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IET Generation, Transmission & Distribution

Special Issue: Advanced Data-Analytics for Power System Operation,

Control and Enhanced Situational Awareness

Critical angle threshold using local ISSN 1751-8687

Received on 10th February 2020
Revised 23rd April 2020
synchrophasors for real time angular Accepted on 18th May 2020
E-First on 2nd July 2020
instability detection doi: 10.1049/iet-gtd.2020.0269
www.ietdl.org

Deepa S. Kumar1 , Savier J S1

1Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering Trivandrum, Kerala, India
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: An affordable, stable, reliable and sustainable power supply is the need of the hour, keeping in view the journey to a
smart green grid. The present study and derivation of adaptive critical angle threshold (ACAT) contributes to this effect. The
ACAT serves as a key index and an indicator to grid operator in proactive mitigation of angular instability in the grid, which is
seen to be one of the major initiator of blackouts worldwide. The synchrophasor technology enables accurate calculation of
ACAT on real time basis by time synchronised sampling of local voltage and current phasors. The real time calculation makes
the index adaptive to variation in system topologies as well as system vulnerabilities. Furthermore, the local system model
formed for deriving ACAT has less computational burden while capturing the dynamics of external system, without requirement
of intricate power system details. The angular separation of the station bus under supervision can be monitored with respect to
the critical angle and serve as a key indicator for initiation of preventive actions during contingencies. The devised methodology
is tested using standard IEEE test systems as well as a practical 400/220 kV state grid system using ETAP/MATLAB.

1 Introduction York blackout of 13 July 2019 was also attributed to faulty

protection system. All these call for incessant innovation and
Power system is undergoing perpetual upgradation and evolution. research in power system monitoring and protection related
This involves large scale renewable resource penetration, multiple technologies and a renewed vigor in exploring practicality in
interconnections to form single grid, open access in electricity implementation of theoretical technology advancements which
markets, increase in power electronics based technologies and have been studied over the years.
associated control strategies etc. leading to increasing complexity The global positioning system time synchronised wide area
of the grid. Failing to preserve the universal law of equilibrium measurement system (WAMS) technology provides a wide area
between demand and supply in power system, due to contingencies visualisation of complex power system, through the key parameters
such as faults or unwarranted tripping of load or generator, leads to of magnitude and angle of voltage and current phasors and
dynamics in power system operation point. The worst case effects frequency [5]. WAMS have laid a strong foundation for online
are cascading catastrophes followed by collapse of system transient stability analysis tools. The bus voltage phase angle
parameters with successive outages spread over a large geographic difference obtained using phasor measurement units installed at
area known as blackouts, with terrible economic consequences to strategic locations on the bulk power system has already been
the country [1]. identified as a critical indicator of stressed system and proximity to
The capability of power grid to sustain a steady state and stable instability [6]. The rest of the paper is organised as follows: Section
of operation is the subject of decades of research studies. However, 2 discusses on the state-of-the-art. Section 3 presents the proposed
recent grid collapses worldwide reiterates the need for sustained methodology and derivation of adaptive critical angle threshold
research on power system dynamics and stability. The collapse of (ACAT). Section 4 provides simulation results and discussion.
UK grid on 9 August 2019 raises several questions on how to cope Section 5 concludes the paper.
with a cascading grid collapse and the need for reliability in power
supply especially for critical infrastructures [2]. The antecedent
causative factor has been attributed to exhaustion of frequency 2 State-of-the-art
response capacity. Even though the grid didnot suffer a widespread 2.1 Phase angle separation as a tool for stability assessment
blackout, the collapse is a reminder for the need of research and
reviews on remedial action schemes (RASs) and visualisation tools A PMU measurement is done at the nominal system frequency
to aid grid operator. The robust South American grid collapse on which is synchronised to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
16 June 2019 proved costly by affecting Argentina's population to (global positioning system (GPS)). The current and voltage
the tune of 44 million along with neighbouring Uruguay and some waveform inputs given to the PMU helps in estimating the
areas of Paraguay, putting basic infrastructure viz. public sinusoidal component. The PMU constructs a reference cosine
transportation, phone and internet communications, supply of water waveform at the nominal system frequency synchronised to the
etc. to a halt. The initial reports indicate automated disconnection time input from a GPS source. The positive peak of the reference
of extra high voltage corridors initiated the events [3]. Although waveform will be at a UTC second rollover. The synchrophasor
the grid had automated systems in service to isolate load or phase angle measured by PMU is the phase separation of these two
generation as the situation demands, which should have mitigated signals at a given sampling instant of time. θSR the bus voltage
the spread, transient instability had a comprehensive effect on the phase angle difference between sending end S and receiving end R
case, which led to a widespread blackout, exact reason under is given by θSR = sin−1(PSR Xl /V SV R) where Xl is the line
investigation. Recurring countrywide power system blackout in impedance, V s, V R, the sending and receiving end voltages and PSR,
Venezuela which started in March 2019 is another sabotage which the real power flow between S and R. Thus, the phase angle
affected almost 18 of its 23 states which led to food contaminated difference is directly related to interface power flow, voltages of
in refrigerators, disruption in operation of vital equipment in nodes connected to the interface and line impedance of the
hospitals and commotion in the transport system [4]. The New

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interface. Traditionally, the multi-machine power system stability is predefined set thresholds. The limit has to change adaptively based
evaluated by analysing and solving the swing equation given by on system conditions and changing topology.

d2δi 2.2 Grid incidents

Mi = Pmi − Pei(δi)
dt2 One of the major blackouts worldwide after the 2012 Indian
blackout episode is the Turkish blackout of 2015 affecting 76
where Mi and δi are the inertia constant and rotor angle of ith million people and an economic loss to the tune of $700 million
generator with mechanical input Pmi and electrical output Pei. The [7]. The outage of a heavily loaded 400 kV transmission line
synchrophasor technology has paved way for utilising the initiated the cascading outage by separating the Turkish power
information from angular separation between transmission line system from the central grid. The post event analysis report based
terminals, thus deriving elementary solutions for system stability on simulation studies using real time grid data from Turkish
from the real power-angle curve. The time-synchronised direct WAMS has identified angular instability and associated loss of
measurement of angular separation provided by PMUs can be synchronism as the key cause of the catastrophe.
utilised for many practical applications in power system The worst case situation occurred in spite of the stabilising
engineering and associated real-time tools as in Fig 1. support methodologies of the generators in service. During the
The phase angle differences between two points on the power cyclone Titli in India in October 2018, many transmission elements
system network is the driver for real power flow across nodes. The were affected as the cyclone passed Andhra Pradesh–Orissa coasts.
phase angle changes with change in grid topology. Greater the There was an event of blackout of 765/400 kV Srikakulam
voltage phase angle separation between source and sink, larger the Substation (SS) in Andhra Pradesh (AP) state due to tripping of
stress and closer to instability is the grid. Based on studies on multiple elements. The angular separation between nearby
correlation between real power flow through transfer corridors, it Gazuwaka east and south buses increased to 37 degrees with first
has already been established that phase angle separation across swing power flow of the order of 6000 MW as seen in Fig. 2 [8].
nodes can increase, in advance to increase in interface MW flows. Hence during restoration, the southern grid (AP comes under this
The changes in phase angle separation can lag behind the changes grid) import from central grid was minimised by increasing
in real power flow across interfaces. As industry applications of southern grid generation to bring down the angular separation at
synchrophasor technology evolves the near-future application is in Srikakulam. These real time grid events brings out the significance
the direction of computing real-time phase angle limits. It is very of determining a critical angle threshold to identify the impending
much necessary to evaluate real-time phase angle separation for angular instability for pre-emptive remedial actions rather than
analysis of power system stability during cascading events. The postmortem analysis.
limits should not be based on historical data i.e. should not be

Fig. 1 Phase angle monitoring applications

Fig. 2 Angular separation at AP during Titli cyclone

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Fig. 3 ROSE phase angle alarming tool

2.3 Literature review (ii) Aids the operator about characteristics of the power system
transient stability and it's developing trend for initiating auto/
A brief discussion on the importance of wide area monitoring manual preventive actions.
techniques for protection and control system is available in [9]. A
(iii) uses local PMU data of voltage and current phasors for the
study by North American Synchrophasor Initiative (NASPI) [10]
derivation.
discusses how the synchrophasor based phase angle monitoring
tools/applications are utilised by grid operators in utilities (iv) doesnot require the intricate power system network data or
worldwide. The study presents setting of alert threshold consistent generator parameters of the entire system.
with the vulnerability of the grid as one of the hurdles for practical
implementation of the phase angle monitoring tools. A Region of 3 Methodology
Stability Existence (ROSE) tool by V and R Energy is a similar 3.1 Derivation of adaptive critical angle threshold
application [10] which uses user-defined thresholds as seen in Fig.
3. In order to derive the critical angle, the power system under
The alarm thresholds are derived using a base-lining supervision needs to be modelled accurately incorporating the
mechanism for predetermining the minimum and maximum values, effect of all connected incoming and outgoing elements. Existing
i.e. the values are non adaptive to changes in system topologies. transient stability analysis methods rely on estimation of pre and
The study in [11] discusses a real time contingency analysis tool post disturbance dynamic response of grid based on identifying the
using synchrophasor measurements. However, the methodology real-time dynamic model or the power system transfer function.
requires system visibility through more number of PMUs and The measurement-based models available for system identification
depends on the output of a linear state estimator. A transient energy uses state-space and transfer function methodologies. Both the
function based technique for detection and mitigation of transient representations are computation intensive and need intricate power
stability on real time is discussed in [12]. A novel idea of cut-set system details. Hence a simple reliable equivalent system model
angles was introduced in [13] to monitor the static stress of power using local phasor measurements based on the equivalent system
system. WAMS based real-time transient instability detection is model derived in [20] is proposed. As discussed in [20], an
based on perturbed rotor angle trajectory prediction or practical or equivalent source voltage Ek and source impedance Zk is
predicted post-fault trajectories. Accurate prediction of post-fault considered which encompasses the effect of entire power system
trajectory is very important in devising control action schemes. network external to node under study as in Fig. 4. The equivalent
Further, a suitable time period is required in advance to instability system model with voltage source Ek and source impedance Zk will
event so that the mitigating scheme is effective. Also, control hold true, with effect same as that of an external power system
action based on the actual post fault trajectory is not prudent network, if the following equations are satisfied. These equations
without a proper instability detection criterion. Dynamic equivalent imply that voltage phasors and power flows identical to original
network based rotor angle trajectory prediction techniques are system are ensured for the equivalent model formed.
presented in [14–19]. The recent real time transient stability
prediction methods discussed in literature showcase machine (Pm + jQm)∗ = Vm∗ Im
learning based methods [14–16] where decision trees, support
vector machine and neural network techniques are used. However, Im = In
the methodology involves training a classifier based on several (Ek − Vm)
=>
offline simulated faults and results. For a large complex power Zk
network with dynamically changing operating point, the reliability (Vm − Vn)
and practical application of these methodologies require thorough =
Zn
assessment, as it lacks a reliable training data set. In a dynamic
network equivalent model based super-real-time trajectory Zk (Ek − Vm)
=
prediction, the knowledge of network topology or intricate system Zn (Vm − Vn)
parameters is very much necessary. Another method involves rotor
angle trajectory extrapolation using curve fitting methods such as where, Pm and Qm are the incoming real and reactive powers
auto-regression prediction [17], trigonometric function based flowing into the local node. Introducing a complex coefficient
prediction [18] and prediction based on polynomial model [19].
r = (Zk + Zn)/Zn
2.4 Contributions → (1)
Ek = r Vm + (1 − r)Vn
The present study uses the significant information provided by
angular separation and Considering two equilibrium states of the system, the equivalent
source voltage Ek and source impedance Zk will remain same as
(i) Derives an ACAT for the bus phase angle separation by below:
formulating a local equivalent system model encompassing the
effects of external grid. Ek = (r)Vm1 + (1 − r)Vn1 (2)

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Ek = (r)Vm2 + (1 − r)Vn2 (3) Applying sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1,
2
Considering two equilibrium states of the system, the equivalent Pn Xeq − QnReq 2 PnReq + Qn Xeq + V n2
source voltage Ek and source impedance Zk will remain same as in + =1 (11)
EkV n EkV n
below.

Ek = (r)Vm1 + (1 − r)Vn1 Solving (11), a quadratic equation in V n2 as given in (12) is obtained

(4)

Ek = (r)Vm2 + (1 − r)Vn2 (5) V n4 + (2(PnReq + Qn Xeq) − Ek2)V n2 + Sn2 Zk2 = 0 (12)

Solving the above two equations, Ek and r can be found out. This is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where
Knowing value of r and Zn, the source impedance Zk can also be
found out to form the equivalent system model in Fig. 4 as in [20]. a=1
Now, using the equivalent system model, the critical angle b = 2(PnReq + Qn Xeq) − Ek2
threshold is derived. At the node under study, the power Sn is given c = Sn2 Zk2
as
The quadratic equation has single real root V n = V crit at maximum
Sn = Vn In∗ power. At maximum power, the discriminant is equal to 0, i.e.
Ek − Vn ∗
b2 − 4ac = 0. This follows from the fact that the roots of the
= Vn
Zeq equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are real and equal if b2 − 4ac = 0. Thus,
(6)
where, Zeq = Zk + Zn
= Req + jXeq 2 −b
V crit =
∗ 2
2
(Pn + jQn)(Req + jXeq) = Vn Ek − V n (13)
Ek2 − 2(PnReq + Qn Xeq)
V crit =
Solving and rearranging, 2

L . H . S . = (PnReq + Qn Xeq) + j(QnReq − Pn Xeq) (7) Substituting in (9), critical angle threshold is formulated as,

Pn Xeq − QnReq
R . H . S . = (EkV ncosθkn − V n2 ) − j(EkV nsin θkn) (8) ACAT = θcrit = sin−1 (14)
EkV crit
Where, Vn = V n∠θn, Ek = Ek∠θk, θkn = θk − θn.
The flowchart of the proposed methodology is shown in Fig. 5.
Rearranging and separating the sine and cosine terms in
In the event of an instability, the phase angle separation will
equations (7) and (8),
cross the critical threshold. A distance relay which detects power
swing in transmission lines will enter into a blocking mode
Pn Xeq − QnReq
sin θkn = (9) (typically 2 s as adopted in Indian power system). On detection of
EkV n power swing the last calculated ACAT value can be set as threshold
for detecting instability and further initiating alarm or further
PnReq + Qn Xeq + V n2 preventive protection schemes.
cos θkn = (10)
EkV n

Fig. 4 System model

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Fig. 5 Flowchart of the proposed scheme

4 Results and discussion Now critical angle and voltage thresholds are calculated for bus
8 in the case of an unstable power swing and plotted in Fig. 10. It
The proposed scheme is tested and validated on Western System can be observed that the angular separation oscillates and crosses
Coordinating Council (WSCC) 3-machine, 9-bus and New England critical angle threshold continuously in the event of an unstable
39 bus test systems using ETAP/MATLAB. The relevance of power swing. The critical angle threshold and critical voltage are
ACAT is also brought out using the Northern Kerala blackout calculated for bus 5 and 6 in the case of unstable power swing and
incident explained in [20]. plotted in Fig. 11. The angular separation does not cross the
Case 1, Simulations on WSCC 9 bus system: a symmetrical threshold here even though voltage crosses the threshold,
three phase fault is simulated at 50% of line connecting Bus 5 and indicating preventive action plan initiation has to be at bus 8 to
Bus 7 at 1 s. The fault is cleared by tripping circuit breakers at both contain the impending instability in the system.
ends of line after 80 ms, i.e. at 1.08 s. Load carrying buses - Bus 5, Case 2, Simulations in IEEE 39 bus system a symmetrical three
6 and 8 are monitored. The distance relay in Bus 8 detects a power phase fault is simulated at 50% of line connecting Bus 26 and Bus
swing. The generator real powers and rotor angle plots of all 29 at 1 s. The fault is cleared by tripping circuit breakers at both
generators are shown in Fig. 6a and b. The current and voltage ends of line after 80 ms, i.e. at 1.08 s. The distance relay in Bus 28
plots measured by distance relay at bus 8 is shown in Fig. 6c. detects a power swing. The rotor speed and rotor angle plots of all
From the real power plot, rotor angle plot as well as the voltage generators are shown in Fig. 12. The real power of nearest
and current plots measured by relay at bus 8, a stable power swing generator G9 is shown in Fig. 13. From the real power plot as well
can be inferred. The critical voltage is calculated and is plotted as rotor parameter plots, a stable power swing can be inferred.
along with Bus 8 voltage as shown in Fig. 7. The critical angle The critical angle threshold and critical voltage of Bus 28 is
threshold of Bus 8 is calculated and plotted along with Bus 8 calculated as per equation and plotted as shown in Fig. 14. The
angular separation as shown in Fig. 8a. The critical angle plots of angular separation of Bus 28 is seen to oscillate after fault
bus 5 and bus 6 are shown in Fig. 8b. It can be observed that during clearance but does not exceed the critical angle threshold during
stable power swing, the bus angular separation does not cross the stable power swing. In order to simulate an unstable power swing,
proposed critical threshold ACAT. a symmetrical three phase fault is simulated at 50% of line
In order to simulate an unstable power swing, a symmetrical connecting Bus 26 and Bus 29 at 1 s. The fault is cleared by
three phase fault is simulated at 50% of line connecting Buses 5–7 tripping circuit breakers at both ends of line after 150 ms, i.e. at
at 1 s. The fault is cleared by tripping circuit breakers at both ends 1.15 s. The distance relay in Bus 28 detects a power swing. The
of line after 120 ms, i.e. at 1.12 s. The distance relay in Bus 8 real power generation of all generators are shown in Fig. 15a. The
detects a power swing. The rotor angles of generators 2 and 3 are rotor angles of all generators are shown in Fig. 15b.
shown in Fig. 9b. The real power generation of all generators are An event of unstable power swing can be inferred from the real
shown in Fig. 9a. An event of unstable power swing can be power plot which shows sustained oscillation. Moreover the
inferred from the real power plot which shows sustained diverging pattern of rotor angles also conclude a case of angular
oscillation. Moreover, the diverging pattern of rotor angles also instability. Now critical voltage and critical angle threshold are
conclude a case of an angular instability. The voltage and current calculated for the case of unstable power swing and plotted in Fig.
plots recorded by distance relay in bus 8 is shown in Figs. 9c and d 16. It can be seen that the Bus 28 angular separation crosses the
which also indicate unstable power swing in bus 8.
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Fig. 6 Case 1: Stable Power Swing
(a) Real power of generators, (b) Rotor angles of generators, (c) Voltage and current recorded by distance relay at bus 8

Fig. 7 Critical voltage of Bus 8

Fig. 8 Critical angle threshold

(a) Bus 8, (b) Bus 5 & 6

critical angle threshold multiple times in the event of unstable state power grids viz. Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka,
power swing. The Bus 28 voltage is also seen to go below the Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Union Territory of Puducherry. 400 kV
critical voltage. Thus, ACAT can serve as an effective criteria to grid network and few 765 and 220 (230) kV inter-state lines form
indicate angular instability in the power system. Hence ACAT can the backbone of State systems transmission interconnections. SR is
be utilised for pre-emptive mitigation of angular instability by a power deficit region. The grid map of Kerala state is shown in
initiating relevant RASs. Fig. 17.
Case 3: the ACAT derived is validated for practical applications A 400/220 kV substation was established in 2012 in Palakkad
by simulating the Northern Kerala blackout incident explained in district of Kerala state as part of System strengthening XI of SR
[20]. During the incident, tripping of two heavily loaded incoming Transmission System. It was planned to facilitate reliable and
lines to Kerala state in India led to voltage collapse and blackout in quality power supply in and around central and northern Kerala
Northern part of the state. Southern Regional (SR) grid in India and to enable a complete development of fast growing industrial
comprising approximately 22% of India's population and 30% of zone in Palakkad. The industrial zone comprises of a proposed
the installed capacity is a large power system comprising of five Palakkad rail coach factory, BEML, manufacturing units of ITI

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Fig. 9 Case 1: Unstable power swing
(a) Real power generation, (b) Rotor angle of generators, (c) Voltage recorded by distance relay at bus 8, (d) Current recorded by distance relay at bus 8

Fig. 10 Critical angle and voltage of Bus 8

Fig. 11 Critical angle and voltage of Bus 5 and 6

Ltd, Instrumentation Ltd, BPL etc. The substation is having a state transmission lines, (double circuits (D/C) of Udumalpet
transmission capacity of 630 MVA. The line in line out of inter- (Tamil Nadu)–Trichur (Kerala) 400 kV lines at Palakkad SS),

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Fig. 12 Rotor angle and rotor speed of generators

Fig. 13 Real Power of Generator G9

Fig. 14 Critical angle and voltage of Bus 28

Fig. 15 Case 2: Unstable power swing

(a) Real power generation of all generators, (b) Rotor angle of all generators

facilitates drawal of Kerala state share from central sector projects. conditions the voltage profile of Palakkad SS is seen to be low with
Kerala imports power from central pool mainly through 400 kV sometimes voltages going below the Indian Electricity Grid Code
Udumalpet–Palakkad double circuit (D/C) lines. During peak load (IEGC) limit of 95%. The double circuit lines from 400 kV

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Fig. 16 Critical angle and voltage of Bus 28

Fig. 17 Kerala State Grid Map

Udumalpet to 400 kV Palakkad lines tripped during the blackout 4.1 Discussion
incident (N-2 contingency at Palakkad) causing blackout in
Northern Kerala grid. The results of the three cases (simulations on standard test system
As it had occurred during the actual grid event, a collapse in as well as on real time system with actual data) described above
voltage of entire grid to below IEGC limit of 95% was observed validates the potential use of critical angle threshold as an indicator
from simulation results also. The voltage and frequency plots for of system instability. Real time monitoring tool using angular
all the 400 kV nodes in Kerala state are shown below in Figs. 18a separation against critical angle threshold will aid the system
and b. It can be seen that once the entire supply from central pool operator in the prediction of the onset of transient instabilities. The
to Palakkad station gets cut off, the voltage at Palakkad collapses preventive actions can be initiated accordingly for proactive
gradually. The plot of real power and rotor angle variation at the mitigation of catastrophes. By establishing critical angle threshold
three major generating stations connected to 220 kV system viz. criteria in combination with other events or parameters, remedial
Idukki, Sabarigiri and Lower Periyar is shown in Figs. 18c and d. actions viz. intelligent system separation, load shedding etc. could
Sustained oscillations are observed in the real power generation be initiated. RAS using synchrophasor measurement to monitor
as well as rotor angle and system moves towards instability. The angular separation, implemented in the Peruvian power system, as
Idukki generation was < 600 MW during the actual event as one of a solution to maintain stability is presented in [21]. The RAS was
the generators was out of service. It can be observed that in the implemented to make operation decisions to trip large loads.
event of reduced generation at Idukki hydroelectric project, an N-2 However, for utilising the proposed critical angle threshold tool in
contingency at Palakkad will lead to the important 220 kV stations such time critical applications viz. protection, latency and
in North, Central and South Kerala crossing its critical angle congestion performance need to be assessed thoroughly in a
threshold. The critical angles for all 400 kV stations in Kerala state practical environment. The development of the critical angle
for the said contingency are shown in Table 1. The critical angle threshold tool for special protection schemes in a real time
plots for the important 220 kV stations down-lane to all 400 kV environment for practical application is being taken up as a pilot
substations in Kerala state drawing power from central grid are study in association with the Central Transmission Utility.
calculated and shown as in Fig. 19.

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Fig. 18 Case 3: Grid incident
(a) Voltage at 400 kV nodes, (b) Grid frequency plot, (c) Real power generation, (d) Rotor angles at important generating stations

Table 1 Critical Angle thresholds of 400 kV stations in Kerala

Substation Critical angle
Trivandrum 55.5
Kochi 51.3
Trichur 51.0
Palakkad 55.3
Kozhikode 50.2

Fig. 19 Critical angle threshold of 220 kV stations

5 Conclusion perception of production, transmission and consumption of energy.

The GPS time synchronised WAMS have laid a strong foundation
Energy transition to variable renewable energy, distributed energy for online transient stability analysis tools. The bus voltage phase
resources, large scale energy storage, load shifting etc. with the fast angle difference obtained using phasor measurement units installed
digitisation of economy as a whole has radically changed the at strategic locations on the bulk power system has already been

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identified as a critical indicator of stressed system and it's [6] De La Ree, J., Centeno, V., Thorp, J.S., et al.: ‘Synchronized phasor
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© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2020