinear behavior requires enormous computational resources,
models for pavements. To be sure, the first two works on moving loads which are not still available.
on beams on elastic foundation are those by Ludwig [13] and Dörr [14],
which because they were published in German just before and during This first part of the review paper deals with rigid (stiff) pavements
the second world war, did not receive the attention they deserved. After under moving vehicle loads. The second part of the review paper in a
the works of Sneddon [11,12], research work on the subject started companion paper [22] deals with flexible pavements. Rigid pavements
slowly at the beginning and continued at an increasing pace during the consist of a concrete elastic plate or jointed plates resting on a sup­
coming years reaching the enormous output of recent years. porting foundation. This foundation is modeled as a system of springs
At this point, it is interesting to mention the available books and and dashpots or as a homogeneous or layered half-space. Both
review articles on the subject of moving loads on road pavement dy­ two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) pavement models
namics. From the books one can mention those of Martinček [15] are considered. The material behavior of the foundation layers can be
dealing with theoretical pavement dynamics in general and moving isotropic or anisotropic elastic, viscoelastic, poroelastic, or inelastic. The
loads in particular, Fryba [16] dealing with moving loads on solids and vehicles are simulated by concentrated or distributed over a finite area
structures in general and pavements in particular and Cebon [17] and moving loads, which may vary with time, or by multi degree-of-freedom
Yang et al [18] dealing with vehicle-pavement dynamic interaction (d.o.f.) mass-spring-dashpot moving vehicle systems. The vehicles can
involving vehicle loads moving on flexible and rigid pavements, move with constant or variable speed. The dynamic pavement response
respectively. From the review articles one can mention those of Beskou is obtained by analytical, analytical/numerical and purely numerical
and Theodorakopoulos [19], Sun [20] and Mahajan et al [21]. However, methods, like the finite element method (FEM), working in the time or
the ones by Sun [20] with 187 references and Mahajan et al [21] with frequency domain.
171 references emphasize vehicle-pavement interaction and only a small There are basically two categories of vehicle-pavement models and
part of their references deals with moving loads, while there is a lot of their corresponding methods of analysis for rigid pavements under
discussion on stochastic loads in the former and very few references moving vehicles. The first category of models consists of a vertical load
during the last 10 years in the latter. The review by Beskou and Theo­ moving along the length of a horizontal beam or plate strip resting on an
dorakopoulos [19] with 181 references deals exclusively with moving elastic foundation. This is the simplest model for a vehicle-pavement
loads on pavements (both rigid and flexible) and yet, as the authors system, applicable to both rigid and flexible pavements. The more
found out working on this paper, without mentioning a significant advanced second category of models consists of one or more distributed
number of references up to 2011. loads or spring-mass-dashpot vehicle systems moving along the surface
The present two parts review paper consists of 441 references (186 of a finite system of horizontal rectangular flexural plates usually con­
for rigid and 255 for flexible pavements) and is believed by the authors nected by joints and resting on a foundation of springs and dashpots or
to be a very comprehensive work on the subject with almost all the homogeneous or layered half-space. For both categories of models, their
available references included up to the present time. Thus, the present corresponding methods of analysis are briefly discussed and compared.
review not only extends the old review of Beskou and Theodorakopoulos Effects like those of the critical speed, the acceleration/deceleration, the
[19] from 2011 to 2022 but also completes it for the period 1951 to surface road roughness etc. on the pavement response are also briefly
2011. The result is the 181 references in Beskou and Theodorakopoulos presented and discussed.
[19] to become 441 in the present review. In spite of this large number of This first part of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 discusses
references, many related to the subject references had for various rea­ the various simple models consisting of vertical moving loads on beams
sons not to be included. Thus, the present two parts review paper does or plate strips resting on an elastic foundation along with their corre­
not include the following types of works: sponding methods of analysis; Section 3 describes the various models
consisting of loads or discrete vehicle systems moving on flexural plates
1) Works with moving loads on railway tracks associated with modeling resting on an elastic foundation or half-space and presents their methods
of the special railway features (sleepers, ballast, embankments, of response analysis; Section 4 briefly presents and discusses some spe­
tunnels, high speed etc) and emphasis on the effects of high speed on cial topics on rigid pavement dynamics, like critical vehicle speed,
their response. However, works for railways that are also applicable pavement surface roughness or variable with time vehicle speed; Finally,
to road pavements are included. Section 5 closes with the conclusions and suggestions for future de­
2) Works dealing exclusively with field tests of pavements under mov­ velopments in the field.
ing vehicle loads. Of course, works on analytical and numerical
methods on the subject including field test results for validation of 2. Load moving along a beam resting on an elastic foundation
those methods are included in the present review. and methods of analysis
3) Works studying the effect of moving blast pressures on the ground
because these pressures are not related to moving vehicles and their This two-dimensional (2-D) model is the simplest model for a
speed is usually supercritical, which is not the case with vehicle vehicle-pavement system, applicable to both rigid and flexible pave­
speeds in road pavements. ments. The load represents the vehicle, the beam or plate strip simulates
the pavement, and the elastic foundation models the ground subgrade.
The beam can be finite or infinite obeying the Bernoulli-Euler or Tim

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N.D. Beskou and E.V. Muho Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 175 (2023) 108249

oshenko theory with or without viscous damping and the elastic foun­ with roughness a function of the horizontal coordinate, application of FT
dation is of the Winkler type consisting of vertical springs or in addition with respect to that coordinate reduces the equation of motion to an
of viscous dashpots and/or shear elements and/or nonlinear or nonho­ ordinary differential equation with respect to time, which is easily
mogeneous terms. The load maybe concentrated or distributed and solved. The final response is obtained by a numerical inversion of the FT
moves with a constant speed V along the x axis of the traffic direction. In solution [47]. Alternatively, for a load of any time variation, the equa­
the first case, it is of the form P(t) = P0 δ(x − Vt), where P0 is its tion of forced motion in convected coordinates, after application of the
magnitude, t denotes time and δ stands for the Dirac delta function. In double Fourier transform (FT) with respect to the horizontal coordinate
∑
the second case, it is of the form f(x,t) = Re ∞ n=0 Fn e
iλn (x− Vt)
, where Fn = and the time, becomes an algebraic equation for the response, which is
Fl/L for n = 0, Fn = (2F /nπ) sin(nπ l /L) for n > 0, λn = nπ/ L, Re de­ easily solved. The time domain response is obtained by an analytical or
notes the real part, F and 2l stand for the intensity and the length of the analytical/numerical inversion of the transformed solution [25,48–54].
load, while 2L is the wavelength of the series expansion. For more details With this approach the transient case can also be treated provided
one can consult, e.g., Beskou et al [23] and Ai et al [24]. When use is Laplace transform (LT) is used with respect to time instead of the FT.
made of the double FT with respect to x and t for the solution of the Finally, another method for solving the equation of motion here is
equation of motion, the treatment of the concentrated or distributed with the aid of the unit impulse response, i.e., the response of the system
moving load in the transformed domain is much simpler, as this can be to a unit concentrated force equal to δ(t), which is obtained by using a
easily seen in Kim and Roesset [25]. double FT with respect to the horizontal coordinate and time. The
Concerning the analysis of the above model, it is assumed that loads transformed response to the given force is obtained by multiplying the
move with constant speed along the traffic direction and the response of transformed impulse response by the transformed given force. The final
the pavement to moving loads is a steady-state motion, i.e., a motion time domain response is obtained by an analytical or numerical inver­
that appears stationary to an observer traveling with the load. Since the sion of FTs [17,28,55–58]. The method is essentially the same as the
load is suddenly applied at time zero under given initial conditions and Green’s function method used by Sun [59,60], Kononov and De Borst
moves thereafter with constant speed, the total motion consists of a [61] and Lv et al [62].
transient part that eventually diminishes and the steady-state part that
prevails for large times. This steady-state part of the motion is actually 2.2. Methods for analysis of finite beams or plate strips resting on a
the particular solution of the forced equation of motion and is time- Winkler type foundation under moving load
independent in the moving coordinate system. In the following sub­
sections 2.1-2.4, the various methods of analysis of the models of this Assuming the case of specific boundary conditions for the finite beam
section are presented. Table 1 summarizes models and methods of (usually simply supported ones), one expands according to Galerkin the
analysis of these subsections together with representative references. solution as the sum of eigenmodes times unknown time dependent
modal amplitudes. Thus, after substitution of this solution in the gov­
erning equation of motion and use of the weighted residuals approach,
2.1. Methods for analysis of infinite beams or plate strips resting on a
this equation eventually becomes a set of uncoupled ordinary differen­
Winkler type foundation under moving load
tial equations with respect to time involving the modal amplitudes.
These equations are easily solved usually numerically by, e.g., the
The equation of free motion is solved here by expressing it in con­
Newmark or Runge-Kutta algorithm. The same algorithms are used in
vected coordinates, i.e., coordinates attached to the traveling load, thus
case these equations are nonlinear due to nonlinear terms in the foun­
effectively eliminating the time variable and solving the resulting or­
dation reaction forces. One can mention here the works of Le Houedec
dinary differential equation. Use of the boundary equations at infinity as
[63], Wang [64], Lee [29], Senalp et al [65], Raftoyannis et al [66], Ding
well as the compatibility and equilibrium equations under the load help
et al [67], Dimitrovova and Rodrigues [68] and Dimitrovova [69]. In
to determine the constants of integration [26,36–40]. In Mazilu [40],
case the vehicle is a plane spring-mass-dashpot system with at least 2
the resulting ordinary differential equation is nonlinear because of the
degrees of freedom (d.o.f.), in addition to the equation of motion for the
assumed bilinear foundation and its solution is obtained numerically by
beam/foundation system, there is one more equation for the vehicle,
the Newton-Raphson algorithm. A similar approach, after the change of
which is coupled with that system. Since the beam is finite, the Galerkin
coordinates to eliminate time, employs a Fourier transform (FT) with
approach is used again for the beam/foundation system to reduce its
respect to the horizontal coordinate, solves the resulting algebraic
equation of motion to ordinary differential equations with respect to
equation and determines the final response by an analytical inversion of
time. These equations are coupled with those of the vehicle, and all
the FT solution [27,41–46]. For the special case of a concentrated
together are solved again by numerical time integration as before. One
moving force over the surface of a beam on a Winkler type foundation
can mention here the works of Huang and Shah [30], Muscolino and
Palmeri [70], Ding et al [71], Elnashar et al [72] and Snehasagar et al
Table 1 [73]. Having the solution for a finite beam, one can also practically
Vehicle load moving along a beam on elastic foundation and methods of analysis
obtain the solution for the infinite beam case by simply assuming a very
(constant speed/steady-state motion along x; x, y are horizontal coordinates, t is
large length of the finite beam.
time).
1 Infinite beams on Winkler type foundation
2.3. Methods for analysis of beams or plate strips resting on an inertial
1.1 Analysis by change to moving coordinates and solution of resulting ODE [26] foundation under moving load
1.2 Analysis by change to moving coordinates and use of FT with respect to x [27]
1.3 Analysis by using FT with respect to x and t [25]
1.4 Analysis by Green’s function method [28]
The soil foundation of Winkler type considered in all previous cases
2. Finite beams on Winkler type foundation does not have any mass and hence inertia. Here, instead of springs and
2.1 Analysis by Galerkin’s method for beam-foundation system [29] dashpots, one considers the foundation to be i) a 3-D half-space (elastic,
2.2 Analysis by Galerkin’s method for beam-foundation and vehicle systems [30] viscoelastic or poroelastic), or ii) a soil layer of finite depth on rigid
3. Beams on half-plane (space) foundation
bedrock modeled as an elastic body with mass under 2-D (plane strain)
3.1 Analysis by using moving coordinates and FT with respect to x for the half-
plane case [31] conditions, or iii) a soil layer of finite depth on rigid bedrock modeled as
3.2 Analysis by using FT with respect to x, y and t for the half-space case [32] an elastic body with mass under 1-D (vertical direction) conditions. The
4. Beams on Winkler type foundations problem in all cases consists of two equations of motion, one for the
4.1 Analysis by conventional time domain FEM [33,34] beam and one for the foundation and their respective solutions are
4.2 Analysis by exact frequency domain FEM [35]
coupled together through equilibrium and compatibility.

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N.D. Beskou and E.V. Muho Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 175 (2023) 108249

The 3-D equations of motion for the half-space (case i) after a 3. Vehicle-pavement models for rigid (concrete) pavements and
Helmholtz’s displacement decomposition are solved by application of FT methods of analysis
with respect to the two horizontal coordinates and the time followed by
the solution of the resulting ordinary differential equation with respect These models consist of one or more distributed loads or 2-D or 3-D
to the vertical coordinate. The FT inversions are determined analyti­ spring-mass-dashpot systems with two or more degrees of freedom (d.o.
cally/numerically. One can mention here the works of Dieterman and f.) moving as concentrated loads along the surface of a finite system of
Metrikine [32,74], Lieb and Sudret [75], Lipen and Chigarev [76], horizontal rectangular flexural plates usually connected by joints and
Kononov and Wolfert [77], Jin [78], Steenbergen and Metrikine [79], Ai resting on a Winkler type foundation system consisting of springs and
and Ren [80], Liang et al [81] and Xu et al [82] with the work of Ai and dashpots arranged in the horizontal plane. The first system represents
Ren [80] also considering the effects of cross-anisotropy and layering. the vehicle, the second system simulates the rigid pavement and the
One should observe here that the works of Dieterman and Metrikine [32, third one the foundation. When the vehicle load is simulated by a
74], Kononov and Wolfert [77] and Xia et al [83] also determine the concentrated or distributed (usually of rectangular form) moving load
equivalent Winkler spring constant k as a function of frequency. On the on the horizontal surface (x, y) of the plate, its representation is a simple
other hand, the 3-D equations of motion for the layered half-space are extension of the one in section 2 involving the coordinates x and t to one
solved again in the frequency domain but employing the boundary involving the coordinates x, y and t. Thus, for the case of the concen­
element method (BEM) with a Green’s function for a layered half-space. trated load, the delta function δ(x − Vt) is multiplied by the delta func­
After coupling with the frequency domain equation of motion for the tion δ(y − y0 ), while for the distributed load the single summation
beam, the response of the system is obtained by a numerical inversion of involving x and t is augmented by a second summation involving y,
the transformed solution. One can mention here the works of Lombaert while Fn is replaced by Fnm with explicit expressions in Beskou et al
et al [84,85], Lombaert and Degrande [86,87], Degrande [88], Pyl et al [113]. For the treatment of these loads in the FT domain involving x, y
[89], Pyl et al [90], Francois et al [91,92] and Lak et al [93]. and t one can consult Kim and Roesset [114] for details. In the following
The soil layer equation in 2-D or 1-D (cases ii and iii) after expressing subsections 3.1-3.4, the various methods of analysis of the models of this
the equations in convected coordinates for the steady-state case to section are presented. Table 2 summarizes models and methods of
eliminate the time, is solved by FT with respect to the horizontal coor­ analysis of these subsections together with representative references.
dinate and subsequent solution of the resulting ordinary differential
equation. One can mention here the works of Suiker et al [31] and
Dimitrovova [94] for the 2-D foundation model and those of Holder and 3.1. Analytical/numerical methods for simple and elaborate vehicle
Michalopoulos [95], Jaiswal and Iyengar [96] and Dimitrovova [97,98] models moving on pavement plates resting on elastic foundation
for the 1-D foundation model.
Related to the above models is the model of Fang et al [99] simu­ The simplest possible model here due to Bandyopadhyay [125]
lating a load moving on a pavement resting on a pile-supported consists of a plate strip on a Kelvin viscoelastic foundation (Winkler
embankment through a geosynthetic reinforcement. The pavement springs and dashpots) under a concentrated moving load. This model is
and the geosynthetic layer are modeled by flexural beams, while the analysed by changing the coordinates to convected ones and applying FT
pile-supported embankment by a viscoelastic Winkler foundation. The with respect to the horizontal coordinate. The response was obtained via
beam deflections are expanded in complex Fourier series along the analytical inversion of the transformed solution. The work of Gbadeyan
traffic horizontal direction and the governing equations reduce to a and Oni [116] dealing with a rectangular simply supported plate on an
system of ordinary differential equations with respect to time, which can elastic Pasternak foundation (with vertical and shear deformation)
be solved. under several moving concentrated masses also presents an analytical
solution. Because of the boundary conditions of the plate an expansion
2.4. Finite element methods (FEM) for analysis of beams resting on of its deflection in double sine Fourier series with respect to the two
Winkler type foundations under loads moving with constant speed horizontal coordinates is possible and the equation of motion finally
reduces to a second order ordinary differential equation with respect to
Two kinds of FEM have been developed and successfully applied time, which is easily solved. Another analytical work is that of Liu et al
here: i) Conventional FEM with displacement function in polynomial [126] dealing with a plate simply supported along its two shoulders and
form with respect to the horizontal coordinate, which leads to an resting on a viscoelastic foundation under a load moving on its rough top
approximate solution that converges to the exact solution with the surface. The roughness is assumed to be a sinusoidal function of the
number of elements. The problem is formulated in the time domain as a traffic coordinate. Use is made of the FT with respect to the traffic co­
second order ordinary differential equation with respect to time in ordinate and the time and expansion of the plate deflection along the
matrix form, which is solved by numerical integration. One can mention transverse direction. Finally, the analytical/numerical work of Praharaj
here the works of Shah et al [33], Thambiratnam and Zhuge [100], Ang and Datta [127] dealing with a rectangular elastic plate on a viscoelastic
and Dai [101], Castro Jorge et al [102], Castro Jorge et al [103], Nguyen foundation of the fractional derivative type under moving load with
et al [104], Yin and Yang [105], Rodrigues et al [106], Elhuni and Basu
[107], Froio et al [34,108] and Froio et al [109] with the last one being Table 2
actually a comprehensive review on the subject. It should be noted that Vehicle load moving on rigid pavements and methods of analysis (constant
the shape functions in Yin and Yang [105] are not polynomials but come speed/steady-state motion along x; x, y are horizontal coordinates, t is time).
from the exact static solution of the beam-foundation governing equa­ 1 Infinite plates on Winkler type foundation
tion. The employment of nonreflecting boundaries in the last three ref­
1.1 Analysis by using FT with respect to x, y and t [114]
erences should be noticed. ii) Exact FEM with displacement function the 1.2 Analysis by Green’s function method [115]
exact solution of the governing equation of motion of the 2. Finite plates on Winkler type foundation
beam-foundation system in convected coordinates, which leads to the 2.1 Analysis by Galerkin’s method [116,117]
exact solution of the problem with just a few finite elements charac­ 2.2 Analysis by FDM or FEM in time domain [118,119]
3. Infinite plates on elastic half-space
terized by their dynamic stiffness matrices. One can mention here the 3.1 Analysis by complex Fourier series with respect to x, y and t [113]
works of Chen and Huang [35], Chen et al [110], Andersen et al [111] 3.2 Analysis by FT with respect to x, y and t [120]
and Dimitrovova [112]. 4. Finite plates on layered half-space
4.1 Analysis by FEM/BEM in time domain [121]
4.2 Analysis by FEM in time domain including inelastic soil [122–124]

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N.D. Beskou and E.V. Muho Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 175 (2023) 108249

constant or variable speed should be mentioned. The method is solved 3.3. Analytical/numerical methods for simple or elaborate moving vehicle
with the method of Galerkin for various plate boundary conditions and loads on pavement resting on half-space models
the resulting time domain ordinary differential equations are solved
numerically. One can mention here first the works of Achenbach et al [150],
Kim and Roesset [114] considered a plate of infinite extend on an Beskou et al [23] and Beskou and Muho [151] dealing with an elastic
elastic Winkler foundation under a distributed over a rectangle moving plate on an isotropic or anisotropic elastic half-plane and those of Ai et al
load in convected coordinates. The transient response of the plate was [152] and Beskou [153] dealing with a plate on an isotropic or aniso­
obtained by a triple FT with respect to the two horizontal coordinates tropic elastic half-plane with discrete (layers) or continuous non­
and the time and numerical inversion of the transformed solution. Kim homogeneity of the elastic half-plane, respectively. Achenbach et al
et al [128] and Kim and McCullough [129] following the same approach [150] and Ai et al [152] use convected coordinates to eliminate time and
considered multiple and time harmonic moving loads. Use of the triple then complex Fourier series (FS) and Fourier transform (FT), respec­
FT with respect to the two horizontal coordinates and the time for the tively, with respect to the horizontal coordinate in order to reduce the
same plate on elastic foundation problem as above, had enabled Sun equations of motion to algebraic for the plate and to ordinary differen­
[130,115] and Sun and Luo [131] to derive the Green’s function of the tial equations for the half-plane for an easy solution. The other authors
problem and then obtain the transformed solution via convolution and use complex Fourier series for both the time and the horizontal coor­
the response via analytical inversion. Lu and Yao [132] treated the dinate in their method of solution. In all cases coupling of the plate and
problem of an infinite plate on a system of base and subgrade foundation the half-plane is achieved by enforcement of equilibrium and compati­
under a 2-D spring-mass-dashpot 2 d.o.f. vehicle model moving on its bility at their interface.
surface. The equations of motion for the vehicle and the plate consti­ Then the works of Beskou et al [113], Ai et al [120] and Muho [154]
tuting a couple system, are operated upon by a double FT with respect to can be mentioned dealing with an elastic flexural plate on a homoge­
the two horizontal coordinates after introduction of convected co­ neous, discretely (with layers) or continuously nonhomogeneous,
ordinates. The response is obtained by numerical inversion of the respectively, cross-anisotropic elastic half-space under simple moving
transformed solution of the coupled system. Liu et al [133] and Zhang et loads. The method of solution in Ai et al [120] is an extension of that in
al [134] considered a finite plate on a viscous Pasternak (vertical and Ai et al [152] from 2-D to 3-D by applying the FT along both horizontal
shear deformation) and nonlinear (reaction constant times the cube of directions. The method of Beskou et al [113] and Muho [154] is also an
plate deflection) foundation, respectively. The moving loads were extension of that in Beskou [153] from 2-D to 3-D by applying the
multiple constant ones in the former case and plane 2 d.o.f. vehicle complex FS along both horizontal directions.
model loads in the latter one. In both cases the plate deflection is
expressed in double Fourier series involving the normal modes and the 3.4. FEMs for simple moving vehicle loads on pavement plates resting on
unknown time dependent amplitude. This results in linear and nonlinear half-space models
ordinary differential equations for the two cases, respectively, with
respect to time which are numerically solved. One can start here with the time domain FEM/BEM schemes of Pan
Yang et al [117], Li et al [135,136] and Li and Yang [137] studied the and Atluri [121] and Pan et al [155] for a plate/half-space system (FEM
moving load problem for double layer finite simply supported plates on for the plate and BEM for the half-space soil) and with elastic plate
viscoelastic linear or nonlinear foundation. The vehicle model is a 3-D behavior in both works and elastic and elastoplastic one for the soil in
elaborate one with 7 d.o.f. The equations of motion for the vehicle the former and the latter work, respectively. The work of Dai et al [156]
and the plate/foundation form a coupled system, which is reduced uses the time domain FEM of the computer program ANSYS with elastic
through the Galerkin method (expression of plate deflection in double behavior for both the plate and the half-space soil medium. In all above
sine Fourier series) to a coupled system of second order ordinary dif­ three works transient motions have been considered.
ferential equations with respect to time, which is solved numerically. More realistic rigid pavement models have been considered in the
works of Chatti et al [122], Balzarini et al [157], Bhatti et al [158],
3.2. FDM and FEM for elaborate vehicle models moving on pavement Bhatti and Stoner [159], Darestani et al [123,160], Patil et al [147],
plates resting on elastic foundation Patil et al [124], Wu et al [161] and Ling et al [162]. The work of Chatti
et al [122] is associated with their 3-D FEM computer program
One can start here with the works of Taheri and Ting [138] and DYNA-SLAB dealing with jointed plates either on Winkler foundation
Taheri et al [118] dealing with a finite plate on viscoelastic foundation with frequency dependent springs and dashpots or on a viscoelastic
under a moving (spring-mass-dashpot) vehicle. The equations of motion layered system resting on a rigid or deformable half-space. Balzarini et al
for the plate and the vehicle in coupled form are integrated by the FDM [157] have used DYNA-SLAB program for constructing via regression an
for the two horizontal coordinates of the plate and by the Newmark empirical expression for the dissipation energy needed for estimation of
algorithm for the time coordinate. the rolling resistance of rigid pavements. The work of Bhatti et al [158]
The same problem as in the previous two works has also been solved and Bhatti and Stoner [159] is associated with their 3-D FEM computer
by the FEM in the works of Taheri and Ting [139] and Zaman et al [140] program PaveSim dealing with jointed Mindlin’s nonlinear plates on
where a thin plate is considered in the former and a thick one in the nonlinear subbase and subgrade foundation. The work of Darestani et al
latter work. The equations of motion for the plate and the vehicle are [123,160] is also associated with jointed plates on nonlinear subbase
written in the FEM form in the time domain and the response is obtain by and subgrade foundation layers analysed dynamically with the aid of the
Newmark’s numerical integration algorithm. Further work of the above 3-D FEM computer program ANSYS. A 3-D FEM involving plates on
authors and co-workers on the problem by the FEM has been reported in layered half-space under moving loads is described by Patil et al [124,
Alvappillai et al [141,142], Kukreti et al [119], Zaman et al [143] and 147], while 3-D FEMs using ABAQUS and involving plates on layered
Taheri and Zaman [144] including the effect of plate joints, the Vlasov half-space under moving load and elastic or viscoelastic material
foundation model and the temperature differential. Similar works to behavior are described in Wu et al [161] and Ling et al [162].
those by Taheri and Ting [139] and Zaman et al [140,143] have been
reported by Wu and Shen [6], Sawant [145], Sawant et al [146] and 4. Special topics in rigid pavements under moving vehicles
Patil et al [147], Patil et al [124].
Finally, a special FEM, the finite strip method in time domain, has This section is devoted to some important topics associated with the
been used for analysis of plates on Winkler foundation under moving dynamic response of rigid pavements to moving vehicles. These special
accelerated loads by Huang and Thambiratnam [148,149]. topics include the most significant effects on the pavement response,

5
N.D. Beskou and E.V. Muho Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 175 (2023) 108249

which had not adequately discussed and referenced in the previous two elastic foundation under harmonic moving load. The critical velocities
sections. They deal with the critical vehicle speed, the pavement surface of the system may be determined as the velocities for which a maximum
roughness, the vehicle acceleration/deceleration, the viscous and hys­ displacement occurs.
teretic damping, the poroelasticity, the relations between pavement
response and rolling resistance and empirical pavement response
4.2. Pavement surface roughness
equations for practical use.
Pavement surface roughness affects the dynamic vehicle loads and
4.1. Critical vehicle speed
these loads affect in turn the response of the pavement. This roughness
or unevenness of the surface pavement is due to either surface deterio­
For a vehicle-pavement system under a vehicle load moving with a
ration from many traffic cycles or intentionally constructed road humps
constant speed V, there is a critical speed Vcr for which the vertical
or cushions for speed reduction in sensitive urban areas. Pavement
deflection of the pavement tends to infinity for zero damping or to very
roughness is usually idealized as sinusoidal waves along the traffic di­
large values for non-zero damping. Knowledge of this critical speed Vcr is
rection x and expressed in the form y(x) = Yo eiκx , where y(x) is the level
very important in order to take mitigation measures for reducing the
of the real surface from the perfectly smooth and flat surface with Yo
pavement vertical deflection when the vehicle speed V ≥ Vcr. Modern
being its amplitude and κ = 2π/λ with λ being the roughness wave­
high-speed trains operating with high speeds (up to 400 km/h) on soft
length. Since x = Vt with V being the vehicle speed and t the time, the
foundation soil experience this instability phenomenon, which is miti­
above expression becomes y(t) = Yo eiΩt and thus, the roughness induced
gated by appropriate soil improvement. However, road vehicles operate
dynamic load P(t) is expressed as P(t) = Po eiΩt with Po being its constant
with speeds V (up to 180 km/h) much lower than the Vcr and there is
amplitude. There are many references using this very simple model for
practically no such instability problem (e.g., Ref. [163]). Of course,
pavement surface roughness consideration, e.g., Kim and Roesset [25],
runway pavements in airfields are associated with high aircraft speeds
Kim and McCullough [129], Lyu et al [167] and Cui et al [168].
(up to 350 km/h) and in this case Vcr is important. However, the
Other pavement models including surface roughness were analysed
emphasis in this review is on road pavements associated with low
by Liu and Gazis [47] and Liu et al [126]. They considered rigid pave­
vehicle speeds. Nevertheless, a brief review on the subject of critical
ments modeled as beams and plates, respectively, on elastic Winkler
speed is provided here for reasons of scientific completeness and easy
foundation with springs and dashpots and analysed them with the aid of
reference for those few cases in road pavements where Vcr may be low.
FT with respect to time. The plate was assumed to be simply supported at
The first studies on Vcr determination were done by Dörr [14],
its shoulders and this permitted expansion of the plate deflection along
Kenney [36] and Thompson [26] on the basis of the model of the
its transverse direction in sine series. The moving force was assumed to
Bernoulli-Euler beam on an elastic Winkler foundation under a constant
be a function of the pavement surface roughness including its wave­
concentrated load moving with constant speed. Application of FT with
length components and vehicle characteristics. The analytically ob­
respect to the horizontal coordinate and the time on the equation of
tained pavement response has shown that roughness effect is large for
motion of the system results in an expression for the transformed beam
pavements of low rating and small for those of high serviceability rating.
deflection which goes to infinity (for zero damping) for V = Vcr =
A comprehensive dynamic load determination in the frequency
(4kEI/m2)1/4, where k is the spring foundation constant, EI is the flex­
domain involving a 3-D model of a two-axle vehicle with 7 d.o.f. and
ural stiffness of the beam and m is the mass per unit length of the beam.
displacements of the contact with the pavement points being equal to
Critical velocities for infinite or finite Bernoulli-Euler or Timoshenko
the unevenness has been done by Lak et al [93]. The so determined
beams on elastic foundations of the Winkler or Pasternak or Vlasov and
dynamic moving loads were applied to a road model consisting of a
Leontev (with one or two stiffness parameters) types have been obtained
beam on an elastic half-space and the response was obtained by the
analytically and analytically/numerically by Sun and Luo [50], Dimi­
dynamic-reciprocal theorem (actually the BEM) in the frequency
trovova and Rodrigues [68], Basu and Kameswara Rao [39] and Dimi­
domain. The analytical results were validated by field experiments. The
trovova [53,54,69,94].
uncoupling assumption was also validated by the authors [93].
Utilizing the equivalent stiffness concept already mentioned in sub­
In the following, the equations of motion of the vehicle including the
section 2.4, Dieterman and Metrikine [32,74] were able to determine
dynamic moving loads, that depend on pavement surface roughness are
the Vcr for the case of a beam on an elastic half-space analytically. This
assumed to be coupled with the equations of motion of the pavement
equivalent stiffness is frequency and wavenumber dependent and can be
whose response to those moving loads is desired. One can mention here
used in the equation of motion of a beam on elastic foundation for the
the vehicle-pavement coupled interaction works of Snehasagar et al [73]
evaluation of Vcr. The analysis has shown that there exist two Vcr, one
dealing with a plane 2 d.o.f. vehicle moving on a composite beam resting
equal to the Rayleigh wave velocity VR and another one smaller than VR
on a viscoelastic Winkler type foundation and those of Yang et al [117]
but very close to it. The critical velocity for an elastic layer over bedrock
and Li et al [136] dealing with a two-axle 3-D vehicle with 7 d.o.f.
and the layered half-space under a moving load have been determined
moving on a composite plate resting on a viscoelastic Winkler type
by Dieterman and Metrikine [164] and Kausel [165] and Kausel et al
foundation. Assuming finite beams or plates (simply supported) one is
[166], respectively, using the concept of the wave dispersion spectrum
able to expand the deflection in normal mode shapes and following
for the considered system. According to this approach, the criticality
Galerkin’s approach to reduce the problem to a system of ordinary dif­
condition occurs at the saddle points of the dispersion spectrum at which
ferential equations with respect to time, which is easily solved. Lu and
the group and phase velocities are equal.
Yao [132] considered a simple plane 3 d.o.f. vehicle and an infinite plate
In all the above cases, determination of Vcr has been accomplished
on an elastic foundation. Thus, instead of Galerkin’s approach, the FT
analytically or analytically/numerically. Critical velocities for beams on
with respect to the two horizontal coordinates is applied here.
elastic foundation under moving loads have also been determined by the
FEM. Thus, Chen and Huang [35] and Chen et al [110] have considered
Timoshenko beams on elastic foundation under constant or time har­ 4.3. Variable with time vehicle speed
monic moving loads, respectively. Use of the FEM leads to the det[K(V)]
= 0 equation for the determination of Vcr, where K is the exact total In most of the works dealing with moving vehicles on road pave­
stiffness matrix. This equation simply expresses the condition of de­ ments, the vehicle speed is assumed to be constant, and this implies zero
formations going to infinity at V=Vcr. Froio et al [34] used the con­ acceleration/deceleration. In reality though, the vehicle speed usually
ventional FEM (with polynomial representation of the displacement varies with time and as a result of that vehicle acceleration/deceleration
function) to determine Vcr for a Bernoulli-Euler finite beam on a bilinear are different than zero.

6
N.D. Beskou and E.V. Muho Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 175 (2023) 108249

Starting with the simplest vehicle-pavement model consisting of a damping forces of the form [C]{u̇} are considered with the matrix
finite (usually simply supported) beam on an elastic or viscoelastic damping [C] = a[M] + β[Κ], where [M] and [K] are the mass and stiffness
Winkler foundation under a point load moving with variable speed, one matrices, respectively, and α and β coefficients determined on the basis
can mention here the works of Beskou and Muho [169], Liu et al [133] of two characteristic natural frequencies. One can look, e.g., at Al-Qadi
and Ouzizi et al [170]. The problem here is solved by the Galerkin et al [172] for a use of this kind of damping. Finally, one can mention
method as in subsection 2.2 and the resulting ordinary differential viscous damping resulting from fractional time derivative of the form c •
equation with respect to time is solved numerically. Accel­ ∂a u/∂ta instead of the integer classical one with α = 1. For an application
eration/deceleration is taken into account by replacing δ(x − Vt) in the example one can look at Praharaj and Datta [127].
moving load expression by δ(x − Vt ±α t2 /2), where δ is the delta
function, V the speed, α the acceleration/deceleration and t the time.
4.5. Poroelasticity in rigid pavements
The case of an infinite beam on a Winkler foundation with accel­
eration/deceleration taken into account as in the finite beam case, has
Modeling of pavement layers as poroelastic materials under dynamic
been solved by Muho and Beskou [171] analytically/numerically using
loading presents the advantage of taking into account the effect of soil-
LT and FT with respect to time and horizontal coordinate, respectively.
water interaction under conditions of full saturation. Use of the theory of
The case of a finite plate on a viscoelastic foundation under a point load
Biot [173] is usually made to describe the dynamic behavior of this
moving with variable speed has been solved in Praharaj and Datta [127]
two-phase poroelastic material.
by the Galerkin method as in the above cases of finite beams. Huang and
Use of poroelasticity for modeling foundation soil supporting elastic
Thambiratnam [148] have considered a flexural plate on a viscoelastic
plates has been made by various investigators. Thus, Chen et al [174]
Winkler foundation under a moving point load and have treated the
have considered the dynamic response of an elastic plate on a
finite plate by the finite strip method (a special FEM) and accel­
cross-anisotropic poroelastic half-plane to moving loads by the complex
eration/deceleration as above. The FEM in the time domain was also
Fourier series approach, while Ai et al [175] the dynamic response of an
used by Yin and Yang [105] to solve the problem of an infinite beam on a
elastic plate on a layered cross-anisotropic poroelastic half-space to
viscoelastic Winkler type foundation under the variable speed motion of
moving loads by combining Fourier series expansion and FT technique.
a 2 d.o.f. plane mass-spring-dashpot vehicle model. The accel­
Finally, the works of Cai et al [176], Fang et al [177], Lyu et al [167],
eration/deceleration effect was taken as in the aforementioned works. A
Tang et al [178], Zheng et al [179], Ai et al [24] and Cui et al [168]
much more involved 3-D vehicle model with 27 d.o.f. moving with
dealing with simple or elaborate vehicle models moving on a plate on
braking on a double layer plate resting on a viscoelastic Winkler type
the top of an isotropic or cross-anisotropic, layered poroelastic
foundation has been considered by Li and Yang [137].
half-space can be mentioned. In all these works, the FT with respect to
The cases of beams on an elastic half-plane and half-space under
the two horizontal coordinates and the time is applied on the equations
moving accelerating loads have been considered by Suiker et al [31] and
of motion of a layer and the resulting ordinary differential equation with
Liang et al [81], respectively. The treatment of moving forces has been
respect to the vertical coordinate is easily solved. The equation of mo­
done as in all the aforementioned works, while the treatment of the
tion of the plate is reduced to an algebraic equation after application of
half-plane and half-space has been done by the FEM and the triple FT
FT (complex FS in Ref. [24]) with respect to the two horizontal co­
with respect to the two horizontal coordinates and the time.
ordinates. Soil layers and top layer-plate are coupled together through
Finally, one can mention the works of Taheri and Ting [139], Zaman
equilibrium and compatibility. The time domain response is obtained by
et al [140,143], Alvappillai et al [141,142] and Kukreti et al [119] on
analytical/numerical inversion of the transformed solution. The equa­
rigid pavements modeled by plates on viscoelastic foundation under
tions of motion of the 2 or 4 d.o.f. spring-mass-dashpot vehicle in Lyu et
simple vehicle moving loads with specified initial velocity and acceler­
al [167] and Cui et al [168] also include reaction forces due to the plate
ation. Pavement response was obtained by the time domain FEM.
top surface roughness and are coupled to those for the plate.
However, no examples with acceleration have been provided.
Use of poroelasticity for modeling foundation soil supporting elastic
beams has also been reported in the literature. Thus, Xia et al [83], Shi
and Selvadurai [180], Sun et al [181], Ye et al [182] and Ai et al [183]
4.4. Material damping models
have considered the dynamic response of beams resting on a poroelastic
half-space to moving loads with the last two works dealing in addition
Damping is an important material property, which affects the dy­
with the effects of cross-anisotropy and layering. The method of solution
namic response of rigid pavements to moving vehicle loads. It contrib­
involves here use of FT with respect to the two horizontal coordinates
utes to the energy of dissipation in the system and thus reduces the
and the time, solution of the resultingordinary differential equations
response. Damping can be of the viscous type when considering the
with respect to the vertical coordinate and analytical/numerical FT in­
concrete elastic beam or plate or the Winkler type elastic foundation
versions. Finally, employment of the BEM in the frequency domain has
(called then Kelving foundation). Viscous damping is associated with
enabled Schevenels et al [184] to consider the case of a beam resting on
viscous forces of the form cu̇ where c is the damping coefficient and u̇ is
a dry elastic layer over a saturated poroelastic half-space.
the velocity of the response. Thus, in the frequency domain, the damping
force depends on frequency. However, for most soils, it has been found
that damping is independent of frequency and is taken into account in 4.6. Pavement response and rolling resistance
the frequency domain by replacing the elastic constants by their com­
plex counterparts. Thus, the shear modulus G is replaced by G(1 + The pavement response to moving loads, because of the resulting
2iξsgnω), where ξ is the constant damping coefficient, ω is the frequency deformation and energy dissipation, creates a structural rolling resis­
and sgnω denotes the sign function. It can be also thought as an tance, which increases the fuel consumption of the vehicle. Even though
approximate equivalent of the viscous Kelvin-Voigt model. This damp­ this fuel consumption is small for one vehicle, it becomes very important
ing is called hysteretic and is used in all elastic soil layers of road for the whole lifetime of the road under millions of vehicles. There are
pavements where vehicle velocities are low. For high velocities, as in basically two methods for computing fuel consumption on the basis of
airfield pavements, hysteretic damping may not be accurate enough. For structural rolling resistance: the one based on deflection and the one
more details on these two types of damping one can consult, e.g., Kim based on energy dissipation. Both methods require knowledge of the
and Roesset [25,114]. In addition to these two damping material pavement response.
models, Rayleigh viscous damping can be used for layered elastic The work of Bazi et al [185], which considers rolling resistance in
foundations analysed in the time domain by the FEM. In that case rigid pavements as well as flexible pavements (discussed in subsection

7
N.D. Beskou and E.V. Muho Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 175 (2023) 108249

5.7 of Part 2 of Beskou and Muho [22] of this two-parts review paper), connection with nonlinear material behavior under repeated moving
has found this resistance to be lower than that in flexible pavements. load in order to study more rationally failure criteria for design
One can also mention here the work of Balzarini et al [157] using a rigid purposes.
(concrete) pavement and employing the FEM of the DYNASLAB com­ 5) More research is needed in connection with vehicle motion involving
puter program. Closing, one should mention the work of Louhghalam et acceleration/deceleration and how this affects the pavement
al [186] that proved by using a beam or plate on viscoelastic foundation response. A rigid pavement response determination to a full travel
that the above two methods of deflection and energy dissipation provide history involving acceleration-constant speed-deceleration has still
equivalent results if applied correctly. to be done. Related work with respect to trains already available can
certainly help. Vehicles move on road pavements with speeds much
4.7. Empirical pavement response equations lower than the critical speed and thus excessive pavement response is
of no concern. This is not the case with airfield pavements where
The various methods of analysis of pavements under moving vehicle aircrafts move with very high speed at take-off. Research for this case
loads and their associated computer programs cannot be easily used in is certainly needed. Related work for trains already available can
practice for design purposes because of the unfamiliarity of practicing help. Finally, research is needed in connection with the modeling of
engineers with these programs and the high computational cost associ­ landing of aircrafts for dynamic load determination on airfield rigid
ated with the need of performing many analyses. Thus, there is a need pavements.
for constructing through regression analysis techniques empirical 6) Research is also needed in connection with rigid pavements which
pavement response equations. In connection with rigid pavements the are curved with this curving being either gradual or sharp. The speed
existing work on this subject is very poor. One can mention here only the of the moving vehicle in this case maybe variable implying acceler­
work of Balzarini et al [157], already mentioned in subsection 4.4., ation/deceleration. Additional stresses on the pavement due to
which has developed by regression analysis and the DYNASLAB program centrifugal forces acting on the vehicle may be present. Here again
an empirical expression for the energy of dissipation needed for rolling some existing work related to trains maybe helpful.
resistance in concrete (rigid) pavements. 7) For practicing engineers empirical expressions providing maximum
values of rigid pavement response at critical locations for a variety of
5. Conclusions and future research needs pavement geometrical and material parameters as well as moving
loading parameters are very helpful. This requires the creation of a
On the basis of the material presented in the previous sections con­ response databank and advanced regression analysis. Some work has
cerning the dynamic response of rigid pavements to moving vehicle been done in connection with flexible pavements and this can be a
loads, one can draw some conclusions and offer some recommendations basis for corresponding work in rigid pavements.
for future research work as follows:

1) The dynamic response of rigid pavements to moving vehicle loads Declaration of competing interest
can be obtained by analysing appropriate vehicle-pavement models
by various methods. These models and methods can start from very The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
low and reach very high levels of complexity. Naturally, more interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
complex models and methods provide more realistic response results the work reported in this paper.
at the expense of more computational work. However, establishing a
connection between field test and simulation is still a challenging Data availability
task due to the complex nature of the moving load/pavement
interaction. No data was used for the research described in the article.
2) The vehicle models can be simple concentrated, or finitely distrib­
uted loads of time dependent or constant magnitude moving with References
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