Human Memory - 4th Edition

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Human Memory
Fourth Edition

Gabriel A. Radvansky
Fourth edition published 2021
by Routledge
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First edition published by Willan 2008

Second edition published by Routledge 2009

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For Amy
CONTENTS

List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface

Part 1 Background

CHAPTER 1 Overview and History of Memory Research

CHAPTER 2 Neuroscience of Memory

CHAPTER 3 Methods and Principles

Part 2 Core Memory Topics

CHAPTER 4 Sensory and Short-Term Memory

CHAPTER 5 Working Memory

CHAPTER 6 Nondeclarative Memory

CHAPTER 7 Episodic Memory: Past and Future

CHAPTER 8 Forgetting

CHAPTER 9 Semantic Memory

Part 3 Special Topics in Memory

CHAPTER 10 Forms of Amnesia

CHAPTER 11 Memory for Space and Time

CHAPTER 12 Autobiographical Memory

CHAPTER 13 Memory and Reality

CHAPTER 14 Memory and the Law

CHAPTER 15 Metamemory

CHAPTER 16 Memory in Infancy and Childhood

CHAPTER 17 Memory and Aging

CHAPTER 18 Formal Models of Memory

APPENDIX Memory Methods

Author Index
Subject Index
FIGURES

1.1 Results of Lashley’s Experiment with Brain Ablation

1.2 The Modal Model of Memory
1.3 Tulving’s Triarchic Theory of Memory
1.4 The Division of Long-Term Memory Systems
2.1 A Neuron
2.2 The Action Potential over Time
2.3 The Organization of the Cortical Lobes
2.4 The Hippocampus and the Amygdala
2.5 The Structure of the Hippocampus
2.6 The Connections of the Hippocampus to the Cortex
2.7 Basal Ganglia Structures
2.8 A CT Scan of the Brain
2.9 An MRI Scan of the Brain
2.10 A PET Scan Image
2.11 Trajectory of Availability because of Various Consolidation Processes
2.12 Number of Surviving New Cells from Neurogenesis after Either a Period
of No Learning or the Learning of New Information
3.1 Which Penny Is the Correct One?
3.2 Impact of Mental Imagery on Later Memory
3.3 Influence of Drawing Versus Writing on Later Memory
3.4 Difference between Memory for Pictures and for Stories, as Well as How
This Changes over Time
3.5 Changes in Memory over Time as a Function of Whether Materials Were
Emotionally Arousing or Not, and Whether They Were Concrete or
Abstract
3.6 Four Types of Possible Recognition Responses
3.7 Illustration of the Underlying Logic for Signal Detection Theory
3.8 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
3.9 Illustration of Jost’s Law in Which an Older Memory Is Forgotten at a
Slower Rate Than a Newer Memory
3.10 Donders’ Subtractive Factors Logic for Response Times
3.11 Sternberg’s Additive Factors Logic for Response Times
3.12 Normal (Gaussian) and Exponential distributions, Which Can Combine
to Form an Ex-Gaussian Distribution
3.13 Hypothetical Output from a Cluster Analysis
4.1 Span of Apprehension Averaged across Participants
4.2 Availability of Information in Iconic Memory
4.3 Testing Retinally Based, Spatially Based, and Object-Based Ideas about
Trans-Saccadic Memory
4.4 Assessment of Echoic Memory
4.5 Example of Expertise Influences on Short-Term Memory Span
4.6 Results from Peterson and Peterson’s Short-Term Memory Experiment
4.7 Results from Waugh and Norman’s Interference Experiment
4.8 Results of Sternberg’s Search of Short-Term Memory Task
4.9 A Standard Serial Position Curve in Short-Term Memory
4.10 Effects of Additional Rehearsal Time on the Primacy Effect Using
Hypothetical Data
4.11 Effects of Different Filled Retention Intervals (in Seconds) on the
Recency Effect Using Hypothetical Data
4.12 Suffix Effects with Human Speech and Nonhuman Nonspeech Sound
4.13 A Hierarchy of Control Units as Theorized by the Perturbation Model
5.1 An Expanded Version of the Baddeley Model of Working Memory
5.2 The Phonological Loop, with the Phonological Store and the Articulatory
Loop
5.3 Working Memory Performance with Different Types of Background
Music
5.4 Map of an Island Used in Kosslyn’s Mental Scanning Experiments
5.5 Response Time in Kosslyn’s Mental Scanning Study as a Function of
Distance on the Island Map
5.6 Abstract Object Pairs that Could be Used in Mental Rotation Studies
5.7 Response Time Results from a Mental Rotation Task
5.8 Example of Pictures as They Would Appear for a Study on Boundary
Extension
5.9 A Representational Momentum Display
5.10 Results from a Study of Representational Momentum
5.11 Representational Gravity Display
5.12 Schematic of Cowan’s Attentional Focus Theory of Working Memory
5.13 Pattern of Vocal Response Times as a Function of Whether the Target
Item Was Recently Refreshed or Not (Relative to an Unseen Control
Condition)
5.14 Pattern of Response Times as a Function of Whether a Target Item Had
Been Refreshed or Not
6.1 The Basic Classical Conditioning Paradigm
6.2 Example of Two Different Causal Structures for a Virus and Two
Symptoms
6.3 The Three Stages of Skill Acquisition
6.4 The Relative Influence of the Three Neurological Systems in the Triarchic
Theory of Skill Learning
6.5 Mean Percentage of Putts Made for Novices and Experts as a Function of
Whether They Were Instructed to Focus on Accuracy or Speed
6.6 The Multifactor Gene–Environment Model (MGIM)
6.7 Inverted Text
6.8 The Enduring Influence of Implicit Memory (Word Fragment
Completion) Relative to Explicit Memory (Recognition)
6.9 Examples of Possible and Impossible Objects
6.10 Improvement on a Serial Order Task with Random and Repeating
Sequences
6.11 Algorithm Used to Generate Artificial Grammar
7.1 Episodic Memory Retention for Information at the Surface Form,
Textbase, and Mental Model Levels
7.2 Results of Study Illustrating the Effect of Encoding Specificity on
Memory for Word Lists
7.3 Results of a Study on State-Dependent Memory and Alcohol
Consumption
7.4 Results of a Study of Transfer Appropriate Processing
7.5 Effects of Massed Versus Spaced Practice on Subsequent Memory (with a
Constant Context)
7.6 Effects of Massed Versus Spaced Practice on Subsequent Memory (with
Varying Context)
7.7 Forgetting Curves as a Function of Whether People Simply Studied
Material or Took a Test
7.8 The Influence of Studying Random Versus Organized Study Materials
7.9 Example of a Hierarchical Structure that Can Be Used to Help Organize
Memory
7.10 The Influence of Event Structure on Memory over Time
7.11 Effects of Learning Emphasizing Distinctiveness and Relational
Processing as a Function of Category Size
7.12 Episodic Past and Future Thinking Functions Showing that the Pattern
of Event Memories Reported is Roughly Symmetrical for Various
Distances from the Present
8.1 Results of the Ebbinghaus (1885) and Fisher and Radvansky (2019)
Studies
8.2 Results from a Study of Release from Proactive Interference
8.3 Difference between Clock and Interleaved Presentation, along with a
Hypothetical Pattern of Data
8.4 Results from a Study of Long-Term Memory Interference
8.5 Results from a Study of Associative Interference Producing a Fan Effect
8.6 Differential Interference Effects When Information Can and Cannot Be
Integrated into Mental Models
8.7 Operation of Retrieval-Induced Inhibition in a Repeated Practice
Paradigm
8.8 Pattern of Recall Rates in Anderson and Spellman’s (1995) Retrieval
Practice Paradigm
9.1 Automatic and Controlled Priming in Semantic Memory
9.2 Naming Time for Concepts at Different Category Levels
9.3 Set of Stimuli Used to Illustrate the Classical View of Categorization
9.4 Simple Set of Items Used to Derive a Category
9.5 Moderately Complex Set of Items Used to Derive a Category
9.6 More Complex Set of Items Used to Derive a Category
9.7 Ratings of Items (Out of 6) for a Well-Defined Category—in this Case,
Odd and Even Numbers
9.8 Two Category Prototypes and Some Distortions
9.9 Ambiguous Line Drawings in the Middle Were Given One of Two Labels
9.10 Example of a Script for What to Do at a Restaurant
9.11 Stimuli Used to Illustrate Principles of Naïve Physics
9.12 Responses Given in Naïve Physics Studies
10.1 Illustration of Ribot’s Gradient for a Patient and Controls for Memory
for Famous Faces
10.2 Graded Effects of Retrograde Amnesia
10.3 Retrograde Amnesia Following Electroconvulsive Shock
10.4 Performance of an Anterograde Amnesic on a Mirror Tracing Task
10.5 Illustration of Brain Damage Resulting in Both Retrograde and
Anterograde Amnesias
10.6 Duration of a Transient Global Amnesia
10.7 Degree of Retrograde Amnesia during a Transient Global Amnesia
Episode
10.8 Age at Which a Transient Global Amnesia Episode Is Experienced
11.1 Hierarchical Representation of Space
11.2 Distortion of Direction Judgments as Influenced by Superordinate
Regions
11.3 Map Used in Spatial Priming Studies
11.4 Response Times to Probes as a Function of Route Distance
11.5 Influence of Geographical Regions on Latitude Estimations in North
America and Europe/Africa
11.6 Map of Fictitious Area that Varies the Number of Intervening Locations
between Cities but Keeps the Distance Relatively Constant
11.7 Distance Estimate Results as a Function of the Number of Intervening
Cities
11.8 Map Used to Study the Effects of Spatial and Route Distance on Spatial
Memory
11.9 Spatial Priming as Affected by Both Euclidean and Route Distance
11.10 Fictitious Map Illustrating the Deconfounding of Spatial and Temporal
Proximity with a Partial Temporal Order Indicated by the Arrows
11.11 Map of the Research Center
11.12 Direction Judgment When the Memorized Map Is Aligned or
Misaligned with the Current Orientation
11.13 Direction Judgment Errors When a Memorized Space Is Aligned or
Misaligned with the Current Orientation
11.14 Mental Rotation Effects for Unknown and Known Campus Layouts
11.15 Effects of Relative City Locating Depending on the Point of View
Taken at Retrieval
11.16 Performance of Good and Poorly Misaligned Map Populations
11.17 Results Showing a Scale Effect in Temporal Estimation
12.1 Forgetting Function for Autobiographical Memories Recorded in a
Diary
12.2 Hierarchy of Autobiographical Memories
12.3 The Recursive Process of Breaking Down an Autobiographical Memory
into Smaller and Smaller Parts—in This Case, a Memory of a Trip
12.4 Temporal Overlapping of Various Lifetime Periods with Different
Themes Based on Common, Shared Specific and General Events
12.5 Memory for Information about World Series Games for New York
Yankees and Boston Red Sox Fans Illustrating the Positivity Bias
12.6 Outline of Major Factors in the Creation of Flashbulb Memories
12.7 The Reminiscence Bump
12.8 Reminiscence Bumps for Future Life Events as Provided by Children
13.1 Superior Source Memory for Cheating as Compared to Other Behaviors
13.2 An Illustration of the Sleeper Effect
13.3 Changes in the Rate of Giving False Memories in the DRM Paradigm for
Both Actually Studied and Critical False Words
13.4 Recognition Test Data from the Bransford and Franks (1971) Study
13.5 False Memory Reports for Implanted Memories Consistent with a
Catholic or Jewish Family Event
14.1 Proportion Correct for Selecting the Correct Item after Consistent,
Misleading, or Neutral Information over Several Days
14.2 Influence of Perceived Alcohol Consumption on Memory Performance
14.3 The Yerkes–Dodson Law
15.1 Judgments of Learning
15.2 Difference in Response Times
15.3 Difference in Response Times
15.4 The Knuckle Mnemonic
15.5 Memory for Words as a Function of People Using a Story Mnemonic or
Simply Trying to Remember as Effectively as They Can
15.6 Retention of Autobiographical Memories over Ten Years for a Control
Group and Severely Deficient Autobiographical Memory
16.1 Recall Intervals for Children 9 to 20 Months Old from a Number of
Studies
16.2 Relation between Person’s Speech Rate and Working Memory Span
Scores Broken Down by Different Age Groups
16.3 Influence of Domain of Interest Words on Memory Span in Children
and Adults
16.4 A Boy’s Semantic Memory Network for Dinosaur Concepts
16.5 Probability of Making a False Memory Error on a DRM False Memory
Task
16.6 Magnitude of the Hindsight Bias from Childhood to Old Age
16.7 Changes in the Rate of Forgetting over the Course of Development for
Autobiographical Memories
17.1 Changes in the Amount of Intra-Individual Variability (How Variable a
Given Person’s Responses Are) for Response Times across the Life Span
17.2 Changes in the Memory Performance across Many Different Ages Using
Longitudinal Testing
17.3 Data for Golf Putting Success Showing that Older Adults Who Maintain
Their Skill (Frequent Golfers) Show No Skill Deficit Compared to
 Younger Adults
17.4 Poorer Recognition Memory for Older Adults, Relative to Younger
Adults, at the Surface Form and Textbase Levels, but Preserved
Recognition Memory for Older Adults at the Event Model Level
18.1 Illustration of the Threshold Model of Recognition
18.2 Data Plot Illustrating Recognition Failure and the Tulving–Wiseman
Function
18.3 Partial Plot of Data of Guynn, McDaniel, Strosser, Ramirez, Castleberry,
and Arnett’s (2014) Data Exploring the Viability of Modified Generate–
Recognition Model of Recall
18.4 Portion of a Network in Collins and Quillian’s (1969, 1972) Model of
Memory
18.5 Portion of a Network in Collins and Loftus’s (1975) Model of Memory
18.6 ACT Model Propositional Network for the Sentence “The Sleepy Student
Is in the Old Classroom”
18.7 The Processes Involved in Recall in the SAM Model of Memory
18.8 Processes Involved in Recognition in the SAM Model of Memory
18.9 Echo Intensity and Content in MINERVA 2
18.10 Echo Improvement in MINERVA 2
18.11 Process of Convolution in Models Like TODAM and CHARM
18.12 Sample Parallel Distributed Processing Network
18.13 Representational Improvement across Various Epochs (Training Cycles)
in a Parallel Distributed Processing Model
TABLES

1.1 Various Metaphors for Memory

8.1 Stimulus Lists from Proactive Interference Study
9.1 Ambiguous Passage that Is Clarified by Activating the Appropriate
Schema
9.2 “The War of the Ghosts,” a Native American Folktale
9.3 Recall Attempt for “The War of the Ghosts” Four Months Later
9.4 Ambiguous Story Consistent with Two Schemas—an Escaped Convict or
a Deer Hunter
9.5 Influence of a Schema Shift on Later Memory for Schema Consistent
Inferences. The Data Are for the Percentage of Idea Units Recalled from
an Ambiguous Story and the Number of Intrusions Based on the Initial
Theme, the Alternate Theme, or Some Other Theme
11.1 Differences in Spatial and Temporal Priming: Whether People Name
Map Locations During Learning in Response to Location Cues or Point
to Map Locations in Response to Name Cues
12.1 Dimensions and Criteria for Field and Observer Memories
13.1 Types of Source Monitoring and How They Relate to Different Types of
Source Information
13.2 Words that May Lead to a False Memory for the Word “Sleep”
13.3 Sentences Used in the Bransford and Franks (1971) Study
13.4 Recognition Test from the Bransford and Franks (1971) Study
17.1 Effects of Aging on the Percentages of Accurate Resolutions of
Anaphors
17.2 Effects of Age-Positive and Age-Negative Words on Memory: Difference
in Pre- and Postexposure Conditions
PREFACE

This book is a student’s guide to human memory, its properties, theories

about how memory works, and how an understanding of memory can give
us a better idea of who we are and why we do what we do. Although I have
tried to provide a reasonably comprehensive survey of many issues of the
modern study of human memory, my main concern is the audience. Most
college classes on human memory consist largely of psychology majors who
are planning to go on to some field of psychology other than memory
research, such as clinical or social psychology. Many others plan to go on to
nonpsychology fields, such as medical or law school. Other students are not
psychology majors, but they are taking the class because they think human
memory would be something interesting to learn about (and they are right).
Only a small minority of students plan to do research on memory. Thus, I
have tried to write this book with the goals, interests, and backgrounds of
the majority of the students in mind, while still providing enough
information and detail to satisfy the “memory” student. I have taken several
steps along these lines.
First, in addition to foundational topics that are necessary for a basic
understanding of how memory works, I have tried to focus on topics that
will be helpful and useful whatever the student’s goal. I have tried to avoid
going into detail about the minutiae of various topics and have instead
focused on the big picture. However, there may be cases where I do present
several different experimental outcomes or theoretical positions. I have done
this to provide the student with a sense of the difficulty and complexity of
studying human memory, and the degree of careful and rigorous thinking
and action that are needed to get at the truth of the human condition.
 I mention several times that a study was conducted using students from
this college or that university so readers can associate with the information
presented in this book. The participants in these studies are the same sort of
people sitting in your classroom. I have tried to avoid language that would
alienate a student, which can put up a barrier between the student and the
material.
I have also tried to present the materials about memory from several
different perspectives. Some of these come from experimental research on
memory itself, such as perspectives from behavioral data, neurological data,
and computational modeling. In addition, I present details about how
various topics relate to work outside the realm of memory research, such as
work in social, clinical, or developmental psychology, or even in fields as far-
flung as law enforcement.
A quick survey of this book will reveal that it has a lot of chapters.
Perhaps too many for a single class term. That is O.K. That was the intent.
The field of memory is broad, and different classes place different emphases
on different topics. I would expect that most classes would assign and use
Chapters 1–9 of this book. This is the background and core knowledge that
one needs to understand human memory. Then, I would expect that the
instructor would select out those choices from Chapters 10–18 that best suit
their class and its goals. Of course, if you want to assign all 18 chapters, go
for it!
I have also sprinkled throughout the book several boxes to highlight
different things. These boxes serve to accomplish three goals. First, some of
these are Try It Out boxes which provide descriptions of how to do studies
that can illustrate salient findings in memory research. These are helpful for
any students who might have a lab section associated with their course.
Even if not, they give the student a better idea of how to set up and test
memory, and the scientific enterprise more generally. Second, some of these
are Study In Depth boxes which proved detailed accounts of actual studies in
memory research, how they were set up, who was involved, the methods
that were used, and the results that were found. These provide an
opportunity for students to better grasp the scientific method as it is applied