Aerial Survey and Photogrammetry

Distortions in AP
Photogrammetric Mapping
U8
Orientation Relief Displacement
Scaling Monocular mment
Mosaic U7 Stereoscopy
Orthophotography
Topographic Map

U6 Field
Ground Controlling Visit
H&V control points
Flight planning
Lab 1.
Air photo interpretation U3 Session
Methods U5
Equipment
U4
Application in LULC
Photogrammetric Process Coordinate Systems

Camera components Photogrammetry CS

Computations on VP, CS transformation
photo coordinates
U1 U2
Assessment
Introduction
Photogrammetry Photographic system elements
• aerial survey? • History
• Photogrammetry? • Camera
• Categories? • Films
• Elements of Analytical • scaling [email protected]
• Principle and Use?
 What is Aerial Survey
Reality Capture is the process of creating virtual 3D models of real
world objects (e.g. buildings or sites) by scanning and/or photographing
the object from d/t sides.
eg. Echolocation used by bats

(to determine where objects are and

how far away they are)

Aerial surveys utilize photographic, LiDAR, electronic, digital, or other

data obtained from an airborne platform
 What is photogrammetry
photo (light ) + gram (graphic) + metry (measure) = the root of the science of photogrammetry.

The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) defines this methodology as
“The art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about
physical objects and the environment, through processes of recording,
measuring, and interpreting images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant
energy and other phenomena.”
The output of photogrammetry is typically a map, drawing, measurement, or a 3D model of some real-
world object or scene. Photogrammetry outputs can be used for distance, area, and volume
measurements. Included within the definition of photogrammetry above are two distinct areas: (1)
metric photogrammetry and (2) interpretative photogrammetry.
 What is photogrammetry

The important use of photogrammetry is the construction of

accurate planimetric and topographic maps by radial triangulation
and photogrammetric procedures.
The final results from photogrammetry are:
1. Coordinates of the required object points.
2. Topographic and thematic maps.
3. Rectified photographs and orthophotos
.
 What is photogrammetry
Photogrammetry literally means measurement from photos.
Using a series of geo-referenced images, we can generate 3D digital
representations of the physical environment, which can then be used for
measurements.
Principles and Uses of photogrammetry

Refer to the handout!

1.2 Categories of photogrammetry
1.3. Analytical Photogrammetry
1.3.1. Elements of Analytical Photogrammetry
1.4 Principle and use of photogrammetry
Categories of photogrammetry
Based on camera location during photography
The camera is mounted in an aircraft and is usually
pointed vertically towards the ground. Aerial
Aerial Photogrammetry: photographs are taken from the air by special
camera mounted in an aircraft flying over the area
0 with the camera axis vertical or nearly so.
Multiple overlapping photos taken
1
photographs are taken from a fixed, and usually
Terrestrial or known, position on or near the ground and with the
0 Close-range camera axis horizontal or nearly so.
Photogrammetry
2 The position and orientation of the camera are often
measured directly at the time of exposure.

0 embraces all aspects of extraterrestrial photography

and subsequent measurement wherein the camera
Space Photogrammetry
3 may be fixed on earth, contained in an artificial
satellite, or positioned on the moon or a planet..

0
QUIZ: Identify each of the following photogrammetry types?
4
Sterilizing

.
 Principles and Uses of photogrammetry
Photogrammetric analysis procedures can range from:
.

Obtaining approximate distances, areas, and elevations using

hardcopy photographic products with unsophisticated
equipment

Geometric concepts to generating precise digital elevation

Models (DEMs), Orthophotos, and thematic GIS data

Digital/softcopy photogrammetry refer to any photogrammetric

operation involving the use of digital raster photographic image
data rather than hardcopy images.

However, the same basic geometry principles apply to

traditional hardcopy (analog) and softcopy (digital ) procedures.
 Principles and Uses of photogrammetry
Traditionally, topographic maps have been produced
from hardcopy stereo-pairs in a stereo-plotter device.

A stereo-plotter is designed to transfer map information

without distortions, from stereo photographs.

A similar device can be used to transfer image information,

with distortions removed, in the form of an Orthophoto.

Orthophotos combine the geometric utility of a map with

the extra “real-world image” information provided by a
photograph.

The process of creating an Orthophoto depends on the

existence of a reliable DEM for the area being mapped.

The DEM is usually prepared photogrammetrically as well.

 Principles and Uses of photogrammetry
A digital photogrammetric workstation generally provide the
Integrated functionality for such tasks as generating:

DEMs, digital Orthophotos, perspective views, and

“fly-throughs” simulations, as well as the extraction of spatially
referenced GIS data in two or three dimensions
Principles and Uses of photogrammetry
Principles and Uses of photogrammetry
 History of Aerial Photography
• US Civil War - Union General George
McClellen photographs confederate
troop positions in VA.
• 1882 - E.D. Archibald, British
Meterologist takes first kite photograph
• 1903 - Pigeon cameras
• 1906 - George Lawrence photographs
San Francisco after great earthquake
and fire
Boston by Black and King (1860)
World War One was a major impetus
to development of aerial photography
After the war the technology was in
place to begin large scale aerial surveys
Development of photogrammetry
In contrast to all other phases, digital images are
used instead of aerial photographs.

Aerial triangulation & the analytical plotter are the major

inventions in analytical era. Block adjustment program
based on bundles also introduced.

Characterized by the invention of stereophotogrammetry by

Pulfrich (1901). This paved the way for the construction of the
first stereoplotter by Orel, in 1908.

A pioneering and experimental phase with remarkable

achievements in terrestrial and balloon
Aerial Photography
• A “bird’s eye view” is very useful for map making
• Features obscure each other less when viewed from above
than when viewed from ground level

• Air photography can come from many sources

• Airplanes of all types can be equipped with cameras
• So can hot air balloons, helicopters, pigeons, etc.

• We’ll discuss primarily film cameras, but most of the

same concepts also apply to digital cameras
 Basic Terminology
• Focal Length – the distance between the camera lens and the
film
• Flying Height – the height of the plane (and therefore the
camera) above the ground
• Nadir – the point on the ground directly below the camera
• Flight Line – the path of the airplane over which a sequence
of pictures is taken
• Stereoscope - a device used to view/measure feature heights
and/or landscape elevations using pairs of air photographs
• Fiducial Marks – marks on photographs used to align adjacent
photos for stereoscopic analysis
 Air Photo Scale
• Scale (RF) = 1 : (focal length / flying height)

• Focal length and flying height should be in the

same units

• Example:
• Focal length = 6 inches
• Flying height = 10,000 ft
• Scale = 0.5 / 10,000 = 1:20,000

Ray, R.G. (1960) Aerial Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mapping. Geological Survey Professional Paper 373.
Aerial Photo scale
The scale of a photo depends on two factors:
the camera lens and the height of the camera above the
ground (if you're familiar with cameras, it's the focal length
of the lens that counts).

For a given camera, the scale can only be adjusted by flying

higher or lower. The scale can be made larger (more
detailed) by flying lower, or smaller (less detailed) by flying
higher.

One problem with scale of photos is that the scale usually is not consistent throughout
the photo. This is because of differences in elevation (relief) in the landscape of the photo.

Objects standing higher or lower in the landscape are displaced from their true "map"
position. We'll see more about this in "relief displacement“ section.
Basic Color Theory
Additive Color Subtractive Color

Colors of light Colors of pigment

(e.g., on a computer monitor) (e.g., paint)
 Film and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/mbinford/geo4120c/Lectures/week_2_2005_Image%20Acquisition,%20Aerial%20Photography%20Programs,%20
Cameras%20and%20Films.pdf
 CIR Films

http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/mbinford/geo4120c/Lectures/week_2_2005_Image%20Acquisition,%20Aerial%20Photography%20Programs,%20
Cameras%20and%20Films.pdf
 Chapter 3
Air photo interpretation
Interpretation of Aerial Photographs
You can often recognize many features on a photo without any experience. But,
distinguishing tree species or crop types (such as wheat vs. corn) does not come
easily. Interpreting features on air photos is a skill that takes study and practice.

Some clues that interpreters use to distinguish features on air photos include:
Tone/hue -- lightness/darkness of an object, or color if it's a color or CIR photo
Texture -- coarse or fine, such as in a corn field (distinct rows) vs. wheat field (closely-grown plants)
Shape -- square, circular, irregular
Size -- small to large, especially compared to other known objects
Shadow -- objects like buildings and trees cast shadows that show vertical height and shape
Pattern -- many similar objects may be scattered on the landscape, such as oil wells
Site -- the characteristics of the location; for example, don't expect a wetland in a large city's
downtown
Association -- an object's relation to other known objects -- for example, a building at a
freeway off-ramp may be a gas station based on its relative location
Interpretation Elements of Aerial Photographs
Interpretation Elements of Aerial Photographs
Stereoscopic Views
Another useful tool in interpreting aerial photographs is the ability to view photos
stereoscopically.

Stereoscopy is the science dealing with the methods by which three-

dimensional effects are produced.

Stereo viewing of air photos works like your eyes do. The difference is that the photos
are taken much farther apart. From a plane you can't tell the heights of hills and other
objects on the ground very well

The actual procedure for stereo pairs (photos that can give a 3-D perspective) is to take
the two photos so that they overlap to some extent (around 40-60%). The area in
common can be viewed to give a 3-D perspective on the landscape.

A stereoscope is a convenient way to view stereo pairs. A stereoscope uses lenses

and/or mirrors to place the photos so that you see the 3-D perspective more easily

Details of stereoscopic systems will be explained in the Lab session.

Study Questions

1. Imagine a camera that produces a photo of about 1:20,000 scale at height of 10,000 feet.
You need a photo at a scale of approximately 1:10,000. What would be the height of the
aircraft to produce this scale 5,000 feet or 20,000 feet? Explain.

2. Examine the air photo below. You should be able to identify the features in the list. For
each feature, cite at least two clues from the list above that enables you to identify the
feature.

• Houses
• Walkways leading to houses
• Cars in parking lot
• Parking spaces in parking lot
• Factory building on west side of photo
 Chapter 4 and 5
Photogrammetric Process and
Coordinate Systems
Introduction, Concept of Image and Object Space
Photogrammetry is mainly concerned with data acquisition and
reconstructing the object space from images.
Data acquisition process
Light rays reflected from points on the object, say from point A, form a
divergent bundle which is transformed to a convergent bundle by the lens.
The principal rays of each bundle of all object points pass through the center
of the entrance and exit pupil, unchanged in direction. The front and rear
nodal points are good approximations for the pupil centers.
Reconstructing the object space from images. This entails two problems:
Geometric reconstruction (e.g. the position of objects) and
Radiometric reconstruction (e.g. the gray shades of a surface).
Radiometric reconstruction is relevant when photographic products are generated, such
as orthophotos.
Photogrammetry is mainly concerned with the geometric reconstruction.
 Basic Camera
• Everything above “C” is inside the
camera

• The film sits on the film plane

• f = focal length
• H = Elevation above ground
• ACB = angle of coverage
• Scale: RF = 1/(H / f)

http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/mbinford/geo4120c/Lectures/week_2_2005_Image%20Acquisition,%20Aerial%20Photography%20Programs,%20
Cameras%20and%20Films.pdf
 Basic Camera
Film exposure:

• The quantity of energy that

f-stop, or relative aperture is allowed to reach the film
f / effective lens diameter
• Controlled by relative
aperture (f-stop) and
shutter speed, as well as
energy source

http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/mbinford/geo4120c/Lectures/week_2_2005_Image%20Acquisition,%20Aerial%20Photography%20Programs,%20
Cameras%20and%20Films.pdf
Film Basics
Types of film

• Black and White ( panchromatic)

• Color

• Infrared

• Color Infrared (CIR)

[email protected]
Central perspective

[email protected]
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Types of Photographs
❑ Depending on the position of camera at the time of photography photograph is broadly
classified in to two.
1. TERRESTRIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
✓ Taken from the ground (on the Earth Surface).
✓ The axis of camera is horizontal or nearly horizontal.
✓ Normal (Ordinary) cameras can be used.
E.g Photo Thodolite
is used to acquire precise terrestrial photos.
INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

❑ Aerial/Vertical photographs are classified into two:

Based on the position of optical axis of the camera used in taking the
photograph
(i) Vertical photographs
(ii) Oblique photograph
(a) Low Oblique photograph
(b) High Oblique photograph
INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

1. Vertical Photographs: Photographs taken when the optical axis of the

camera coincide with the plumb line.
▪ Lens axis is truly vertical

▪ Covers relatively small area

▪ Ground coverage by a single photo is square in

shape

▪ An unfamiliar view of the ground

▪ Distance and directions may accurate for flat

terrain
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Vertical Photographs:
▪ Nearly vertical
▪ Truly vertical
In practice most vertical aerial photographs are slightly tilted.

As a result, air photo with less than 3 degree tilt are considered as
vertical (for most photo interpretation purposes).

Hence, a “truly” vertical aerial photograph is rarely obtained

because of unavoidable angular rotation or tilts.
INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Vertical Photograph
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Advantages of Vertical Aerial Photographs

▪ The scale is less distorted and measurements made on them are therefore more
accurate.

▪ Approximate Direction is easier to obtain in a manner similar to that of a map.

▪ Hidden objects are very few

▪ A number of vertical aerial photos assembled together into a mosaic can easily
be used as a map for general purposes

▪ Vertical aerial photographs are often easier to interpret than oblique and are
better for stereo.
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

2. Oblique Photographs:
❑ Are photographs taken when the camera axis is
deliberately tilted through an angle ranging between

❑3 degree and 60 degree from the vertical, at the time of

expos.

❑There are two basic types of oblique aerial photography:

1. Low Oblique
2. High Oblique
INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Low oblique photograph (horizon not shown)

INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Advantages of Oblique Photograph

❑An oblique photograph covers much more ground area than a vertical photo
taken from the same altitude and with the same focal length.

❑In areas where cloud cover may make it difficult to take vertical photos,
oblique photos may be taken to cover an area from very low altitudes

❑ The view of oblique aerial photographs looks more natural

❑Determination of feature elevations is more accurate using oblique photograph

than vertical aerial photographs.

❑Having access to neighboring boarded country

 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Disadvantages of Oblique Photograph

❑ Some details are hidden behind or under objects like hill,

building etc..

❑ It has scale variation over the whole format.

❑ Very expensive and laborious for map projection.

INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Information from Image Data/Photograph

• Distance (using ruler and scale of the photo)

• Angel (using protractor - Direction)

• Areas (Dot Density)

• Height ( Stereoscope, 3D – contour using

stereoscopy)

• Extraction of natural and artificial features

 Can be determined from the following methods:-

a) Measuring the distance between two well-

defined points on the ground as well as on Scale of Photograph

the photograph. Photo Distance

=
Ground Distance
b) Measuring the distance between two well-
𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
defined points on the available topographic 𝑀𝑎𝑝 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
=
map and aerial photograph. Then; 𝑀𝑎𝑝 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

c) From average of the camera and the

terrain above mean sea level with respect to 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
the focal length (f) of the camera lens
𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
=
𝐹𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Identifying Features Using Stereoscope

❑A pair of stereoscopic photographs or images can
be viewed stereoscopically by
▪ Looking at the left image with the left eye and
▪ The right image with the right eye.

❑This is called stereoscopy.

❑The advantage of stereoscopy is the ability to

extract 3D for example, classification between tall
trees and low trees, terrestrial features
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Image Interpretation
❑Image interpretation is the extraction of qualitative and quantitative
information about
❑The shape, structure,
❑Function, quality,
❑Condition,
❑Relationship of and between object

❑Generally the accuracy of image interpretation depend of knowledge

and experience in mage interpretation.

❑Which assisted by systematic image interpretation elements.

 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

• What makes interpretation of imagery more difficult than the

everyday visual interpretation of our surroundings.

• It is because we lose our sense of depth when viewing a two-

dimensional image, unless we can view it stereoscopically so as to
simulate the third dimension of height.

• However viewing objects from directly above provides a very

different perspective than what we are familiar with.
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

ELEMENTS OF INTERPRETATION
▪ The interpretation of satellite imagery and aerial photographs
▪ Involves the study of various basic characters of an object with
reference to spectral bands which is useful in visual analysis.
▪The basic elements are:
• Shape
• Size
• Tone/colour
• Shadow
• Pattern
• Texture
• Association (Site)
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

• Shape: General form, configuration or outline of individual objects

• eg. regular, irregular, linear, curved, rounded, triangular etc.
▪ Cultural features - geometric, distinct boundaries
▪ Natural features - irregular shapes and boundaries
▪ Shape helps us distinguish old vs. new subdivisions, some tree species,
athletic fields, etc.

Meandering river Football Play ground

The pentagon
in Alaska (Stadium)
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

▪ The physical extent or dimension of a feature. May be comparative

(relative) (eg. a big bird is still small compared to an elephant).
▪ Relative size is an important clue
▪ Apartments vs. Houses
[email protected]
▪ Single lane road vs. Multilane

• Size of objects in an image (Photograph) is a function of

scale.
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Color/Tone- Relative brightness or colour of a

▪ Refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an
image.

❑ Gray scale: very dark tone, dark tone, dark gray, mid tone, light tone,
white Color: Blue, Green, Red, etc..

- Mixed spruce
- Spruce forest (black) – Deciduous And deciduous forest
with some deciduous
(red) trees. (leafy) vegetation on hillside with tundra
in valley bottom.
(red).
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

▪ Texture
▪ Refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular
areas of an image.
▪ Coarseness/smoothness caused by variability or uniformity of image tone or
color
▪ Smoothness – tundra, swamps, fields, water, etc.
▪ Coarseness - forest, lava flows, mountains etc.

Marshy tundra with Bare rounded Mountains (blue) Tundra showing;

many surrounded by tundra and lakes.
drainage pattern
small ponds.
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE
Pattern
▪ refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly
discernible objects.
▪ overall spatial form of related features
▪ repeating patterns tend to indicate cultural features -
random = natural
▪ drainage patterns can help geologists determine
bedrock type
Relates to the spatial arrangement of objects.
✓Repetition of form or spectral response (tone)
✓eg. gridded, regular (plantation), linear, irregular,
ordered (hierarchal), symmetric, geometric etc.
INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Site
Site:- relationship of a feature to its environment.
❑differences in vegetation based on location:
❑Vegetation is often has different characteristics by rivers than
away from them
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Association
▪ Takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects or
features in proximity to the target of interest
▪ Identifying one feature can help identify another - correlation

The white cloud and black shadow

have the same shape, they are related
 INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Features on a photo can be delineated based on the

following characteristics:
▪ Tone (gray shade), color and brightness)
▪ Size (depend on scale e.g. size of house)
▪ Shape (geometrical arrangement, road/house)
▪ Texture (smoothness or roughness, water, grass)
▪ Pattern (spatial arrangement, network of streets)
▪ Shadow (height of object)
▪ Site, Association (geographic location, features on rivers)
✓Photo interpretation can be supported by magnifying lens and stereoscope
(pocket, mirror)
INTERPRET BASIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGE

Shape

Shape
Practical 01: image interpretation

• Open the GIS project named hawassa2wgcf

• It is located in hawassageodb/project/
• What type of band combination is used to create the image
composite
• Identify the feature types represented by the numbers
• The feature type
• The interrelation element used to identify the features
• What type of coordinate system is used by the project?
• What is the location of the top of the mountain label as Alamaura
• What is the resolution of the image
• Approximate area covered by the image
Practical 02: aerial photograph interpretation

• Open the GIS project named hawass_Kebele02

• It is located in hawassageodb/project/
• Identify the feature types represented by the numbers
• The feature type
• The interrelation element used to identify the features
• What type of coordinate system is used by the project?
• What is the location of the top of the mountain label as Alamaura
• What is the resolution of the image
• Approximate area covered by the image
 Types of photographs

•Vertical airphoto --
View straight down,
depression angle 85° to
90°.

•Low-oblique vantage -
- Side view, horizon is
not visible, depression
angle typically 20-85°.

•High-oblique vantage
-- Side view, horizon is
Low
visible, depression angle
typically less than 20°.
Types of aerial photograph
• Vertical
• Low oblique
• High oblique
Types of aerial photograph
• Vertical
• Low oblique (no horizon)
• High oblique
Types of aerial photograph

An aerial photograph mission will

be flown in strips, shutter timing
set for 60% endlap (needed for
parallax)

and

strips spaced for 20-30% sidelap (to

avoid missing bits)
Types of aerial photograph

• Endlap (or forelap) is the important

bit
• It ensures every point on the ground
appears in at least two photographs
• Distance between principal point of
adjacent photographs is known as the
“air base”
Types of aerial photograph

•(no horizon)
Elements of Aerial photograph

Vertical is most important

as it has minimum distortion and can
be used for taking measurements

Leica RC30 Aerial Film Camera System.

Information on aerial photograph

Fiducial
marks
 Information on aerial photograph

Fiducial
axes
Information on aerial photograph

Principal
point

Marginal
information
Identify the types of aerial photographs
 Elements of Analytical photogrammetry
Analytical photogrammetry is a term used to describe the rigorous mathematical
calculation of coordinates of points in object space based upon camera parameters,
measured photo coordinates, and ground control.

Coordinate Systems 1.1 Pixel Coordinate System

Interior Orientation
Exterior Orientation
1.2 Image Coordinate System
Stereopair Orientation 1.3 Image Space Coordinate
System
1.4 Ground Coordinate System

Conceptually, photogrammetry involves establishing the relationship between the camera or

sensor used to capture the imagery, the imagery itself, and the ground.

In order to understand and define this relationship, each of the three variables associated with
the relationship must be defined with respect to a coordinate space and coordinate system.
 Elements of Analytical photogrammetry
Analytical photogrammetry is a term used to describe the rigorous mathematical
calculation of coordinates of points in object space based upon camera parameters,
measured photo coordinates, and ground control.

Conceptually, photogrammetry involves establishing the relationship between the camera or

sensor used to capture the imagery, the imagery itself, and the ground.

In order to understand and define this relationship, each of the three variables associated with
the relationship must be defined with respect to a coordinate space and coordinate system.
 A. Pixel Coordinate System

A
is usually a coordinate system with
its origin in the upper-left corner of
the image,

the x- axis pointing to the right, the

y-axis pointing downward, and the
units in pixels, as shown by axes c
and r.

These coordinates (c, r) can also be

thought of as the pixel column and
row number, respectively.
.
B. Image/image plane Coordinate System

is usually defined as a 2D
B coordinate system occurring on the
image plane with its origin at the
image center.

The origin of the image coordinate

system is also referred to as the
principal point.

Image coordinate units are usually

millimetres or microns.
 C. Image Space Coordinate System

is identical to an image coordinate

system, except that it adds a third
C axis (z) to indicate elevation.
.

The origin of the image space

coordinate system is defined at the
perspective center O .
.

The perspective center is commonly

the lens of the camera as it existed
when the photograph was captured.
.

Its x-axis and y-axis are parallel to the x-axis

and y-axis in the image plane coordinate
system.
The z-axis is the optical axis, therefore the z value of an image point in the image space
coordinate system is usually equal to -f (the focal length of the camera). Image space
coordinates are used to describe positions inside the camera and usually use units in
millimetres or microns. This coordinate system is referenced as image space coordinates (X,Y,Z)
 D. Ground Coordinate System

is a 3D coordinate system that

utilizes a known geographic map
D projection.
.

Ground coordinates (X,Y,Z) are

usually expressed in feet or meters.
The Z value is elevation above mean
sea level for a given vertical datum.

This coordinate system is referenced as ground coordinates (X,Y,Z)

 Introduction, Concept of Image and Object Space
Geometric reconstruction
The object space is With partial reconstruction we It may only show the
only partially mean that only a fraction of the
Take a perimeter of buildings, not
reconstructed, information recorded from the map, for all the intricate details
however. object space is used for its
example. which make up real
representation. buildings.

Obviously, the success of reconstruction in terms of geometrical accuracy depends

largely on the similarity of the image bundle compared to the bundle of principal
rays that entered the lens during the instance of exposure.

The purpose of camera calibration is to define an image space so that the similarity
becomes as close as possible.

Geometrical relationship between image and object space

The geometrical relationship between image and object space can best be
established by introducing suitable coordinate systems for referencing both spaces.

The most common relationships are summarized in the next slide, together with the
associated photogrammetric procedures and the underlying mathematical models.
 Components of Aerial Cameras
A typical aerial camera consists of lens assembly, inner cone, focal plane, outer cone,
drive mechanism, and magazine.
Lens Assembly
The lens assembly, also called lens cone, consists of the camera lens (objective), the
diaphragm, the shutter and the filter. The diaphragm and the shutter control the exposure.
The camera is focused for infinity; that is, the image is formed in the focal plane.

Superwide-angle lens cones

have a focal length of 88 mm
(3.5 in).

The other extreme are

narrow-angle cones
with a focal length of
610mm(24 in).

Between these two extremes normal-angle lens cones,

are wide-angle, with focal lengths of 153
intermediate-angle, and mm (6 in), 213 mm (8.25 in),
and 303 mm (12 in),
respectively.
 Introduction, Concept of Image and Object Space
Geometric reconstruction

(b) we illustrate the reconstruction process.

(a) the data acquisition process is depicted.

 Components of Aerial Cameras (Types of camera)
A typical aerial camera consists of lens assembly, inner cone, focal plane, outer cone,
drive mechanism, and magazine.

interior orientation, describes the internal

geometry of the camera system;

Lens Assembly

Super-wide angle lens cones are suitable for medium to small scale applications because the flying height, H, is much lower compared to a normal-angle cone (same photo scale assumed). Thus, the atmospheric
effects, such as clouds and haze, are much less a problem.

Normal-angle cones are preferred for large-scale applications of urban areas.

Here, a super-wide angle cone would generate much more occluded areas, particularly in built-up areas with tall buildings.
 Camera Calibration
During the process of camera calibration, the interior orientation of the camera is
determined.
The interior orientation data describe the metric characteristics of the camera
needed for photogrammetric processes.

The elements of interior orientation are:

After assembling the camera, the manufacturer performs the calibration under laboratory conditions.
Laboratory calibrations are also performed by specialized government agencies.
 Photographic Processes
The most widely used detector system for photogrammetric applications is based on
photographic material. Here you should gain a basic understanding of exposure,
sensitivity, speed and resolution of photographic emulsions.

Overview of photographic processes

Photographic Material
The light sensitive emulsion consists of in which are
suspended crystals of silver halide.
Silver halide is inherently sensitive to near ultra violet and blue. In order for the silver
halide to absorb energy at longer wavelengths, optical sensitizers, called , are
added.
 Exterior orientation

Aerial Triangulation is the process of establishing a mathematical relationship between

images, the camera or sensor model, and the ground.
 Exterior orientation
Geometric relationship between the image and the ground is called
exterior orientation.

It is comprised of six mathematical elements:

➢ the x, y, and z position of the camera focal point
and
➢ the three angles of rotation:
omega (roll), phi (pitch), and kappa (yaw),
with respect to the ground.

The mathematical process of computing the exterior orientation

elements from known points on the ground is referred to by the
photogrammetric term, space resection.
 Scale of Aerial Photograph
For truly vertical photographs (if the optical axis is perfectly
vertical), the scale at a point is given by:
2-D view of vertical photograph taken over flat terrain

positive
f
a o b

Optical axis

ground
A P B
• The approximate scale or average scale (RF) of a vertical aerial
photograph is determined by either of two methods; the comparison
method or the focal length-flight altitude method.
• The scale of a vertical aerial photograph is determined by comparing
the measured distance between two points on the photograph with
the measured ground distance between the same two points.
• The ground distance is determined by actual measurement on the
ground or by the use of the scale on a map of the same area. The
points selected on the photograph must be identifiable on the ground
or map of the same area and should be spaced in such a manner that
a line connecting them will pass through or nearly through the center
of the photograph

scale = f ÷ H

scale = photo distance ÷ ground distance

SCALE DETERMINATION

• Before a photograph can be used as a map supplement or

substitute, it is necessary to know its scale. On a map, the
scale is printed as a representative fraction that expresses
the ratio of map distance to ground distance, For example:
RF =MD/ GD
• On a photograph, the scale is also expressed as a ratio, but
is the ratio of the photo distance (PD) to ground distance.
For example:
RF =PD/GD
• [email protected]
Scale of vertical aerial photograph over variable terrain

f
b

H
[email protected]

OA A B

h h1

Average terrain

havg
h2
Datum
 Digital Cameras
• The popular term “digital camera" is misleading because the
output is in many cases an analog signal.
• A more generic term is solid-state camera.
• Other frequently used terms include CCD camera and solid-state
camera.

• Advantages:
– Instant availability of images for further processing and analysis.
– Essential in real-time applications (e.g. robotics, certain industrial
applications, bio-mechanics, etc.).
– Increased spectral flexibility.

• Disadvantages
– Limited resolution or limited field of view.
 Interior Orientation:

The internal geometry of a camera is defined by specifying the following

variables:
➢ Principal point
➢ Focal length
➢ Fiducial marks
➢ Lens distortion
[email protected]
 Fiducial Mark Measurement (Interior Orientation)

◼ Necessary with Frame Camera Model

From Camera body, marks are transferred to film

[email protected]
Fiducials measured by user

Image X (Pixels)Image Y (Pixels)

1 124.554 -2200.641
#1
2 2191.293 -101.293
3 103.467 -122.598
4 2203.250 -2180.098
Building The Relationship:

A mathematical relationship between Image Space and Object Space

relies on the measurement of Control Points

x,y Mathematics can build a

relationship between these
values & these values

X,Y,Z #3
[email protected]
Object Left Right
X,Y,Z #2 GCP #1 X1, Y1, Z1 x1, y1 x1, y1
GCP #2 X2, Y2, Z2 x2, y2 x2, y2
#1 X,Y,Z X3, Y3, Z3 x3, y3
GCP #3 x3, y3
 Single Frame Orthorectification vs. Block Triangulation:

What is a BLOCK?

• A BLOCK is all the information needed to triangulate a set

of Stereo Satellite Images.

This must include:

1. Satellite images

2. Camera information

3. Control X,Y, Z

4. Projection, Spheroid, Datum Information.

 Photogrammetric Solutions:

➢ Interior orientation parameters for each image

➢ Exterior orientation parameters for each image
➢ Accurate representation of the ground

Space Resection:
Strip Triangulation:
Bundle Block Adjustment:
Space Intersection:
 STRIP ADJUSTMENT

A strip coordinate system can be created by the connection of successive photos in

analog stereo plotters or by the calculation of model coordinates based on photo
coordinates and the transformation of neighbored models together. This internal
strip coordinate system can be transformed to the control points by similarity
transformation.

The major disadvantage of this method is the deformation of the strips caused by a
summation of systematic and random errors.
 BLOCK ADJUSTMENT BY INDEPENDENT MODELS

The block adjustment by independent models is based on model coordinates including also
the model coordinates of the projection centers. The mathematical model is a simultaneous
similarity transformation of the models fixed by tie points to the control points. By theory 2
horizontal and 3 vertical control points are required, but for a sufficient accuracy more
control points are necessary.

The method is still in use today, even if the data acquisition is based on photo
coordinates. But the loss of information caused by the relative orientation and the
corresponding loss of accuracy, especially in the height, should not be accepted, it is not
anymore the state of the art.
 BUNDLE BLOCK ADJUSTMENT

The name bundle block adjustment is based on the fact that the rays from the projection center to the
photo points are building a bundle of rays – this is the original information used in photogrammetry.

The bundle block adjustment is using the photo coordinates, that means, the original information
which is available in the photogrammetry. Based on the same photo coordinates by this reason the
bundle block adjustment is leading to more accurate results than the other methods.
 Space Resection

Space resection in photogrammetry involves

determining the spatial position and orientation of a
photo based on image measurements of ground control
points that appear in the photo.

Since space resection is a nonlinear problem, existing

methods involve linearization of the collinearity
condition and the use of an iterative process to determine
the final solution using the least-squares method.
How does photogrammetry work?
Find the locations of
Get the camera features (targets,
Take images parameters edges, corners, etc.)
on ground

Recreate Compute the 3-D

Correspond
conditions as were location of
features between corresponding points
at time of
images using triangulation
photography

Generate
ortho images Mapping
 GLOSSARY
• Aerial Triangulation (AT). The process of establishing a mathematical
relationship between images, the camera or sensor model, and the
ground.
• Air base. The distance between two image exposure stations.
• Average flying height. The distance between the camera position at
the time of exposure and the average ground elevation. Average
flying height can be determined by multiplying the focal length by the
image scale.
• Base-height ratio (b/h). The ratio between the average flying height
of the camera and the distance between where the two overlapping
images were captured.
• Block of photographs. Formed by the combined exposures of a flight.
For example, a traditional frame camera block might consist of a
number of parallel strips with a sidelap of 20- 30%, and an overlap of
60%.
• Bundle. The unit of photogrammetric triangulation after each point
measured in an image is connected with the perspective center by a
straight light ray. There is one bundle of light rays for each image.
• Bundle block adjustment. A mathematical technique (triangulation)
that determines the position and orientation of each image as they
existed at the time of image capture, determines the ground
coordinates measured on overlap areas of multiple images, and
minimizes the error associated with the imagery, image
measurements, and GCPs. This is essentially a simultaneous
triangulation performed on all observations.
• Calibration certificate/report. In aerial photography, the manufacturer
of the camera specifies the interior orientation in the form of a
certificate or report. Information includes focal length, principal point
offset, radial lens distortion data, and fiducial mark coordinates.
• Check point. An additional ground point used to independently verify
the degree of accuracy of a triangulation.
• Control point. A point with known coordinates in a coordinate system,
expressed in the units (e.g., meters, feet, pixels, film units) of the
specified coordinate system.
• Control point extension. The process of converting tie points to control
points. This technique requires the manual measurement of ground
points on photos of overlapping areas. The ground coordinates
associated with the GCPs are then determined using photogrammetric
techniques.
• Exposure station. During image acquisition, each point in the flight path
at which the camera exposes the film.
• Eye-base to height ratio. The eye-base is the distance between a
person’s eyes. The height is the distance between the eyes and the
image datum. When two images of a stereopair are adjusted in the X and
Y direction, the eye-base to height ratio is also changed. Change the X
and Y positions to compensate for parallax in the images.
• Fiducial. Four or eight reference markers fixed on the frame of an aerial
metric camera and visible in each exposure. Fiducials are used to
compute the transformation from pixel coordinates to image
coordinates.
• Fiducial center. The center of an aerial photo; the intersection point of
lines constructed to connect opposite fiducials.
• Focal length. The distance between the optical center of the lens and
where the optical axis intersects the image plane. Focal length of each
camera is determined in a laboratory environment.
• Focal plane. The plane of the film or scanner used in obtaining an aerial
photo.
• Ground Control Point (GCP). An easily identifiable point for which the
ground coordinates of the map coordinate system are known.