CELL REPLICATION

INTRODUCTION
• The cell theory states that all cells are
produced from pre-existing cells.

• PROKARYOTIC CELLS replicate by a process

called Binary Fission.

• Binary Fission – the cell & its contents are

divided into two.

• EUKARYOTIC CELLS replicate by a process

called Mitosis.
 Introduction Continued………

• Mitosis – the division of the

nucleus followed by the
splitting of the entire cell into
two (cytokinesis).

• In both processes the parent

cell divides to form 2 identical
daughter cells. When cells
replicate to form identical
daughter cells, the resulting
cells are called clones.
 PURPOSE OF CELL REPLICATION

Cell Replication Examples

Contributes To
Maintenance Replacement of old cells
as they ‘wear out’.

Growth Enables part of organism

or whole organism to
increase in size.
Repair Replacement of damaged
cells after injury.
 GENETIC MATERIAL
• Eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus containing
genetic material called DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
ACID (DNA).

• DNA is found in thread-like structures known

as CHROMOSOMES.

• DNA influences the characteristics & controls

all the functions that go on within an individual
Genetic Material Continued…..
 Genetic Material Continued…….

• Prior to the replication of cells, DNA has to be

replicated so that each of the two new cells –
called DAUGHTER CELLS – contains the same
amount and kind of genetic material.

• The correct distribution is vital because any

error may result in serious defects & ultimately
kill an organism.

• Mitosis ensures the same amount & kind of

genetic material is transmitted from one
generation to the next.
 MITOSIS
• Cell replication involves mitosis followed by
cytokinesis.

• This process is divided into phases.

• Interphase is followed by mitosis.

• Mitosis is divided into: prophase, metaphase,

anaphase & telophase.

• Cytokinesis occurs at the end of telophase.

 Mitosis Continued……..
• Before mitosis begins,
chromosomes are too
slender to be visible in a cell.

• As replication of genetic
material begins,
chromosomes become
shorter & thicker & are
more easily seen. From this
point, their behaviour can be
studied using a light
microscope.
 Mitosis Continued………..

• Each chromosome is
single stranded &
consists of 1 molecule
of DNA. However at
certain times during
the cycle, a
chromosome is double-
stranded & consists of
2 molecules of DNA.
 Interphase

• The cell is engaged in metabolic activity &

preparing for mitosis.

• Chromosomes are not visible but their DNA has

already duplicated. Chromosomes are cotton
like chromatin threads.

• The cell may contain centrioles. In animal cells

centrioles appear as rod like structures.

• Cell is in this phase most of the time.

Interphase
 Prophase
Chromosomes are visible. They are double-
stranded chromatids & are held together
at the centromere.

Nuclear envelope dissolves & a structure

called the spindle starts to form.

The spindle consists of fibres that radiate

across the cell from centrioles that have
moved to opposite end of the cell.
Prophase
 Metaphase
• Mitotic spindle fully formed between centrioles.

• The double stranded chromosomes (each strand

called a chromatid) line up along the equator of
the cell.

• Each chromosome attaches to a spindle fibre by

its centromere.

• This organisation helps to ensure that in the next

phase, when the chromosomes are separated,
each new nucleus will receive only 1 copy of each
chromosome.
Metaphase
 Anaphase
• The spindle fibres contract, causing the
centromeres to spilt, pulling the sister
chromatids towards opposite poles.

• REMEMBER, each chromosome was replicated

during interphase & the two copies of each have
remain joined until now.

• The migration is orderly & results in one copy of

each chromosome moving toward each end of
the spindle.
Anaphase
 Telophase
• Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of the cell.

• Chromosomes become thinner & less obvious &

are no longer visible under the light microscope.

• A nuclear membrane begins to form around each

group of chromosomes.

• The spindle fibres disperse.

• This completes the process of mitosis.

Telophase
 Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm by a process called
cytokinesis is completed.

• New membranes form around each of the two

new groups of chromosomes.

• These are now two new cells, which become

interphase cells. This cell cycle takes
approximately 24hrs
to complete in
mammalian cells
 THE CELL CYCLE
• Cell cycle – is the time it takes for a newly
formed cell to mature & then produce two new
cells.

NOTE:

• Mitosis includes prophase, metaphase,

anaphase, and telophase. Interphase is often
included in discussions of mitosis, but
interphase is technically not part of mitosis, but
rather encompasses stages G1, S, and G2 of the
cell cycle
Cell Cycle
 Interphase
• Is the phase between successive mitoses.

• Includes the G1, S & G2 phases.

S Phase
• ‘S’ Stands for synthesis.

• Is phase during which DNA is replicated.

• It takes about 10hrs to replicate the 3 billion

bits of information contained in the nucleus of a
single human cell.
 Interphase Continued….

G Phase or Gap Phase

• S phase is ‘sandwiched’ by the gap phases – G1 &
G2.

• These are the points at which cell growth takes

place.

• Are also times during which the cell checks its

DNA for mistakes. These are shown as
‘checkpoints’.

• If a cell does not receive a go-ahead signal at a

checkpoint, it exits the cycle.
 G Phase Continued………
• G1 checks for mistakes in DNA that may have
occurred during cell replication.

• In G2 cells check for mistakes that may have

occurred during the synthesis of DNA in the S
phase.

G2 PHASE
• Is a very active time for the cell.

• For example, proteins used during mitosis have to

be synthesized & membrane materials for new
daughter cells must be packaged in vesicles ready
for use.
 G Phase Continued………

G1 PHASE
• G1 cells carry out basic cell functions.

• G1 is a crucial decision point. It is the most

variable phase of the cell.

• Some cells exit the cell cycle & become

dormant; other cells may speed through G1
to divide again
 HOW MANY CHROMOSOMES??

• Each species has a characteristic number of

chromosomes in each of its body cells.

• Human body cells have 46 chromosomes – 23

pairs

• The collection of chromosomes includes a pair

of sex chromosomes. Males have 1 X & 1 Y sex
chromosome. Females have 2 X chromosomes.
 How Many Chromosomes Continued…..

• The remaining 44 chromosomes in body cells

are called autosomes.

• Autosomes comprise 22 pairs of chromosomes,

& each pair is identified by a number from 1 –
22.

• Each pair of autosomes makes up a homologous

pair. The pair are alike in size & shape & carry
genetic material that influences the same
characteristics.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
• The ability to asexually reproduce is
economically important.

• Forms of vegetative propagation include:

e. Cuttings – piece of parent plant can be planted

and new plants will grow from it e.g. roses

g. Horizontal Stems – ‘runners’ e.g. strawberries

and Rhizomes e.g. ferns

i. Suckers – plants that sprout from the roots of

the parent plant
 Asexual Propagation in Plants Continued…………

a. New Plants From Leaves – e.g. ‘piggy-back’

plant. These are new small plants that drop
off the parent and can strike.

c. Gemme – small multicellular bodies produced

in cup-like structures e.g. liverworts
Examples: Asexual Reproduction in Plants
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

• Some animals are capable of reproducing

both asexually and sexually depending on the
environmental conditions.

• Forms of asexual reproduction are:

e. Regeneration – parent breaks into 2 or more

pieces and a new individual will arise from
the piece e.g. planaria

g. Splitting in Half – e.g. amoeba

 Asexual Reproduction in Animals Continued….

– Budding – small groups of cells may bud or

break away from the main organism and
then settle on a substrate and reproduce
mitotically to produce a new organism e.g.
sponges

– Parthenogenesis – ‘virgin birth’. Young are

produced from unfertilised eggs.
Offspring are identical to female parent
e.g. honey bee