Module-1 INTRODUCTION

Modern instrumentation and control systems – Terminology – Topology – Mechanisms - Protocols

– Standards – Common problems and solutions – Grounding/shielding and noise - EIA-232 interface
standard – EIA-485 interface standard –Current loop and EIA-485 converters - Fibre optic cable
components and parameters – Basic cable types – Connection fibers – troubleshooting

Data communications involves the transfer of information from one point to another. Information that is
represented by a sequence of zeros and ones.

The structure in which devices communicate is known as a protocol.

Modern instrumentation and control systems

 In an instrumentation and control system, data is acquired by measuring instruments and
transmitted to a controller, typically a computer.

 The controller then transmits data (control signals) to control devices, which act upon a given
process.

 The integration of systems with each other enables data to be transferred quickly and effectively
between different systems in a plant along a data communications link.

 Productivity and quality are the principal objectives in the good management of any production
activity. Management can be substantially improved by the availability of accurate and timely data.

 The main purpose of an instrumentation and control system, in an industrial environment, is to

provide the following:

1. Control of the processes and alarms:

Stand-alone controllers and instruments have largely been replaced by integrated systems
such as distributed control systems (DCS).

2. Control of sequencing, interlocking and alarms

The sequence control, interlocking and alarm requirements have largely been replaced by
PLCs.

3. An operator interface for display and control

The control room is equipped with computer-based operator workstations, which gather data
from the field instrumentation and use it for graphical display to control processes, to monitor
alarms, to control sequencing and for interlocking.

Management information
Good management can achieve substantial productivity gains.
 The four devices that have made the most significant impact on how plants are controlled are:
Distributed control systems (DCSs)
A DCS is a hardware- and software-based (digital) process control and data acquisition system. The
DCS is based on a data highway and has a modular, distributed, but integrated architecture. Each
module performs a specific dedicated task such as the operator interface/analog or loop control/digital
control.

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)

PLCs were developed in the late sixties to replace collections of electromagnetic relays, particularly in
the automobile manufacturing industry. They were primarily used for sequence control and
interlocking with racks of on/off inputs and outputs, called digital I/O. They are controlled by a central
processor using easily written ‘ladder logic’ type programs.

SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) systems

a system comprising a number of remote terminal units (RTUs) collecting field data and connected
back to a master station via a communications system.
 Smart instruments

There are a number of intelligent digital sensors with digital communications capability for most
traditional applications. These include sensors for measuring temperature, pressure, levels, flow, mass
(weight), density and power system parameters. These new intelligent digital sensors are known as ‘smart’
instrumentation.
The main features that define a ‘smart’ instrument are:
Intelligent, digital sensors
Digital data communications capability
Ability to be multidropped with other devices

Open systems interconnection (OSI) model

Protocols

A protocol, in turn, defines a frame format that might be made up as follows: The first byte(s) can be a string
of ones and zeros to synchronize the receiver or flags to indicate the start of the frame (for use by the
receiver). The second byte could contain the destination address detailing where the message is going. The
third byte could contain the source address noting where the message originated. The bytes in the middle
of the message could be the actual data that has to be sent from transmitter to receiver. The final byte(s)
are end-of-frame indicators, which can be error detection codes and/or ending flags.

Standards
These are the following:
RS-232 (EIA-232)
RS-485 (EIA-485)
Fiber optics
Modbus
Modbus Plus
Data Highway Plus /DH485
HART
ASi
DeviceNet
Profibus
Foundation Fieldbus
Industrial Ethernet
TCP/IP
Radio and wireless communications

1. RS-232 (EIA-232)

The EIA-232C interface standard was issued in the USA in 1969 to define the electrical and mechanical
details of the interface between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data communications equipment
(DCE), which employ serial binary data interchange.

In serial data communications, the communications system might consist of:

 The DTE, a data sending terminal such as a computer, which is the source of the data (usually a series of
characters coded into a suitable digital form)
The DCE, which acts as a data converter (such as a modem) to convert the signal into a form suitable for
the communications link e.g. analog signals for the telephone system
The communications link itself, for example, a telephone system
A suitable receiver, such as a modem, also a DCE, which converts the analog signal back to a form suitable
for the receiving terminal
A data receiving terminal, such as a printer, also a DTE, which receives the digital pulses for decoding
back into a series of characters

2. RS-485 (EIA-485)
The EIA-485 is a balanced system with the same range as EIA-422 but with increased
data rates and up to 32 ‘standard’ transmitters and receivers per line.
The EIA-485 interface standard is very useful for instrumentation and control systems, where several
instruments or controllers may be connected together on the same multipoint
network.

3. Fiber optics

This is widely used throughout industrial communications systems for two main
reasons:
Immunity to electrical noise and
Optical isolation from surges and transients
As a result, fiber is tending to dominate in all new installations that require reasonable
levels of traffic.
 4. Modbus

This standard only refers to the data link and application layers; so that any physical transport method can
be used. It is a very popular standard with some estimates indicating that over 40% of industrial
communications systems use Modbus. It operates as a master–slave protocol with up to 247 slaves

5. Modbus Plus

This builds on Modbus and incorporates the protocol within a token passing operation. This protocol was
generally confined to Modicon programmable logic controllers

6. Data Highway Plus /DH485

It is a protocol defining all three layers of the OSI model – physical layer, data link layer and application
layer.There are two addresses (DST and SRC) in this protocol message, indicating destination and source
addresses.

7. HART
The highway addressable remote transducer (HART) protocol is a typical smart instrumentation
Fieldbus that can operate in a hybrid 4–20 mA digital fashion. It has become popular as it is compatible
with the 4–20 mA standard.
 8. ASi
This must be one of the most robust standards for simple digital control. It is a master– slave network,
which can achieve transfer rates of up to 167 kbps where, for example, with 31 slaves and 124 I/O points
connected, a 5 ms scan time can be achieved.

9. DeviceNet

DeviceNet, developed by Allen Bradley (now Rockwell Automation), is a low-level oriented network
focusing on the transfer of digital points. It defines three layers as indicated below and can support up to
64 nodes with as many as 2048 total devices.

10. Profibus
Profibus uses a combination strategy of token passing and master–slave to achieve its communications
results. It defines three layers of the OSI model; namely being the physical layer, the data link layer and
the application layer. It also added an 8th layer, the so-called ‘user layer’.
 11. Foundation Fieldbus
Foundation Fieldbus is probably the newest Fieldbus standard to connect instruments to the
programmable logic controller or RTU of the distributed control system (DCS).

12. Industrial Ethernet

Industrial Ethernet is rapidly growing in importance after initially being dismissed as not being reliable
enough. One of the main reasons for its success is its simplicity and low cost. Originally, Ethernet used only
CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detection) as its media access control method

13. TCP/IP
A child of the Internet, the transmission control protocol (TCP)/Internet protocol (IP) is also becoming
popular when used in conjunction with Ethernet. It really defines three layers.
Process/application layer (equivalent to upper three layers in the OSI model)
Services layer (host-to-host) layer (equivalent to the transport layer in the OSI model)
Internetwork layer (equivalent to the network layer of the OSI model)
It is a very low cost protocol with wide support due its use on the Internet. Arguably it is an overkill for
some industrial communications

14. Radio and wireless communications

The use of radio in the industrial context commenced with the use of radio modems as indicated in the
diagram below where for example, Modbus could be used over the specific radio modem data link layer.
The use of the latest wireless LAN standards such as IEEE 802.11b or IEEE 802.11a (and IEEE 802.15
‘Bluetooth’) are making this a reliable and low cost form of communications.

Common problems and solutions

A typical list of causes of industrial communications problems is:

No power to the station on the network resulting in it stopping communications

Cable failure due to damage with a resultant interruption in communications
Earthing and grounding problems with intermittent failure of communications
 Electrostatic damage to the communications port
Software crash on one of the stations resulting in communications failure
High levels of electrostatic/electromagnetic interference on the communications link or port
High traffic loads on the link resulting in intermittent communications
Electrical surge or transient through the communications system resulting in significant damage

Grounding/shielding and noise

1. Sources of electrical noise
Typical sources of noise are devices, which produce quick changes (or spikes) in voltage
or current, such as:
Large electrical motors being switched on
Fluorescent lighting tubes
Lightning strikes
High voltage surging due to electrical faults
Welding equipment
From a general point of view, there must be three contributing factors for the existence
of an electrical noise problem. They are:
A source of electrical noise
A mechanism coupling the source to the affected circuit
A circuit conveying the sensitive communication signals

2. Electrical coupling of noise

There are four forms of coupling of electrical noise into the sensitive data communications circuits.
They are:
Impedance coupling (sometimes referred to as conductance coupling) : For situations where two or
more electrical circuits share common conductors, there can be some coupling between the different
circuits with deleterious effects on the connected circuits. Essentially
Electrostatic coupling: This form of coupling is proportional to the capacitance between the noise
source and the signal wires. The magnitude of the interference depends on the rate of change of thev
noise voltage and the capacitance between the noise circuit and the signal circuit.
The size of the noise (or error) voltage in the signal wires is proportional to
the:
 Inverse of the distance of noise voltage from each of the signal wires
 Length (and hence impedance) of the signal wires into which the noise is
 induced
 Amplitude (or strength) of the noise voltage
 Frequency of the noise voltage
 There are four methods for reducing the noise induced by electrostatic coupling.
 They are:
 Shielding of the signal wires
 Separating from the source of the noise
 Reducing the amplitude of the noise voltage (and possibly the frequency)
 Twisting of the signal wires
Magnetic or inductive coupling
This depends on the rate of change of the noise current and the mutual inductance between the noise
system and the signal wires. Expressed slightly differently, the degree of noise induced by magnetic
coupling will depend on the:
Magnitude of the noise current
Frequency of the noise current
Area enclosed by the signal wires (through which, the noise current
magnetic flux cuts)
Inverse of the distance from the disturbing noise source to the signal wires

Radio frequency radiation (a combination of electrostatic and magnetic) : The noise voltages induced by
electrostatic and inductive coupling (discussed above) are manifestations of the near field effect, which is
electromagnetic radiation close to the source of the noise. This sort of interference is often difficult to
eliminate and it requires close attention of grounding of the adjacent electrical circuit and the earth
connection is only effective for circuits in close proximity to the electromagnetic radiation. The effects of
electromagnetic radiation can be neglected unless the field strength exceeds
1 volt/meter. This can be calculated by the formula:

where:
Field strength in volt/meter
Power in kilowatt
Distance in km
The two most commonly used mechanisms to minimize electromagnetic radiation are:
Proper shielding (iron)
Capacitors to shunt the noise voltages to earth
Any incompletely shielded conductors will perform as a receiving aerial for the radio
signal and hence care should be taken to ensure good shielding of any exposed wiring.

3. Shielding
It is important that electrostatic shielding is only earthed at one point. More than one earth point will cause
circulating currents. The shield should be insulated to prevent inadvertent contact with multiple points,
which behave as earth points resulting in circulating currents. The shield should never be left floating
because that would tend to allow capacitive coupling, rendering the shield useless. Two useful techniques
for isolating one circuit from the other are by the use of optoisolation as shown in the Figure 2.8, and
transformer coupling as shown in Figure 2.9.
 4. Cable ducting or raceways

These are useful in providing a level of attenuation of electric and magnetic fields. These
figures are 60 Hz for magnetic fields and 100 kHz for electric fields.
Typical screening factors are:
5 cm (2 inch) aluminum conduit with 0.154 inch thickness
Magnetic fields 1.5:1
Electric fields 8000:1
Galvanized steel conduit 5 cm (2 inch), wall thickness 0.154 inch width
Magnetic fields 40:1
Electric fields 2000:1

5. Cable spacing
there are a large number of cables varying in voltage and current levels, the IEEE 518-1982 standard
has developed a useful set of tables indicating separation distances for various classes of cables. There
are four classification levels of susceptibility for cables. Susceptibility, in this context, is understood to
be an indication of how well the signal circuit can differentiate between the undesirable noise and
required signal. It follows a data communication physical standard such as RS-232E that would have a
high susceptibility and a 1000 volt, 200 amp AC cable that has a low
susceptibility.

The four susceptibility levels defined by the IEEE 518-1982 standard are briefly:
Level 1 – High
This is defined as analog signals less than 50 volt and digital signals less than 15 volt. This would
include digital logic buses and telephone circuits.
Data communication cables fall into this category.
Level 2 – Medium
This category includes analog signals greater than 50 volt and switching circuits.
Level 3 – Low
This includes switching signals greater than 50 volt and analog signals greater than 50 volt. Currents
less than 20 amp are also included in this category.
Level 4 – Power
This includes voltages in the range 0 – 1000 volt and current

6. Earthing and grounding requirements

A typical design should be based around two separate electrically insulated earth systems. The two earth
systems are:
The equipment earth
The instrumentation (and data communications) earth
The aims of these two earthing systems are:
To minimize the electrical noise in the system
To reduce the effects of fault or earth loop currents on the instrumentation system
To minimize the hazardous voltages on equipment due to electrical faults
7. Suppression techniques

8. Filtering
Filtering should be done as close to the source of noise as possible.
 EIA-232 interface standard (CCITT V.24 interface standard)

The EIA-232 interface standard was developed for the single purpose of interfacing data terminal
equipment (DTE) and data circuit terminating equipment (DCE) employing serial binary data interchange.
In particular, EIA-232 was developed for interfacing data terminals to modems.

The major elements of EIA-232

The EIA-232 standard consists of three major parts, which define:
Electrical signal characteristics
Mechanical characteristics of the interface
Functional description of the interchange circuits
Electrical signal characteristics
EIA-232 defines electrical signal characteristics such as the voltage levels and grounding
characteristics of the interchange signals and associated circuitry for an unbalanced system.
The EIA-232 transmitter is required to produce voltages in the range +/ 15 to +/ 25 V
as follows:
Logic 1: –5 V to –25 V
Logic 0: +5 V to +25 V
Undefined logic level: +5 V to –5 V
At the EIA-232 receiver, the following voltage levels are defined:
Logic 1: –3 V to –25 V
Logic 0: +3 V to +25 V
Undefined logic level: –3 V to +3 V
EIA-232 transmitters and receivers
The EIA-232 standard defines 25 electrical connections. The electrical connections are divided into four
groups viz:
Data lines
Control lines
Timing lines
Special secondary functions
Data lines are used for the transfer of data. Data flow is designated from the perspective of the DTE
interface. The transmit line, on which the DTE transmits and the DCE receives, is associated with pin 2 at
the DTE end and pin 2 at the DCE end for a DB-25 connector. These allocations are reversed for DB-9
connectors. The receive line, on which the DTE receives, and the DCE transmits, is associated with pin 3 at
the DTE end and pin 3 at the DCE end. Pin 7 is the common return line for the transmit and receive data
lines.
Control lines are used for interactive device control, which is commonly known as hardware handshaking.
They regulate the way in which data flows across the interface. The four most commonly used control lines
are:
RTS: Request to send
CTS: Clear to send
DSR: Data set ready (or DCE ready in EIA-232D/E)
DTR: Data terminal ready (or DTE ready in EIA-232D/E)
It is important to remember that with the handshaking lines, the enabled state means a positive voltage
and the disabled state means a negative voltage.

Functional description of the interchange circuits

EIA-232 defines the function of the data, timing and control signals used at the interface of the DTE and
DCE. However, very few of the definitions are relevant to applications for data communications for
instrumentation and control.
The circuit functions are defined with reference to the DTE as follows:
Protective ground (shield)
The protective ground ensures that the DTE and DCE chassis are at equal potentials (remember that this
protective ground could cause problems with circulating earth currents).
Transmitted data (TxD)
This line carries serial data from the DTE to the corresponding pin on the DCE. The line is held at a negative
voltage during periods of line idle.
Received data (RxD)
This line carries serial data from the DCE to the corresponding pin on the DTE.
Request to send (RTS)
(RTS) is the request to send hardware control line. This line is placed active (+V) when the DTE requests
permission to send data. The DCE then activates (+V) the CTS (clear to send) for hardware data flow control.
Clear to send (CTS)
When a half-duplex modem is receiving, the DTE keeps RTS inhibited. When it is the DTE’s turn to transmit,
it advises the modem by asserting the RTS pin. When the modem asserts the CTS, it informs the DTE that it
is now safe to send data.
DCE ready
Formerly called data set ready (DSR). The DTE ready line is an indication from the DCE to the DTE that the
modem is ready.
Signal ground (common)
This is the common return line for all the data transmit and receive signals

and all other circuits in the interface. The connection between the two ends is always made.
Data carrier detect (DCD)
This is also called the received line signal detector. It is asserted by the modem when it receives a remote
carrier and remains asserted for the duration of the link.
DTE ready (data terminal ready)
Formerly called data terminal ready (DTR). DTE ready enables but does not cause, the modem to switch
onto the line. In originate mode, DTE ready must be asserted in order to auto dial. In answer mode, DTE
ready must be asserted to auto answer.
Ring indicator
This pin is asserted during a ring voltage on the line.
Data signal rate selector (DSRS)
When two data rates are possible, the higher is selected by asserting DSRS; however, this line is not used
much these days.

The EIA-485 interface standard

The EIA-485A standard is one of the most versatile of the EIA interface standards. It is an extension of EIA-
422 and allows the same distance and data speed but increases the number of transmitters and receivers
permitted on the line. EIA-485 permits a ‘multidrop’ network connection on 2 wires and allows reliable
serial data communication for:
Distances of up to 1200 m (4000 feet, same as EIA-422)
Data rates of up to 10 Mbps (same as EIA-422)
Up to 32 line drivers on the same line
Up to 32 line receivers on the same line.

According to the EIA-485 standard, there can be 32 ‘standard’ transceivers on the network. Some
manufacturers supply devices that are equivalent to ½ or ¼ standard device, in which case this number
can be increased to 64 or 128. If more transceivers are required, repeaters have to be used to extend the
network.

The differential voltages on the A and B outputs of the driver (transmitter) are similar (although not
identical) to those for EIA-422, namely:
–1.5 V to –6 V on the A terminal with respect to the B terminal for a binary 1 (MARK or OFF) state, and
+1.5 V to +6 V on the A terminal with respect to the B terminal for a binary 0 (SPACE or ON state).
As with EIA-422, the line driver for the EIA-485 interface produces a ±5 V differential
voltage on two wires.
The major enhancement of EIA-485 is that a line driver can operate in three states
called tri-state operation:
Logic 1
Logic 0
High-impedance
In the high-impedance state, the line driver draws virtually no current and appears not to be present on
the line. This is known as the ‘disabled’ state and can be initiated by a signal on a control pin on the line
driver integrated circuit. Tri-state operation allows a multidrop network connection and up to 32
transmitters can be connected on the same
line, although only one can be active at any one time. Each terminal in a multidrop system must be allocated
a unique address to avoid conflicting with other devices on the system. EIA-485 includes current limiting
in cases where contention occurs. The EIA-485 interface standard is very useful for systems where several
instruments or controllers may be connected on the same line. Special care must be taken with the software
to coordinate which devices on the network can become active. In most cases, a master terminal, such as a
PC or computer, controls which transmitter/receiver will be
active at a given time. The two-wire data transmission line does not require special termination if the signal
transmission time.

During normal operation there are periods when all EIA-485 drivers are off, and the communications lines
are in the idle, high-impedance state. In this condition the lines are susceptible to noise pick up, which can
be interpreted as random characters on the communications line. If a specific EIA-485 system has this
problem, it should incorporate bias resistors, as indicated in Figure 4.3. The purpose of the bias resistors is
not only to reduce the amount of noise picked up, but to keep the receiver biased in the IDLE state when no
input signal is received.
EIA-485 line drivers are designed to handle 32 nodes. This limitation can be overcome by employing an
EIA-485 repeater connected to the network. When data occurs on either side of the repeater, it is
transmitted to the other side. The EIA-485 repeater transmits at full voltage levels, consequently another
31 nodes can be connected to the network. A diagram for the use of EIA-485 with a bi-directional repeater
is given in Figure 4.4.
The 20 mA current loop

commonly used interface technique is the current loop. This uses a current signal rather than a voltage
signal, employing a separate pair of wires for the transmitter current loop and receiver current loop.
A current level of 20 mA, or up to 60 mA, is used to indicate logic 1 and 0 mA or 4 mA to indicate logic 0.
The use of a constant current signal enables a far greater separation distance to be achieved than with a
standard EIA-232 voltage connection. This is due to the higher noise immunity of the 20 mA current loop,
which can drive long lines of up to 1 km, but at reasonably slow bit rates. Current loops are mainly used
between printers and terminals in the industrial environment. Figure 5.1 illustrates the current loop
interface.
Serial interface converters

Serial interface converters are becoming increasingly important with the move away from EIA-232C to
industrial standards such as EIA-422 and EIA-485. Since many industrial devices still use EIA-232 ports, it
is necessary to use converters to interface a device to other physical interface standards. Interface
converters can also be used to increase the
effective distance between two EIA-232 devices.
The most common converters are:
EIA-232/422
EIA-232/485
EIA-232/current loop
Figure 5.2 is a block diagram of an EIA-232/EIA-485 converter.

The EIA-232/422 and EIA-232/485 interface converters are very similar and provide bi–directional full-
duplex conversion for synchronous or asynchronous transfer between EIA-232 and EIA-485 ports.

When operating over long distances, a useful feature of interface converters is optical isolation. This is
especially valuable in areas prone to lightning.

Typical specifications for the EIA-232/422 or EIA-232/485 converters are:

Data transfer rate of up to 1 Mbps
DCE/DTE switch selectable
Converts all data and control signals
LEDs for status of data and control signals
Powered from AC source
Optically isolated (optional)
DB-25 connector (male or female)
 DB-37 connector (male or female)

Typical specifications for the EIA-232/current loop converters are:

20 ma or 60 ma operation
DCE/DTE, full/half-duplex selectable
Active or passive loops supported
Optically isolated (optional)
Powered from AC source
Data rates of up to 19 200 kbps over 3 km (10 000 feet)
DB-25 connector (male or female)
Current loop connector – 5 screw

Fiber optic communication:

uses light signals guided through a fiber core. Fiber optic cables act as waveguides for light, with all the
energy guided through the central core of the cable. The light is guided due to the presence of a lower
refractive index cladding surrounding the central core. None of the energy in the signal is able to escape
into the cladding and no energy is able to enter the core from any external sources. Therefore the
transmissions are not subject to electromagnetic interference. The core and the cladding will trap the light
ray in the core, provided the light ray enters the core at an angle greater than the critical angle. The light
ray will then travel through the core of the fiber, with minimal loss in power, by a series of total internal
reflections. Figure 6.1 illustrates this process.

Applications for fiber optic cables

Fiber optic cables offer the following advantages over other types of transmission media:
Light signals are impervious to interference from EMI or electrical crosstalk.
Light signals do not interfere with other signals. As a result, fiber optic connections can be used in
extremely adverse environments, such as in lift shafts or assembly plants, where powerful motors produce
lots of electrical noise.
Optical fibers have a much wider, flat bandwidth than coaxial cables and equalization of the signals is
not required.
The fiber has a much lower attenuation, so signals can be transmitted much further than with coaxial or
twisted pair cable before amplification is necessary.
Optical fiber cables do not conduct electricity and so eliminate problems of ground loops, lightning
damage and electrical shock when cabling in highvoltage areas.
Fiber optic cables are generally much thinner and lighter than copper cable.
Fiber optic cables have greater data security than copper cables.
Licensing is not required, although a right-of way for laying the cable is needed.
Fiber optic cable components

The major components of a fiber optic cable are the core, cladding, buffer, strength members and jacket, as
shown below. Some types of fiber optic cable even include a conductive copper wire that can be used to
provide power to a repeater.

Fiber core
The core of fiber optic telecommunications cable consists of glass fibers through which the light signal
travels. The most common core sizes are 50 and 62.5 micrometers (microns), which are used in multimode
cables. 8.5 Micron fibers are used in single-mode systems.

Cladding
The core and cladding are actually manufactured as a single unit. The cladding is a protective layer with a
lower index of refraction than the core. The lower index means any light that hits the core walls will be
redirected back to continue on its path. The cladding diameter is typically 125 microns.

Fiber optic buffer

The buffer of a fiber optic cable is made of one or more layers of plastic surrounding the cladding. The buffer
helps strengthen the cable, thereby decreasing the likelihood of micro cracks, which can eventually break
the fiber. The buffer also protects the core and cladding from potential invasion by water or other materials
in the operating environment. The buffer typically doubles the diameter of the fiber. A buffer can be tight
or loose, as shown below. A tight buffer fits snugly around the fiber. A tight buffer can protect the fibers
from stress due to pressure and impact but not from changes in temperature. A loose buffer is a rigid tube
of plastic with one or more fibers (consisting of core and cladding) running through it. The fibers are longer
than the tube so that the tube takes all the stresses applied to the cable, isolating the fiber from these
stresses.
Strength members
Fiber optic cable also has strength members, which are strands of very tough material (such as steel,
fiberglass, or Kevlar) that provide tensile strength for the cable. Each of these materials has advantages as
well as drawbacks. For example, steel condu ts electricity, making the cable vulnerable to lightning but it
will not disrupt an optical signal. However, it may seriously damage the cable or equipment.

Cable sheath
The sheath of a fiber optic cable is an outer casing that provides primary mechanical protection, as with
electrical cable.

Fiber optic cable parameters

Attenuation
The attenuation of a multimode fiber depends on the wavelength and the fiber construction and range from
around 3–8 dB/km at 850 nm and 1–3 dB/km at 1300 nm. The attenuation of single-mode fiber ranges
from around 0.4–0.6 dB/km at 1300 nm and 0.25–0.35 dB/km at 1550 nm.

Diameter
The fiber diameter is either 50 or 62.5 microns for multimode fiber or 8.5 microns for single-mode.

Wavelength
Fiber optic systems today operate in one of the three wavelength bands; 850 nm, 1300 nm or 1550 nm. The
shorter wavelengths have a greater attenuation than the longer wavelengths.

Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a fiber is given as the range of frequencies across which the output power is maintained
within 3 dB of the nominal output.

Dispersion
Modal dispersion is measured as nanoseconds of pulse spread per kilometer (ns/km). Chromatic
dispersion occurs in single-mode cables and is measured as the spread of the pulses in picoseconds for each
nanometer of spectral spread of the pulse and for each kilometer traveled.

Basic cable types

1. Aerial cable

Aerial cables are literally exposed to the elements, more than any other application and as such, are exposed
to many external forces and hazards. Aerial cables are installed between poles with the weight of the cable
continuously supported by usually a steel messenger wire to which the cable can be directly lashed or by
the strength members integral to the cable construction.

temperature to which the cable may be subjected, affecting the physical properties of the fibers and the
attenuation of the fibers. The longitudinal cable profile is important for reducing the wind and ice loadings
of such cables. Moisture barriers are essential, with jelly filled, loose buffered fiber cable configurations
being predominant. Any water freezing within the fiber housings would expand and could produce
excessive bending of fibers.

The cable sheath material is required to withstand the extremes of temperature and the intense ultraviolet
light exposure from continuous exposure to sunlight. UV stabilized polyethylene is frequently used for this
purpose.
The installed span length and sag requirements are important design parameters affecting the maximum
cable tension and which dictates the type of cable construction to be used. Short span cables have less
stringent tension requirements, which can be met by the use of integral Kevlar layers, whereas long span
cables may need to utilize multiple stranded FRP rods to meet the required maximum tensions.

Advantages of aerial cable

• Useful in areas where it may be very difficult or too expensive to bury the cable or install it in ducts
• Also useful where temporary installations are required

Disadvantages
• System availability is not as high as compared to underground cables. Storms can disrupt these
communication bearers, with cables damaged by falling trees, storm damage and blown debris.

2. Underground cable
Underground cable experiences less environmental extremes than aerial cables. Cables are usually pulled
into ducts or buried directly in the ground, with the cables being placed in deep narrow trenches, which
are backfilled with dirt or else ploughed directly into the ground.

Cable type
Loose buffering, using loose tube or slotted core construction, is generally used to isolate
fibers from external forces including temperature variations.

Advantages
• Usually, the most cost effective method of installing cables outdoors
• Greater environmental protection than aerial cable
• Usually, more secure than aerial cable

Disadvantages
• Can be disrupted by earthquakes, digging, farming, flooding etc.
• Rodents biting cables can be a problem in some areas.

3. Sub-aqueous cables
Sub-aqueous cables are basically outdoor cables designed for continuous immersion in water. While
international telecommunications carriers use the most sophisticated cables for deep ocean
communications, there are practical applications for sub-aqueous cables for smaller users.

Advantages
• Cheaper installation in some circumstances

Disadvantages
• Unit cost of cable is higher.

4. Indoor cables
Indoor cables are used inside buildings and have properties dictated by the fire codes. Such cables need to
minimize the spread of fires and must comply with your relevant local fire codes, such as outlined in the
National Electrical Codes (NEC) in USA.
Outdoor cables generally contain oil-based moisture blocking compounds like petroleum jelly. These
support combustion and so, their use inside buildings is strictly controlled.

Connecting fibers
1. Connection losses
The main parameter of concern when connecting two optical devices together is the attenuation – that
fraction of the optical power lost in the connection process. This attenuation is the sum of losses caused by
a number of factors, the main ones being:
• Lateral misalignment of the fiber cores
• Differences in core diameters
• Misalignment of the fiber axes
• Numerical aperture differences of the fibers
• Reflection from the ends of fibers
• Spacing of the ends of the fibers
• End finish and cleanliness of fibers

2. Splicing fibers
Two basic techniques are used for splicing of fibers: fusion splicing or mechanical splicing.

With the fusion splicing technique, the fibers are welded together, requiring expensive equipment but will
produce consistently lower loss splices with low consumable costs.

With mechanical splicing, the fibers are held together in an alignment structure, using an adhesive or
mechanical pressure. Mechanical splicers require lower capital cost equipment but have a high consumable
cost per splice.

3. Connectors
Connectors are used to make flexible interconnections between optical devices. Connectors have
significantly greater losses than splices since it is much more difficult to repeatedly align the fibers with the
required degree of precision
The two most common connectors are the SC and ST, as detailed below.

SC connector
This is built with a cylindrical ceramic ferrule, which mates with a coupling receptacle.

ST connector
The ST connector is shown in Figure 6.5. This is an older standard used for data communications. This is
also built with a cylindrical ceramic ferrule which mates with a coupling receptacle.

4. Connector handling
Most fiber optic connectors are designed for indoor use. Connectors for outdoor use require to be
hermetically sealed. It is very important to protect the optical faces of the connectors from contamination.
The optical performance can be badly degraded by the presence of dirt or dust on the fiber ends. A single
dust particle could be 10 microns in diameter but it would either scatter or absorb the light and could
totally disrupt a singlemode system. Connectors and patch panels are normally supplied with protective
caps.

5. Optical couplers
Optical couplers or splitters and combiners are used to connect three or more fibers or other optical
devices. These are devices that split the input power to a number of outputs. While the splitting of the light
is done passively, active couplers include optical amplifiers, which boost the signal before or after the
splitting process. Coupler configuration depends on the number of ports and whether each of these are
unidirectional, so called directional couplers, or bi-directional. Most couplers are found within the
equipment for monitoring purposes.

Troubleshooting

Standard troubleshooting approach

The standard approach to troubleshooting fiber optic systems is as follows:
1. Observe the system status indicators and determine whether signals are being transmitted and received
at both terminals.
2. Determine whether the appropriate fibers are functional by either a simple continuity test or a
qualitative insertion loss measurement between the patch panels.
3. Once the faulty fiber is identified, clean the optical connectors and repeat the test.
4. If the fault remains, swap the system onto a spare fiber by rearranging the patch cords on the patch
panels at both ends.
5. Update the records to indicate the faulty fiber.
6. When a link does not have sufficient spare fibers available to maintain system integrity, then attempt
fault localization using an OTDR, if appropriate.
7. On short lengths of fiber, total replacement may be more cost effective than expensive location and
subsequent repair. This is particularly appropriate where a spare duct is available for the cable
replacement.
Locating broken fibers

Continuity testing : The most fundamental of all fiber optic cable tests that can be performed is to carry out
a continuity test. The continuity test simply checks that the fiber is continuous from one
end to the other. A light beam is inserted from a light source in one end of the fiber and is observed coming
out of the other end of the fiber. This test provides little information about the condition of the fiber other
than there are no complete breaks along the fiber length.

Insertion loss testing: The most common qualitative test that is carried out on a fiber optic system is to
measure the attenuation of the length of fiber. This figure will allow most elements of the system
design to be verified. Most insertion loss testing is carried out with a power source and a power meter.
Firstly, the power meter is calibrated to the power source by connecting the two instruments together with
a short piece of optic fiber approximately 2 m in length.

Optical time domain reflectometer : The only method of analyzing the losses along an individual fiber is to
test it with an optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR). In particular, this allows the location of a broken
fiber to be established. The OTDR sends a short pulse of light down the fiber and
measures and records the light energy that is reflected back up the fiber. A reflection may be caused by the
presence of a connector, splice, crack, impurity or break in the fiber. By measuring the time, it takes for the
reflected light to return to the source and knowing the refractive index of the fiber, it is possible to calculate
the distance to the reflection point.