materials

Article
Mechanical and Plasma Electrolytic Polishing of Dental Alloys
Katharina Witzke 1, * , Renko Kensbock 1 , Caroline Ulrike Willsch 1 , Katja Fricke 2 , Sander Bekeschus 2,3,†
and Hans-Robert Metelmann 1,†

1 Department of Oral, Maxillofacial, and Plastic Surgery, Greifswald University Medical Center, Sauerbruchstr.,
17475 Greifswald, Germany; [email protected] (R.K.); [email protected] (C.U.W.);
[email protected] (H.-R.M.)
2 Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP), Felix Hausdorff-Str. 2, 17489 Greifswald, Germany;
[email protected] (K.F.); [email protected] (S.B.)
3 Clinic and Policlinic for Dermatology and Venerology, Rostock University Medical Center, Strempelstr. 13,
18057 Rostock, Germany
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: (1) Background: In dentistry, a reduction in surface roughness is established mostly by

conventional mechanical polishing to hinder biofilm adhesion. This is time- and labor-intensive.
Plasma electrolytic polishing is believed to be an effective finishing method due to the reduced
treatment time and materials used for applications in dentistry. (2) Methods: Co-Cr-Mo dental alloy
samples were sandblasted and prepared with either plasma electrolytic or conventional mechanical
polishing. Evaluation of the polishing methods was obtained by atomic force microscopy, scanning
electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. (3) Results: The sandblasted samples
showed the highest surface roughness (Heraenium® Sun 991 ± 288 nm; Wironit® 1187 ± 331 nm).
Our results show that with plasma electrolytic polishing, Co-Cr-Mo surfaces can be polished with a
surface roughness in the nanometer range, comparable to those achieved by conventional mechanical
polishing. Conventional mechanical polishing (Heraenium® Sun 134 ± 23 nm; Wironit® 114 ± 11 nm)
provided lower surface roughness values compared to plasma electrolytic polishing (Heraenium®
Sun 288 ± 94 nm; Wironit® 261 ± 49 nm). We anticipate our pilot study as a starting point for future
studies to refine process parameters and quantitative microbiological assays. (4) Conclusions: Plasma
Citation: Witzke, K.; Kensbock, R.;
Willsch, C.U.; Fricke, K.; Bekeschus,
electrolytic polishing might have a promising future for polishing dental alloys.
S.; Metelmann, H.-R. Mechanical and
Plasma Electrolytic Polishing of Keywords: dental alloy; surface roughness; conventional mechanical polishing; plasma electrolytic
Dental Alloys. Materials 2023, 16, polishing; AFM; SEM; EDX
6222. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma16186222

Academic Editor: Miruna Silvia

1. Introduction
Stan
Non-noble dental alloys are ubiquitous in dentistry and have gained usage in fixed
Received: 14 August 2023 and removable prosthodontics worldwide. These dental alloys consist of a Co-Cr-Mo basis.
Revised: 11 September 2023
Co-Cr alloys have been available since 1929 [1]. A detailed knowledge of their structure is
Accepted: 13 September 2023
provided by Uriciuc et al. (2015) [2]. Biofilm formation, corrosion and surface roughness are
Published: 15 September 2023
connected and determine the lifespan of dental alloys in dentistry. The surface roughness
of dental alloys is an important measure of biofilm adhesion and formation [3]. The
oral biofilm is an intricately organized network of microorganisms and an extracellular
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
matrix that strongly adhere to surfaces in the oral cavity [4]. This network ensures safety
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. from harmful external influences such as host defenses or antibiotics, enabling deleterious
This article is an open access article bacterial growth under certain conditions [5,6]. Furthermore, secondary caries is a common
distributed under the terms and reason for the replacement of restorations [7,8]. Hence, the metallic surface of dental alloys
conditions of the Creative Commons must be as smooth as possible to keep bacteria from adhering and hence limit biofilm
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// formation [9]. A threshold surface roughness of about 0.2 µm has been proposed for
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ optimum biofilm containment [10]. A typical bacterium in the oral cavity is Streptococcus
4.0/). mutans, which has a mean radius of 0.3 µm and is of comparable length [11].

Materials 2023, 16, 6222. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16186222 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 6222 2 of 12

Conventional mechanical polishing by a dental technician is the current standard

method of preparing dental alloys [12]. In the literature, various efforts have been made
to investigate the surface morphology and surface roughness of mechanically polished
dental alloys [2,13,14]. Plasma electrolytic polishing is a novel and eco-friendly method of
polishing alloys with reduced treatment time and required equipment [15,16]. The plasma
electrolytic polishing system is equipped with a bath filled with an aqueous electrolyte
like ammonium sulfate and a cathode. In general, a workpiece is anodically polarized
and immersed. Through a combination of electrochemical reactions, a plasma layer sur-
rounds the workpiece and removes surface peaks [17]. Zeidler et al. (2016) [17] showed
a polishing effect of dental Co-Cr crowns and a partial denture framework achieved by
plasma electrolytic polishing using macrophotography. Comparative studies using various
microscopic methods with respect to the analysis of the surface roughness using atomic
force microscopy are largely lacking to date. The aim of the present pilot study was to
compare sandblasted, plasma electrolytic and conventional mechanically polished Co-
Cr-Mo alloys from the micro- to nanoscale. The originality of this study lies in the fact
that we systematically compared polishing methods using stereozoom microscopy, atomic
force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy (EDX).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Metal Alloy Specimens
Specimens of two commercially available non-noble cobalt-chromium-based dental
alloys were selected for the comparison (see Table 1).

Table 1. Non-noble dental alloys chosen by frequent use.

Product Name Manufacturer Composition (%w/w )

Heraeus Kulzer, Co Cr Mo Mn Si Fe N C W
Heraenium® Sun
Hanau,
REF:66020652
Germany 43.0 23.5 2.0 0.8 1.0 27.0 0.15 0.1 2.5

Wironit® Bego, Bremen, Co Cr Mo Si (Mn and C each <1)

REF:50030 Germany 64.0 28.6 5.0 1.0

Twenty specimens were polished by conventional mechanical polishing (n = 10

Heraenium® Sun, n = 10 Wironit® ), and another twenty specimens (n = 10 Heraenium®
Sun, n = 10 Wironit® ) were prepared with plasma electrolytic polishing. Therefore, the
excess material left from the metal casting of dental crowns or partial denture frameworks
was used as the substrate for comparing the conventional and plasma electrolytic polishing.
For the Wironit® specimen production, a casting wax (Berg Dental, Engen, Germany)
for modulation and a precision dental casting investment (Micro, Siladent, Goslar, Ger-
many) for the dental model, prepared with a mixing liquid (Expansion Liquid Type 100,
Siladent, Goslar, Germany), were used. For the Heraenium® Sun specimen, another dental
casting investment (Cehacast Speed, Hafner, Wimsheim, Germany) was prepared with a
specific mixing liquid (Cehacast FS, Hafner, Wimsheim, Germany). The dental model was
preheated to 950 ◦ C–1050 ◦ C and cast with the respective metal alloy at approximately
1500 ◦ C in the same dental furnace (MIHM-VOGT, Stutensee-Blankenloch, Germany). Af-
ter cooling, the dental models were extracted with a hammer, sandblasted (KaVo Dental
GmbH, Biberach/Riss, Germany) and alu-blasted (grain size of 250 µm, HS-Edelkorund,
Henry Schein, Langen, Germany). The Heraenium® Sun specimens were also bead-blasted
(glass bead size 50 µm, Henry Schein, Langen, Germany). Afterward, the specimens were
steam-cleaned at up to 6 bar at a high temperature of up to 164◦ with a steam cleaner
Wasi-Steam 2 (Wassermann Dental-Maschinen, Hamburg, Germany). The specimens were
 Materials2023,
Materials 2023,16,
16,6222
x FOR PEER REVIEW of1212
3 of

intointo
split halves withwith
halves a dental laboratory
a dental handpiece
laboratory (Kavo
handpiece K9, K9,
(Kavo Biberach, Germany)
Biberach, withwith
Germany) a cut-
a
ting disc
cutting (HS-Trennscheibe
disc (HS-Trennscheibe für Metalle,
für Henry
Metalle, Schein,
Henry Langen,
Schein, Langen,Germany).
Germany).
Figure
Figure11illustrates
illustratesthe
themacroscopic
macroscopicmorphology
morphologyofofthe
thesamples.
samples.

Figure 1. Stereozoom microscopy of the Co-Cr samples, (a) a sandblasted Heraenium ® Sun speci-
Figure 1. Stereozoom microscopy of the Co-Cr samples, (a) a sandblasted Heraenium® Sun specimen,
men, (b) a mechanically polished Heraenium ® Sun specimen and (c) a Wironit® specimen prepared
(b) a mechanically polished Heraenium® Sun specimen and (c) a Wironit® specimen prepared with
with plasma electrolytic polishing.
plasma electrolytic polishing.
2.2.Conventional
2.2. ConventionalMechanical
MechanicalPolishing
Polishing
First,universal
First, universalpolishers
polishers (Ref.
(Ref. 652900303533220,
652900303533220, Hager
Hager & Meisinger,
& Meisinger, Neuss, Neuss, Ger-
Germany;
many; LOT 2202, Voss Dental, Salzhausen, Germany) and an Al
LOT 2202, Voss Dental, Salzhausen, Germany) and an Al2 O3 corundum abrasive (Ref. 2O 3 corundum abrasive
(Ref. 625104107523065,
625104107523065, HagerHager & Meisinger,
& Meisinger, Neuss, Neuss, Germany)
Germany) for the
for the aforementioned
aforementioned den-
dental
tal laboratory
laboratory handpiece
handpiece werewere
used used forinitial
for the the initial polishing.
polishing. Afterward,
Afterward, the specimens
the specimens were
were rubber-polished
rubber-polished (in with
(in order) order)anwith an abrasive
abrasive polisherpolisher for Co-Cr-Mo
for Co-Cr-Mo alloys (Chromo-
alloys (ChromoPol UM,
Pol UM, Edenta, Au, Switzerland), rubber polishing wheel (Ref. 43370,
Edenta, Au, Switzerland), rubber polishing wheel (Ref. 43370, Bego, Bremen, Germany), Bego, Bremen, Ger-
many), universal polisher (Ref. 652900303533220, Hager & Meisinger,
universal polisher (Ref. 652900303533220, Hager & Meisinger, Neuss, Germany) and Neuss, Germany)
aand a rubber
rubber polishing
polishing tip (Ref.
tip (Ref. 43370,
43370, Bego,Bego, Bremen,
Bremen, Germany).The
Germany). Thehigh-luster
high-lusterfinish
finish
wasobtained
was obtainedusing
usingaamechanical
mechanicalpolishing
polishingunit unit(Typ
(TypWP-EX
WP-EX2000,2000,Wassermann
WassermannDental
Dental
Maschinen,Hamburg,
Maschinen, Hamburg, Germany),
Germany), which
which firstfirst
used used a high-luster
a high-luster polishing
polishing brushbrush (Poli-
(Polirapid
rapid Germany,
Germany, Singen,Singen,
Germany)Germany)
and a and
goldapolishing
gold polishing
paste paste
(Hera(Hera
GPP GPP 99, Kulzer,
99, Kulzer, Hanau,Ha-
nau, Germany).
Germany). AfterAfter
that,that, another
another high-luster
high-luster polishing
polishing brush
brush andanda auniversal
universalpolishing
polishing
paste(Ivoclar
paste (IvoclarVivadent,
Vivadent,Eilwangen,
Eilwangen,Germany)
Germany)were wereused.
used.The
Thespeed
speedvaried
variedfrom
from5000
5000toto
35,000
35,000rpm,
rpm, according to the the manufacturer’s
manufacturer’srecommendation.
recommendation.TheThe directions
directions of the
of the pol-
polishing constantly
ishing constantly varied.
varied. AfterAfter polishing,
polishing, the specimens
the specimens were putwere putultrasonic
in an in an ultrasonic
cleaning
cleaning device (Stammopur
device (Stammopur RD5, Dr. RD5, Dr. H.
H. Stamm Stamm
GmbH, GmbH,
Berlin, Berlin,and
Germany) Germany) and steam-
steam-cleaned with
cleaned with a 2.
a Wasi-Steam Wasi-Steam 2.

2.3.
2.3.Plasma
PlasmaElectrolytic
ElectrolyticPolishing
Polishing
The
The specimens weretreated
specimens were using
treated anan
using in-house developed
in-house plasma
developed electrolytic
plasma polishing
electrolytic polish-
system.
ing system. The polishing system was operated with a bath of ammonium sulfatesolution
The polishing system was operated with a bath of ammonium sulfate solution
(5%
(5% w/v , el. conductivity of 110 mS/cm), applied voltage of 320 V and direct current at
w/v, el. conductivity of 110 mS/cm), applied voltage of 320 V and direct current at 70 °C.
70 ◦ C. Each specimen was placed with a gripper, acting as an anode. The stainless steel tub
Each specimen was placed with a gripper, acting as an anode. The stainless steel tub was
was
the the cathode.
cathode. The control
The control software
software for recording
for data data recording was LabView-based
was LabView-based (National
(National Instru-
Instruments Germany, Munich, Germany). The specimens were treated for 5 min. The
ments Germany, Munich, Germany). The specimens were treated for 5 min. The electric
electric current acts as a heat source such that the electrolyte bath develops a steam layer
current acts as a heat source such that the electrolyte bath develops a steam layer near the
near the specimen surface which drives the etching process (anode attracts hydrogen ions).
specimen surface which drives the etching process (anode attracts hydrogen ions). After
After treatment, the deposited salts at the specimen surface were cleaned with a cotton
treatment, the deposited salts at the specimen surface were cleaned with a cotton cloth. In
cloth. In addition, a treatment time series (5, 10, 20, 30 min) was recorded in an exemplary
addition, a treatment time series (5, 10, 20, ®30 min) was recorded in an exemplary manner
® Sun
manner for 4 Heraenium and Wironit specimens.
for 4 Heraenium Sun and Wironit® specimens.
®

2.4. Stereo, Scanning Electron (SEM) and Atomic Force (AFM) Microscopy
The surface structure of the specimens, before and after polishing, was documented
with a Stereozoom SZX 10 with KL1500LCD (Olympus, Hamburg, Germany). For SEM,
high-resolution images (20× to 5000× magnification) of the specimens were obtained with
Materials 2023, 16, 6222 4 of 12

a Quanta FEG 250 SEM (FEI Company, Eindhoven, The Netherlands). It was operated
in high vacuum mode (HighVac-SEM), 10 kV–20 kV acceleration voltage and machine-
specific spot size Spot 3. Each specimen was placed on an SEM plate with a carbon
adhesive disc, Leit-Tab, and copper adhesive tape (Piano, Wetzlar, Germany). Dust particles
were cleared off the specimen surface with pressurized air (Druckluft 67; CRC Industries
Europe BVBA, Zele, Belgium). For AFM, the specimen surface morphology and roughness
were ascertained with a NanoWizard 1 AFM, NanoWizard Control Software v.5.0.97, and
Data Processing v.5.0.97 (JPK instruments, Berlin, Germany). The AFM cantilever was an
Ultrasharp CSC37/no Al (MikroMasch, Tallinn, Estonia) with a total tip height of 12 µm.
Samples were obtained in contact mode. Operating parameters were a cutoff frequency of
150 Hz, a gain factor of 0.05, an operating point of 0.3 V at Vsum = 1.3 V–1.5 V, a scan size
of 100 × 100 µm2 and 30 × 30 µm2 , a line speed of 0.3 Hz and a resolution of 512 × 512.
The AFM software has a corresponding highpass filter reliant on the scanline length. Thus,
complex form and waviness do not affect the calculation of the surface roughness values.
All surface roughness values were calculated from 10 cross-sectional height profiles within
the 100 × 100 µm2 scan fields.

2.5. Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX)

For the determination of surface homogeneity of the polished samples, an EDAX
TEAM detector system (EDAX/AMETEK, Berwyn, PA, USA) was used in conjunction with
a Quanta FEG 250 (FEI Company, Eindhoven, The Netherlands). EDX was performed
along a predefined line with a line scan of 1 µm width and 400 measurement points per
line scan averaged over 8 scans. The accelerating voltage was 20 kV. The element selection
was restricted to Mo, Cr, Co, Fe and W.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the IBM SPSS Statistics Software Version
29.0.1.0 (IBM, Chicago, IL, USA). All mean surface roughness values Ra (average of 10 line
measurements) were checked for normality with a Shapiro–Wilk test. Pairwise comparisons
of Ra values for different methods were analyzed with an independent-sample Kruskal–
Wallis test. The significance level is 0.05.

3. Results
3.1. Sandblasted and Mechanically and Plasma-Polished Dental Co-Cr Alloys: SEM
The electron micrographs of Co-Cr- alloys prepared by sandblasting, conventional
mechanical polishing and plasma electrolytic polishing are compared in Figure 2. When
observed in the SEM, the Heraenium® Sun, as well as the Wironit® specimens, showed
similar surface characteristics. As shown in Figure 2a–c, the sandblasted specimen had
a rough surface morphology with irregular edges, ridges and deeper porosities. After
conventional mechanical polishing (Figure 2d–f), the surface was smoother compared to
sandblasting. Numerous polishing marks with changing orientation are obvious. Plasma
electrolytically polished surfaces showed a comprehensive smooth surface (Figure 2g)
without polishing marks. Higher magnification revealed numerous inhomogeneities and
interspersed insular structures.
Materials 2023, 16,
Materials x FOR
2023, PEER REVIEW
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Figure 2. SEM micrographs revealing the comparison of sandblasted, mechanically polished and
Figure 2. SEM micrographs revealing the comparison of sandblasted, mechanically polished and
plasma electrolytically polished Co-Cr alloys. (a) Overview of sandblasted Wironit® depicting a
® depicting
plasma electrolytically polished Co-Cr alloys. (a) Overview of sandblasted Wironit a rough
rough surface morphology. (b) Close-up view of sandblasted Wironit® showing a rough and fis-
surface morphology. (b) Close-up view of sandblasted Wironit® showing a rough and fissured surface.
sured surface. (c) High magnification of sandblasted Heraenium® Sun reveals an irregular surface
(c) High magnification of sandblasted Heraenium® Sun reveals an irregular surface with ridges, ®
with ridges, edges and deeper porosities. (d) Overview of mechanically polished Heraenium Sun
edges and deeper porosities. (d) Overview of mechanically polished Heraenium® Sun depicting a
depicting a clear border between mechanically polished (*) and sandblasted area (S). (e,f) High mag-
clear border between mechanically polished (*) and sandblasted area (S). (e,f) High magnification of
nification of mechanically polished® Heraenium® Sun reveals a smooth surface with numerous pol-
mechanically polished Heraenium Sun reveals a smooth surface with numerous polishing marks.
ishing marks. (g) Overview of plasma electrolytically®polished Wironit® showing a comprehensive
(g) Overview of plasma electrolytically polished Wironit showing a comprehensive smooth surface.
smooth surface. (h) Close-up of plasma electrolytically® polished Wironit® showing a smooth surface
(h) Close-up of plasma electrolytically polished Wironit showing a smooth surface with numerous
with numerous inhomogeneities. (i) High magnification of plasma electrolytically polished Wironit®
inhomogeneities. (i) High magnification of plasma electrolytically polished Wironit® reveals a smooth
reveals a smooth surface with interspersed insular structures.
surface with interspersed insular structures.

3.2.3.2.
Sandblasted
Sandblastedand
andMechanically andPlasma-Polished
Mechanically and Plasma-Polished Dental
Dental Co-Cr
Co-Cr Alloys:
Alloys: AFMAFM
TheThe3D3DAFM
AFM images
images ofofCo-Cr-
Co-Cr- alloys prepared
alloys by sandblasting,
prepared conventional
by sandblasting, mechan- me-
conventional
ical polishing and plasma electrolytic polishing are compared in Figure
chanical polishing and plasma electrolytic polishing are compared in Figure 3. 3. The AFM images
The AFM
yield comparable results to the SEM images but also give insights into the heights
images yield comparable results to the SEM images but also give insights into the heights present
in the differently polished samples. One can notice that the overall behavior of Heraenium®
present in the differently polished samples. One can notice that the overall behavior of
Sun and Wironit® is very similar for the different polishing methods. The sandblasted
Heraenium ® Sun and Wironit® is very similar for the different polishing methods. The
surfaces are rough in appearance (Figure 3a,d). The specimens with plasma electrolytic
sandblasted
polishing aresurfaces are rough
interspersed in appearance in
with inhomogeneities (Figure 3a,d).
an overall The surface
smooth specimens with
(Figure plasma
3b,e).
electrolytic polishing are interspersed with inhomogeneities in an overall
The specimens prepared by mechanical polishing exhibit scratches on a smooth surface smooth surface
(Figure 3b,e). The specimens prepared by mechanical polishing exhibit scratches on a
smooth surface that contains small inhomogeneities that are less imposing than the ones
in the plasma electrolytic polishing (Figure 3c,f).
Materials 2023, 16, 6222 6 of 12

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

that contains small inhomogeneities that are less imposing than the ones in the plasma
electrolytic polishing (Figure 3c,f).

Figure 3. Comparison of 3D AFM images of sandblasted, mechanically polished and plasma elec-
Figure 3. Comparison
trolytically of 3Dalloys.
polished Co-Cr AFM images of sandblasted,
AFM images are 100 µmmechanically
in width andpolished
height. and
Theyplasma elec-
are shown
trolytically polished Co-Cr alloys. AFM images are 100 µm in width and height. They
with OpenGL lighting for better contrast. (a) Sandblasted Wironit specimen showing a rough sur-
® are shown
with OpenGL
face with lighting
irregular for better
porosity. contrast. (a) Sandblasted
(b) Plasma-polished Wironit®
Wironit® specimen specimen
showing showing a rough
inhomogeneities and
interspersed
surface with insular structures.
irregular porosity. (c)
(b)Mechanically polished
Plasma-polished ®
Wironit
Wironit ® specimen showing a smooth sur-
specimen showing inhomogeneities
face interspersed
and with numerous polishing
insular marks.
structures. (c)(d) Sandblastedpolished
Mechanically Heraenium ® Sun
Wironit specimen showing
® specimen depictinga asmooth
rough
surface. (e) Plasma-polished Heraenium ® Sun specimen showing a smooth
surface with numerous polishing marks. (d) Sandblasted Heraenium® Sun surface with depicting
specimen a few inho- a
mogeneities and interspersed insular structures. (f) Mechanically polished Heraenium® Sun speci-
rough surface. (e) Plasma-polished Heraenium® Sun specimen showing a smooth surface with a few
men showing a smooth surface with numerous polishing scratches.
inhomogeneities and interspersed insular structures. (f) Mechanically polished Heraenium® Sun
specimen showing a smooth surface with numerous polishing scratches.
Figure 4 presents typical examples of AFM images including their corresponding
horizontal
Figureheight profiles
4 presents of sandblasted,
typical examples ofmechanically
AFM imagesand plasmatheir
including electrolytically
correspondingpol-
ished dental alloys.
horizontal height profiles of sandblasted, mechanically and plasma electrolytically polished
dental alloys.
Materials 2023,
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x FOR PEER REVIEW 77of
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Figure 4. AFM images of Co-Cr specimens and the corresponding horizontal height profile after
Figure 4. AFM images of Co-Cr specimens and the corresponding horizontal height profile after
sandblasting, mechanical polishing and plasma electrolytical polishing. (a) Sandblasted Herae-
sandblasting, mechanical polishing and plasma electrolytical polishing. (a) Sandblasted Heraenium®
nium® Sun specimen (100 µm sized square) showing a surface roughness in the micrometer range.
Sun specimen
(b) The image (100
showsµma sized square) showing
mechanically polished aWironit
surface® roughness in the
specimen (30 µmmicrometer range.
sized square). (b) The
(c) The im-
image shows a mechanically polished Wironit ® specimen (30 µm sized square). (c) The image shows
age shows a mechanically polished Heraenium Sun specimen (30 µm sized square). (d) Plasma
®

aelectrolytically
mechanically polished ® Sun specimen (30 µm sized square). (d) Plasma electrolytically
polished Heraenium
Wironit® specimen (100 µm sized square). (e) Plasma electrolytically pol-
ished Wironit
polished Wironit ® specimen
® specimen (30 µm
(100sized square). (e) Plasma electrolytically polished Wironit®
square).
µm sized
specimen (30 µm sized square).
The sandblasted specimens were of high surface roughness which is typically in the
micronTherange
sandblasted
for bothspecimens
alloys. Anwere of high
example of asurface
sandblastedroughness which®isSun
Heraenium typically
specimen in the
is
micron range for both alloys. An example of a sandblasted Heraenium ® Sun specimen is
presented in Figure 5a, where the rough, heterogeneous surface morphology is visible. A
presented
horizontalin Figure
height 4a,profile
line whereisthe rough, heterogeneous
indicated by (1), which shows surface morphology
a variation is visible.
in height aboveA
horizontal
seven microns.height line profile
Looking at theismicrostructure
indicated by (1),of awhich
Wironitshows a variation
® specimen in height
processed with above
con-
seven microns. Looking at the microstructure of4b
a Wironit ® specimen processed with
ventional mechanical polishing, we see in Figure that a smooth surface with regular,
conventional mechanical
patterned islands polishing,
and numerous we see inmarks
polishing Figure is 4b that a smooth
suggestive of thissurface withmethod.
polishing regular,
patterned islands and numerous polishing marks is suggestive of this
An example of such an island is given by the black arrow in Figure 4b. Here, the island polishing method.
An
hasexample
a length of ofsuch
about an5island
µm, aiswidth
givenofbyabout
the black
2.5 µmarrowandinaFigure
maximum4b. Here,
heighttheofisland
abouthas30
anm.
length of about 5 µm, a width of about 2.5 µm and a maximum
The scratches seen with SEM are also apparent and are the lowest structures. height of about 30 The
nm.
The scratches
overall heightseen
of thewith SEM are
sample’s also apparent
surface is 144 nmand are the
(Figure lowest
4b), aboutstructures.
100 times Thelower overall
than
height of theseen
the heights sample’s
in thesurface is 144 nm
sandblasted (Figure with
specimen 4b), about
about10010 times
µm. Anlower than the
example of heights
a deep
seen in themark
polishing sandblasted specimen
is depicted with 4c.
in Figure about
The10surfaces
µm. An obtained
example of a deep
with polishing
plasma mark
electrolytic
is depicted in Figure 4c. The surfaces obtained with plasma electrolytic polishing appeared®
polishing appeared for both alloys smooth without scratches, as shown for a Wironit
for both alloys smooth without scratches, as shown for a Wironit® specimen in Figure 4d.
specimen in Figure 4d. However, numerous interspersed periodic islands are found. An
However, numerous interspersed periodic islands are found. An island with a horizontal
island with a horizontal height profile is presented in Figure 4e. Here, the island had a
height profile is presented in Figure 4e. Here, the island had a height of about 0.5 µm, a
height of about 0.5 µm, a length of about 7.5 µm and a width of about 5 µm.
length of about 7.5 µm and a width of about 5 µm.
The overall comparison of the arithmetic mean roughness Ra for specimens treated
with sandblasting, conventional mechanical polishing or plasma electrolytic polishing is
 chanical polishing (Heraenium® Sun p < 0.021; Wironit® p < 0.015) provided significantly
lower surface roughness values compared to plasma electrolytic polishing (Figure 5b,c).
The treatment time in the plasma electrolytic bath was limited to 5 min because, with more
time spent in the bath, more alloy was lost, as shown in Figure 5d. The amount of alloy
lost is comparable at 5 min for both Heraenium® Sun and Wironit® but becomes increas-
Materials 2023, 16, 6222 8 of 12
ingly divergent with higher losses of Wironit® to the bath.

Figure 5. Statistical analysis of sandblasted, conventional mechanically polished and plasma elec-
Figure 5. Statistical analysis of sandblasted, conventional mechanically polished and plasma elec-
trolytically polished Heraenium ® Sun and Wironit® . (a) Comparison of the surface roughness values
trolytically polished Heraenium ® Sun and Wironit®. (a) Comparison of the surface roughness values

Ra .RThe R values are in SI (Tables S1

a. TheaRa values are in SI (Tables S1 and S2).
and (b)(b)
S2). Pairwise
Pairwisecomparison
comparisonof of
surface roughness
surface roughnessvalues
values
of of
Heraenium ® Sun specimen. The significance level is 0.05. (c) Pairwise comparison of surface
Heraenium Sun specimen. The significance level is 0.05. (c) Pairwise comparison of surface
®

roughness
roughness values
values of Wironit ® specimen.
of Wironit ® specimen. The significance level is 0.05. (d) The comparison of loss of
The significance level is 0.05. (d) The comparison of loss of
material during plasma electrolytic
material during plasma electrolytic polishingpolishing at respective
at respective times.
times. Data
Data cancan
be be found
found in (Table
in SI SI (Table
S3).S3).

3.3.The overall comparison

Sandblasted of theand
and Mechanically arithmetic mean roughness
Plasma-Polished Ra for
Dental Co-Cr specimens
Alloys: EDX treated
with sandblasting,
Upon further conventional
analysis of amechanical polishing
Wironit® sample with orEDX,
plasma electrolytic polishing
a heterogeneous surface is
dis-
presented in Figure 5a. All R a values can be found in SI in Tables S1 and S2. The sandblasted
tribution of Cr, Co, Mo and W is found, shown in Figure ®6a. Here, a line scan, from lower
specimen had the highest observed roughness (Heraenium 991 ± ®
left to upper right, yields the relative intensities of Cr, Co, Sun
Mo and W®
288
(fornm; Wironit
absolute inten-
1187 ± see
sity, 331 Supporting
nm), followed by plasma Figure
Information, electrolytic polishing
S1) that shows(Heraenium for±Cr94and
Sun 288
a similar behavior nm;Co
Wironit ® 261± 49 nm). The lowest roughness values for R were found for conventional
a
and a slightly deviating one for Mo. W is only found in small traces, as expected from the
mechanical polishing (Heraenium® Sun 134 ± 23 nm; Wironit® 114 ± 11). Heraenium®
composition of PDA (Table 1). Along the line scan, one notices an association at a distance
Sun plasma-treated, Wironit® sandblasted and Wironit® plasma-treated mean Ra values
of 20 µm, 60 µm and 80 µm of Cr and Mo with relatively high intensities with concurrently
were found to not follow a normal distribution (p < 0.05). Statistical analysis showed that
decreased intensity in Co, corresponding to bright ridges in the REM image. The mini-
the surface roughness of mechanically polished specimens (Heraenium® Sun p < 0.001,
mum EDX relative intensity for Co, Cr, Mo and W at 30 µm is represented in the REM
Wironit® p < 0.001) and plasma-polished specimens (Heraenium® Sun p < 0.011, Wironit®
image as a darker valley. Here, between 25 µm and 30 µm exclusively, a signal in Co and
p < 0.010) are significantly lower than sandblasted specimens. Conventional mechanical
Cr is seen. A distance of about 35 µm to the end of the line scan shows an approximately
polishing (Heraenium® Sun p < 0.021; Wironit® p < 0.015) provided significantly lower
constant association of Co and Cr in the relative intensity of about 75% with a fluctuation
surface roughness values compared to plasma electrolytic polishing (Figure 5b,c). The
width of about 25%. The relative intensity of Mo in the same range varies immensely,
treatment time in the plasma electrolytic bath was limited to 5 min because, with more
indicating a rather heterogeneous spread of elements.
time spent in the bath, more alloy was lost, as shown in Figure 5d. The amount of alloy lost
is comparable at 5 min for both Heraenium® Sun and Wironit® but becomes increasingly
divergent with higher losses of Wironit® to the bath.

3.3. Sandblasted and Mechanically and Plasma-Polished Dental Co-Cr Alloys: EDX
Upon further analysis of a Wironit® sample with EDX, a heterogeneous surface distri-
bution of Cr, Co, Mo and W is found, shown in Figure 6a. Here, a line scan, from lower left
to upper right, yields the relative intensities of Cr, Co, Mo and W (for absolute intensity,
see Supporting Information, Figure S1) that shows a similar behavior for Cr and Co and
a slightly deviating one for Mo. W is only found in small traces, as expected from the
composition of PDA (Table 1). Along the line scan, one notices an association at a distance
of 20 µm, 60 µm and 80 µm of Cr and Mo with relatively high intensities with concurrently
decreased intensity in Co, corresponding to bright ridges in the REM image. The minimum
EDX relative intensity for Co, Cr, Mo and W at 30 µm is represented in the REM image as a
darker valley. Here, between 25 µm and 30 µm exclusively, a signal in Co and Cr is seen.
A distance of about 35 µm to the end of the line scan shows an approximately constant
association of Co and Cr in the relative intensity of about 75% with a fluctuation width of
about 25%. The relative intensity of Mo in the same range varies immensely, indicating a
rather heterogeneous spread of elements.
16, x FOR Materials
PEER REVIEW
2023, 16, 6222 9 of 12 9 of 12

Figure 6. Comparison of EDX measurements (a) Sandblasted Wironit® specimen analyzed with EDX
Figure 6. Comparison of EDX measurements (a) Sandblasted Wironit® specimen analyzed with EDX
along a defined line. Mo, Cr, Co and W were selected and are shown in corresponding concentration
along a defined line. Mo, Cr, Co and W were selected and are shown in corresponding concentration
curves (1000-fold magnification; SEM and EDX). (b) A conventional laboratory-polished Wironit®
curves (1000-fold magnification; SEM and EDX). (b) A conventional laboratory-polished Wironit®
specimen was analyzed with EDX along a defined line. Co, Cr and Mo were selected and shown in
specimen was analyzed with EDX along a defined line. Co, Cr and Mo were selected and shown in
corresponding normalized concentration curves (1000-fold magnification; SEM and EDX). (c)
corresponding normalized concentration curves (1000-fold magnification; SEM and EDX). (c) Plasma
Plasma electrolytically polished Wironit® specimen analyzed with EDX along a defined line. Co, Cr,
electrolytically polished Wironit® specimen analyzed with EDX along a defined line. Co, Cr, Mo and
Mo and W were selected and are found in corresponding normalized concentration curves. SEM
W were selected and are found in corresponding normalized concentration curves. SEM image is
image is shown at 1000-fold magnification.
shown at 1000-fold magnification.

Upon EDX analysis Upon of EDX

a conventional
analysis of amechanically polished Wironit
conventional mechanically ® specimen,
polished the
Wironit® specimen, the
results in Figure 6b show
results in aFigure
line scan (black
6b show line)scan
a line from the upper
(black right
line) from thetoupper
the lower
right left
to theof lower left
of the SEM
the SEM image. Here, image. Here,
the relative the relative
intensities in Crintensities
and Moinshow Cr and Mo show coinciding
coinciding intensity intensity
peaks, while
peaks, while Co exhibits at CrCoandexhibits at Cr aand
Mo peaks Mo peaks
decrease a decrease in concentration
in concentration indicating aindicating
local a local
change in the alloy composition. A comparison with the SEM
change in the alloy composition. A comparison with the SEM image shows that the island image shows that the island
area is associated with the Cr and Mo peaks and the Co decrease. The EDX analysis of a
area is associated with the Cr and Mo peaks and the Co decrease. The EDX analysis of a
Wironit® specimen prepared by plasma electrolytic polishing presented in Figure 6c shows
Wironit® specimen prepared by plasma electrolytic polishing presented in Figure 6c
a behavior previously seen in Figure 6b. In the diagonal line scan (black line), from bottom
shows a behaviorto previously seen in
top, the relative Figure peaks
intensity 6b. In inthe
Crdiagonal line scanwith
and Mo coincide (black line),infrom
troughs Co within the
bottom to top, theembedded
relative intensity peaks in Cr and Mo coincide with troughs
island. An exposed island at a distance of 60 µm has a similar in Co withinEDX intensity
the embedded island.
peak An
in Coexposed
and Cr,island
but theatMo
a distance of 60 µmishas
peak contribution losta by
similar EDX intensity
exposure.
peak in Co and Cr, but the Mo peak contribution is lost by exposure.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion This study is novel regarding the systematic and detailed comparison of dental Co-Cr
alloys prepared by sandblasting, conventional mechanical polishing and plasma electrolyt-
This study isical
novel regarding
polishing. the systematic
A combination and detailed
of various comparison
microscopic examinationof dental
methods Co-(including
Cr alloys prepared by sandblasting,
stereozoom microscopy, conventional
AFM and SEM),mechanical polishingmeasurements
surface roughness and plasma elec-and EDX analy-
trolytical polishing. A combination of various microscopic examination methods
ses were used. Such systematic comparative studies are largely lacking to (includ-
date, particularly
ing stereozoom microscopy, AFM electrolytically
related to plasma and SEM), surface roughness
polished measurements
dental Co-Cr andknowledge,
alloys. To our EDX this
is the first study to compare conventional mechanical polishing
analyses were used. Such systematic comparative studies are largely lacking to date, par- and plasma electrolytic
ticularly related polishing
to plasma of dental Co-Co alloys by
electrolytically using various
polished examination
dental methodsTo
Co-Cr alloys. mentioned
our above.
The surface of dental alloys must be as smooth as possible
knowledge, this is the first study to compare conventional mechanical polishing and to limit biofilm formation [9].
As reported by Bollen et al. (1997) [10], some in vivo studies suggest a threshold surface
plasma electrolytic polishing of dental Co-Co alloys by using various examination meth-
roughness Ra of 0.2 µm. A surface roughness below 0.2 µm induces no more reduction
ods mentioned above.
in biofilm formation. Our study has shown that the surface roughness of the sandblasted
The surface of dental alloys
specimens must
is in the be asrange
micron smooth as possible
for both to limit
Heraenium ® Sunbiofilm formation
and Wironit ® . They had the
[9]. As reported by Bollen et al. (1997) [10], some in vivo studies suggest a threshold sur-
face roughness Ra of 0.2 µm. A surface roughness below 0.2 µm induces no more reduction
in biofilm formation. Our study has shown that the surface roughness of the sandblasted
specimens is in the micron range for both Heraenium® Sun and Wironit®. They had the
Materials 2023, 16, 6222 10 of 12

highest observed roughness (Heraenium® Sun 991 ± 288 nm; Wironit® 1187 ± 331 nm).
Our observation that sandblasted dental alloys show a rough surface with ridges, edges
and deeper porosities is in agreement with the literature [13].
In the literature, microscopic observation revealed a typical dendritic/interdendritic
microstructure of dental Co-Cr alloys [14]. After conventional mechanical polishing and
plasma electrolytical polishing, it was possible in our study to see the alloy’s microstructure
on the polished surfaces. Our results are consistent with other studies which have shown
that the Co-Cr alloys consist of smooth dendritic regions and interdendritic regions con-
taining clusters of nanocrystallites forming outstanding islands [18]. The islands’ surface
size ranged from 4 to 80 µm2 , and the islands’ height ranged from 90 to 160 nm [14]. Our
study is in agreement because we can confirm the described sizes of the islands.
Conventional mechanically polished specimens have a smooth surface with numer-
ous polishing marks [14]. This is in good agreement with our results. A reduction
in surface roughness is found for both plasma electrolytic polishing (Heraenium® Sun
288 ± 94 nm; Wironit® 261 ± 49 nm) and conventional mechanical polishing (Heraenium®
Sun 134 ± 23 nm; Wironit® 114 ± 11). Studies using AFM with respect to the surface
roughness analysis of plasma-polished dental alloys are largely lacking to date. Only one
study, to our knowledge, has investigated mechanically polished Co-Cr dental alloys using
AFM [12]. Unfortunately, the surface roughness values are not comparable because, in
the literature, the surface roughness values (Sa ) were measured from rectangular areas. In
contrast, our study used surface roughness values (Ra ) from line scans.
Plasma polishing is not as effective at clearing the surface inhomogeneities, likely due
to the different alloy compositions. Plasma electrolytic polishing reduces the Ra , treatment
time and required equipment of the examined dental alloys, Wironit® and Heraenium® Sun.
Residues from polishing pastes and scratches from the polishing, common to conventional
mechanical polishing, are not found due to the chemical nature of the process, yielding
a clean and smooth surface. Plasma electrolytic polishing is less effective in reducing Ra
than conventional mechanical polishing. The obtained Ra with conventional mechanical
polishing is sufficient to contain biofilm formation. The obtained Ra with plasma elec-
trolytical polishing is slightly above the published threshold surface roughness of about
0.2 µm for biofilm formation [10,19]. It stands to reason that with improvements in the pre-
processing of the alloy samples, a comparable surface quality, below the surface roughness
threshold for biofilm formation of 0.2 µm, is within reach of this method. Additional micro-
biological and in vivo experiments would be favorable to explicitly demonstrate biofilm
formation inhibition.
Some reports in the literature [18,20,21] are of the opinion that dendritic and interden-
dritic areas differed in structure but only slightly in composition. Dendritic regions are
described as cubic close-packed crystal lattice structures, while interdendritic regions are
described as hexagonal-packed lattice structures. In contrast to the literature, we show a
major difference in the composition between the islands and the smoother surroundings.
This was illustrated with the EDX analysis (Figure 6). In the EDX profiles of the polished
specimen, the relative intensity of Co decreased on an island, while the relative intensity
of Cr and Mo increased. Because this tendency is similar for both polishing methods
(mechanical, plasma), it is very unlikely an artifact is induced by the surface morphology.
Even in the EDX profile of the sandblasted specimen, Co, Cr and Mo fluctuations in the
element composition show a similar tendency.
The main limitation of the experimental result is the number of specimens (surface
roughness n = 10; EDX n = 1). In addition, we did not explore the polishing load during
conventional polishing. The main clinical implication of our experimental result is that
conventional mechanical polishing provided lower surface roughness values compared to
plasma electrolytic polishing and is considered the gold standard.
Materials 2023, 16, 6222 11 of 12

5. Conclusions
In this work, we compared the surface roughness (Ra ) of the dental alloys, Heraenium®
Sun and Wironit® , obtained from conventional mechanical and plasma electrolytic pol-
ishing, and we compared it to an initial sandblasting. The sandblasted samples were the
roughest (Heraenium® Sun 991 ± 288 nm; Wironit® 1187 ± 331 nm), followed by plasma
electrolytic polishing (Heraenium® Sun 288 ± 94 nm; Wironit® 261 ± 49 nm). Lower
values are found for conventional mechanical polishing (Heraenium® Sun 134 ± 23 nm;
Wironit® 114 ± 11 nm). The time needed for the plasma electrolytic polishing is short with
only 5 min compared to the conventional method, where extensive manual polishing was
required. The material loss for the plasma electrolytic treatment for Heraenium® Sun and
Wironit® was less than 4%w/w for a 5 min treatment time. Surface investigation with AFM
and SEM revealed a microstructure of small interspersed regular structures (islands) that
exhibited a composition differing from the surrounding smooth area. The result of plasma
electrolytic polishing is inferior to the quality obtained with conventional mechanical pol-
ishing concerning surface roughness. The obtained surface roughness with conventional
mechanical polishing is sufficient for biofilm containment. The obtained surface roughness
with plasma electrolytic polishing is slightly above for biofilm containment. Ra depends on
the initial structure and roughness of the sample, and adequate process parameters must be
established to optimize material loss. Overall, our results suggest that plasma electrolytic
polishing is a viable polishing method compared to conventional mechanical polishing
with a substantial reduction in treatment time. Further research is necessary to improve the
plasma polishing parameters to further decrease the surface roughness values.

Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at https:

//www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ma16186222/s1, Table S1: Heraenium® Sun sample roughness
Ra and associated standard deviation ∆Ra obtained from AFM analysis (line length of 100 µm) after
conventional mechanical polishing, plasma electrolytic polishing, and unpolished sandblasted state;
Table S2: Wironit® sample roughness Ra and associated standard deviation ∆Ra obtained from
AFM analysis (line length of 100 µm) after conventional mechanical polishing, plasma electrolytic
polishing, and unpolished sandblasted state; Table S3: Sample weight loss due to plasma electrolytic
polishing. Figure S1: Sandblasted specimens in the unpolished reference state. (a) An image of an
unpolished Heraenium® Sun specimen is shown (1000-fold magnification; SEM). (b) A ravine is
found on an unpolished Heraenium® Sun specimen (1000-fold magnification; SEM). (c) A sandblasted
Heraenium® Sun (BMA) specimen is analyzed with EDX along a defined line. (d,e) Co, Cr, Mo and
W were selected and are shown in corresponding concentration curves (1000-fold magnification;
SEM and EDX). (f) Sandblasted Wironit® (PDA) specimen analyzed with EDX along a defined line.
Mo, Cr, Co and W were selected and are shown in corresponding concentration curves (1000-fold
magnification; EDX). Absolute intensities are shown. Relative intensities are found in Figure 3b,c
with the original SEM image.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.W.; methodology, K.W.; software, C.U.W.; validation,
R.K. and K.W.; formal analysis, C.U.W.; investigation, C.U.W.; resources, K.W., K.F., S.B. and H.-R.M.;
data curation, C.U.W.; K.W. and R.K.; writing—original draft preparation, K.W. and R.K.; writing—
review and editing, S.B.; visualization, C.U.W., R.K. and K.W.; supervision, K.F., S.B. and H.-R.M.;
project administration, K.W.; funding acquisition, H.-R.M. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was funded by the European Social Fund (ESF) in conjunction with the Federal
State of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (Germany, grant numbers 14-BM-A55-0005-18 and 14-BM-A55-
0006-18).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The underlying data of this manuscript are available from the corre-
sponding author upon reasonable request.
Materials 2023, 16, 6222 12 of 12

Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge Roland Ihrke for expert technical assistance
with plasma electrolytic polishing.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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