Matrices

• A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or functions which we will enclose in brackets.

For example,

4  a11 a12 a13 

 1  , 3 5  e x
x 
2
a a23 
1

 x1 x2 x3 
, ,  6x  , a22
   0 5 
16  e 4x  21 
2 
 a31 a32 a33 


The numbers (or functions) are called entries or, less commonly, elements of the matrix.
Matrix – Notations

Matrices are denoted by capital boldface letters A, B, C, … , or by writing the general entry in
brackets.
A = [ajk]

By an m × n matrix (read m by n matrix) we mean a matrix with m rows and n columns—rows

always come first! m × n is called the size of the matrix. Thus an m × n matrix is of the form
Matrices

• Matrices having just a single row or column are called vectors.

• Its entries are called the components of the vector.

Rowvectors, a   a1 a2 an  , a   2 5 0.8 0 1 .

 b1 
b  4
For column vectors, b   2  , b   0  .
 
   7 
bm 
A matrix of any size n x n is called a square matrix;

A matrix of any size m x n is called a rectangular matrix;

 Matrices for Networks
• Matrices have various engineering applications, as we shall see. For instance, they can be used to characterize
connections in electrical networks, in nets of roads, in production processes, etc., as follows. (a)Nodal Incidence
Matrix.
• The network in Figure below consists of six branches(connections) and four nodes (points where two or more
branches come together). One node is the reference node(grounded node, whose voltage is zero). We number
the other nodes and number and direct the branches. This we do arbitrarily. The network can now be described by
a matrix
Equality of Matrices

• Two matrices A = [ajk] and B = [bjk] are equal, written A = B, if and only if
1. they have the same size and
2. the corresponding entries are equal, that is, a11 = b11, a12 = b12, and so on.

• Matrices that are not equal are called different. Thus, matrices of different sizes
are always different.
Algebra of Matrices
Addition of Matrices
The sum of two matrices A = [ajk] and B = [bjk] of the same size is written A + B and has the entries ajk + bjk
obtained by adding the corresponding entries of A and B. Matrices of different sizes cannot be added.

Scalar Multiplication (Multiplication by a Number)

The product of any m × n matrix A = [ajk] and any scalar c (number c) is written cA and is the m × n matrix
cA = [cajk] obtained by multiplying each entry of A by c.

Rules for Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

(a) AB  BA (a) c( A  B)  cA  cB
(b) (A  B)  C  A  (B  C) (written A  B  C) (b) (c  k )A  cA  kA
(c) A0  A (c) c( kA)  ( ck )A (written ckA)
(d) A  (  A )  0. (d) 1A  A.
Here 0 denotes the zero matrix (of size m × n), that is, the m × n matrix with all entries zero.
Algebra of Matrices
Multiplication of a Matrix by a Matrix

The product C = AB (in this order) of an m × n matrix A = [ajk] times an r × p matrix B = [bjk] is defined if and
only if r = n and is then the m × p matrix C = [cjk] with entries

The condition r = n means that the second factor, B, must have as many rows as the first factor has columns,
namely n. A diagram of sizes that shows when matrix multiplication is possible is as follows:
A B = C
[m × n] [n × p] = [m × p].
Examples:
Examples:
Matrix Multiplication - Rules

Matrix Multiplication Is Not Commutative, AB ≠ BA in General

Counter Example:
 1 1   1 1 
Let A    B   
100 100   1 1
 1 1   1 1  0 0   1 1   1 1   99 99 
AB      but BA=    .
100 100   1 1 0 0   1 1 100 100   99 99 

It is also that AB = 0 does not necessarily imply BA = 0 or A = 0 or B = 0.

Matrix Multiplication: Dilation and Contraction

Matrix multiplication with a scalar is a simple operation where each element of a matrix is multiplied by a constant
(scalar). This is a fundamental concept in linear algebra and has applications in various fields such as computer
graphics, physics, and engineering. Here's a brief explanation of its application:

In geometry, dilation and contraction refer to transformations that change the size of a shape. Dilation enlarges
a shape, while contraction shrinks it. These transformations can be represented using matrix multiplication.

The scalar multiplication of the vector

Applications of Matrix multiplication by
scalar
Applications of Matrix Multiplication
Transposition of Matrices & Vectors
The transpose of an m × n matrix A = [ajk] is the n × m matrix AT (read A transpose) that has the
first row of A as its first column, the second row of A as its second column, and so on. Thus the
transpose of is AT = [akj], written out
 a11 a12 a1n   a11 a21 am 1 
   
a a22 a2 n  a a22 am 2 
If A   a jk    21 then A   akj    12
T
         
   
 am 1 am 2 amn   a1n a2 n amn 
As a special case, transposition converts row vectors to column vectors and conversely.
Special Matrices
• Symmetric: aij = aji

• Skew Symmetric : aij = - aji

• Triangular: Upper Triangular  aij = 0 for all i > j

Lower Triangular  aij = 0 for all i < j

• Diagonal Matrix: aij = 0 for all i ≠ j

• Scalar matrix: aij = 0 for all i ≠ j and : aij = c for all i = j

• Identity matrix : aij = 0 for all i ≠ j and : aij =1 for all i = j

• Sparse Matrix: Many zeroes and few non-zero entities

Find the following expressions
1. 2A +4B
2. 7A
3. 0B
4. AB
5. C+D – 2AB
6. CD
Linear Systems of Equations:

A linear system of m equations in n unknowns x1, … , xn is a set of equations of the form

------------(1)

• The system is called linear because each variable xj appears in the first power one.
• a11, … , amn are given numbers, called the coefficients of the system
• b1, … , bm on the right are also given numbers.
• If all the bj are zero, then the system is called a homogeneous system otherwise called nonhomogeneous system.
Linear System, Coefficient Matrix, Augmented Matrix

Matrix Form of the Linear System (1) : From the definition of matrix multiplication we see that the m equations
of (1) may be written as a single vector equation Ax = b where the coefficient matrix A = [ajk] is the m × n
matrix , X and b are are column vectors.

is called the augmented matrix of the system (1).

Solution of Linear Systems of Equations:

A solution of (1) is a set of numbers x1, x2, …..xn, that satisfies all the m equations.
A solution vector of (1) is a vector x whose components form a solution of (1).
If the system (1) is homogeneous, it always has at least the trivial solution x1 = x2=……..= xn =0

In general , any linear system has possible solution

(a) Precisely one solution
(b) Infinitely many solutions
(c) No solution
Modelling Linear System
Linear Systems in Two and Three Unknowns
Linear Systems in Three Unknowns
Solution to System of Linear Equations

• A linear system (1) is called overdetermined if it has more

equations than unknowns, determined if m = n, and
underdetermined if it has fewer equations than unknowns.

• A linear system is consistent if rank(A) = rank(A|b)

• A consistent system has at least one solution (thus, one

solution or infinitely many solutions), but inconsistent has no
solutions at all, as x1 + x2 = 1, x1 + x2 = 0.
Elementary Row Operations
Elementary Operations for Equations:
• Interchange of two equations
• Addition of a constant multiple of one equation to another equation
• Multiplication of an equation by a nonzero constant c

THEOREM: Row-Equivalent Systems

Row-equivalent linear systems have the same set of solutions.
Note:
Clearly, the interchange of two equations does not alter the solution set.
Neither does their addition because we can undo it by a corresponding subtraction. Similarly for their
multiplication, which we can undo by multiplying the new equation by 1/c (since c ≠ 0), producing the
original equation.
Row - Echelon form and reduced row echelon form of a matrix
1 4 2
 
0 1 0
 The first non-zero element in each non-zero row is  0 0 0 

unity 1 2 3 2 
0 1 2 9 
 Zero rows if any, write below the non- zero rows  
0 0 0 0 
 The elements below the non – zero element should
1 2 3 2 
be zero’s 0 0 1 2 
 
0 0 0 1 
and Reduced Row Echelon Form
Row Echelon Form

Reduced Row Echelon Form

 Exercise

1. Can you add: A row and a column vector with different numbers of compo nents? With the same number of
components? Two row vectors with the same number of components but different numbers of zeros? A vector and
a scalar? A vector with four components and a matrix?
2.
 Exercise
Using the elementary transformations, reduce each of the following matrices to the
row echelon form and row reduced echelon form.

 1 2 0 1
1)  3 4 1 2 
 2 1 1  2  4 3  1 0
 2 3 2 5   3 1 1  1  2  1  4 2 
3)    
 4 1 1  0 1  1 3 1 
 1 3 2     
 1 1 1  4  7 4  4 5 
 
2)  2 1 4 
 1 11 14 
 