EECI 3132:

GEOSPATIAL
TECHNOLOGIES
LESSON SIX: GIS ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS

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Introduction
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis functions use spatial and
attribute data to answer questions about the real world.
It is the spatial analysis functions that distinguish GIS from other types of
information systems.
When using a GIS inventory or for analysis, the question will arise as to
which specific analysis function should be used to solve a problem.
Wise use and selection of these functions will lead to high quality of the
information produced from the GIS.
Individual analysis functions must be used within the context of a complete
analysis strategy (Aronoff, 1989).
There are three types of data analysis functions; spatial functions, attribute
functions and integrated analysis of spatial and attribute data.

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1. Spatial functions
Spatial data functions are used to transform spatial data files, such as a digitized map, edit
them, and assess their accuracy.
They are mainly concerned with the spatial data. Examples of spatial data functions
include;
i. Format Transformations
Format is the pattern into which data are systematically arranged for use on a computer.
Format transformations are used to get data into acceptable GIS format.
Digital Files must be transformed into the data format used by the GIS, such as
transforming from raster to vector data structure. Raster data often requires no re-
formatting.
ii. Geometric Transformations
Geometric transformations are used to assign coordinates to a map or to a data layer
within the GIS. Such transformations adjust one data layer so it can be correctly overlaid
on another data layer of the same area. The procedure used to accomplish this correction
is termed registration.

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Cont’
iii. Projection Transformations
Geodesy is the study of the size, shape and motion of the Earth.
It is used to calculate map projections, which are mathematical
transformations used to represent a spherical surface on a flat map.
The transformation assigns to each location on a spherical surface a unique
location on a 2-dimensional map. Map projections always cause some
distortion.
It can produce errors in calculations of area, shape, distance, or direction.
iv. Editing Functions
Editing functions are used to add, delete, or manipulate the geographic
position of features.

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 2. Attribute Functions
Attribute Data is a characteristic of a geographic feature. It can be described by
numbers, characters, images or CAD drawings, and it is typically stored in tabular
format and linked to the feature by a user-defined identifier. Examples;
i. Retrieval (selective search)
Retrieval operations of spatial and attribute data involve the selective search,
manipulation, and output of data without the resultant modification of the
geographic location of features or the creation of new spatial entities.
These operations work with the spatial elements as they were entered in the data
base.
Information from database tables can be accessed directly through the map, or new
maps can be created using information in the tabular database.
Both graphic and tabular data must be stored in formats the computer can recognize
and retrieve.

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ii. Classification
Classification is the procedure of identifying a set of features as belonging to a group.
Some form of classification function is provided within every GIS. The simplest form of
this function occurs in a raster-based GIS, with similar numerical values used to indicate
classes.
Classification is the basis for defining patterns, and one of the most important functions
of a GIS is to assist in recognizing new patterns.
Classification can be done using single data layers, as well as integrating multiple data
layers as part of an overlay operation. One type of generalization, called map dissolve, is
the process of making a classification less detailed by combining classes. Generalization
is often used to reduce the level of classification detail to make an underlying pattern
more apparent.
iii. Verification
Since all data entry is subject to error, the first step after entry should be verification.
Verification is a simple process where a report or printout of the data output produced
using the GIS is then checked against the original input.
Nearly all GIS are in a state of flux due to insertion, deletion and modification;
therefore, verification is an ongoing process. (Clarke, 1997).

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3. Integrated Analysis of
Spatial and Attribute Data
i. Overlay
• Overlay is a GIS operation in which layers with a common, registered
map base are joined on the basis of their occupation of space (Clarke,
1997). Another definition of overlay is an analysis procedure for
determining the spatial coincidence of geographic features. Overlay
function output is capable of creating composite maps by combining
diverse data sets. These outputs can reflect simple operations such as
laying a road map over a map of local wetlands.

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 Types of overlay
a. Point-in-Polygon
• Point-in-Polygon is a topological overlay procedure which determines the spatial
coincidence of points and polygons.
• Points are assigned the attributes of the polygons within which they fall. For
example, this function can be used to analyse an address and find out if it (point) is
located within a certain zip code area (polygon).
b. Line-in-Polygon
• Line in polygon is a spatial operation in which lines in one coverage are overlaid
with the polygons of another coverage to determine which lines, or portions of the
lines, are contained within the defined polygons.
• This function would determine, for example, the total miles of state highways
within the boundaries of a certain county.
• Furthermore, polygon attributes can be associated with corresponding lines in the
resulting line coverage.

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ii. Neighborhood Functions
• Neighbourhood Function analyses the relationship between an object and
similar surrounding objects.
• For example, in a certain area, an analysis of potential land available for a
playground could be done in reference to its adjacency to attractive
nuisances such as junkyards.
• Another application for this analysis function is often used in image
processing.
• In this raster-based process a new map is created by computing the value
assigned to a location by averaging the independent values surrounding that
location.
• Neighborhood functions are particularly valuable in evaluating the character
of a local area.

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 iii. Topographic Functions
Topography refers to the surface characteristics with continuously changing
value over an area.
Elevations, aeromagnetics, noise levels, income levels, and pollution levels
are examples of topography.
Data are simple numeric values, such as meters above sea level.
Topographic functions are used to calculate values that describe the
topography at a specific geographic location or in the vicinity of the location.
The two most commonly used terrain parameters are slope and aspect, both
of which are calculated using the elevation data of the neighboring points.
Topography of a land surface can be represented in a GIS in the raster
format by the digital elevation model (DEM).
An alternative form, used in vector-based systems, is the Triangulated
Irregular Network or TIN.

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iv. Connectivity Functions
i. Contiguity Measures (the state of bordering or being in contact with
something.)
• Contiguity measures evaluate the characteristics of spatial units that
are connected.
• These units share one or more characteristics with adjacent units and
form a group.
• The term UNBROKEN is the key concept.
• Different adjacent features may have more than one attribute but
they must all have a COMMON attribute to be considered as reflecting
contiguity.
• Contiguity is used to measure shortest and longest straight-line
distances across an area and to identify areas of terrain with specified
size and shape characteristics.

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ii. Proximity Measures
• Proximity is the simple distance between features, commonly in
units of length.
• A proximity function is an algorithm that calculates this quantity.
It is always spatial but not always linear. Probably the most
common type of proximity analysis is the buffer zone. Coverage
of this zone can be quite simple (ten feet from the property line),
iii. Network Functions
• A network function is a set of interconnected linear features that
form a pattern or framework.
• They are commonly used for moving resources from one location
to another. City Streets, Power Transmission Lines, and Airline
Service Routes are examples.
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