Unit 1 Cornell Notes

1.1 Systems architecture

1.1.1 The purpose of the CPU

The purpose of the CPU - Most important part of the computer (brain)
- Computers use language called Binary (0s and
1s)
- Comps use transistors (switches) that
constantly go on and off depending if electricity
flows through them
- Processes instructions from RAM
- Decodes the instructions into machine code
(binary) and executes the data

The fetch-execute cycle - Fetches instructions from main memory (RAM)

- Decodes instructions into binary code with help of
assembly language
- Executes the instructions by outputting on screen

1.1.1 Common CPU components and their function

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) Performs all the maths and logical operations of the
computer.

CU (Control Unit) Controls how data flows through the computer.

Cache High-speed memory that stores copies of frequently

used/accessed data.

Registers High speed memory located around CPU that stores data
needed for processing.

1.1.1 Von Neumann architecture

MAR (Memory Address - Stores memory address from which data will be
Register) fetched or address of where data will be stored
- Variables are an example of this

MDR (Memory Data Register) Data is temporarily stored in MDR before being sent to
RAM/the main memory.
Program Counter Holds the address of the current or next instruction that
will be executed/is being executed.

Accumulator Temporarily holds data results from calculations made by

ALU for example.

1.1.2 How common characteristics of CPUs affect their performance

Clock Speed Number of FDE cycles executed per second. This is then
measured as clock cycles (Hz).

Cache Size The bigger the CPU, the more frequently used data you
can store, saving time. However, speeds tend to be slow
and can be insignificant.

Number of Cores - A core is the processor of the CPU.

- The more cores a CPU has, the faster it is able to
execute instructions.
- For example, two cores means twice as fast
processing.

1.1.3 Embedded systems

The purpose and - A computer system built into another device

characteristics of embedded - Meant to solve a highly specific task
systems - Meant to offer a variety of different settings and
options to help fulfil needs

Examples of embedded - Microwave

systems - Washing Machine
- Smart Watch
- GPS (Sat Nav)
1.2 Memory and storage

1.2.1 Primary storage (Memory)

The need for primary stor6. - Meant to store short-term memory with the
OCR GCSE (J277) 1.2 The exception of ROM that stores bootstrap
need for primary storageage instructions and BIOS
- Fast access times due to being primary source for
storage
- Holds instructions which CPU needs to access
while operating

The difference between RAM RAM:

and ROM - Short-term memory
- Volatile
- Stores information that is currently being run/
being executed by RAM
- Read and write
- Gigabytes of RAM
ROM:
- Long term memory
- Non-volatile
- Stores BIOS for bootstrap(startup)
- Read only
- Megabytes of ROM

The purpose of ROM in a As shown above

computer system

The purpose of RAM in a As shown above

computer system

Virtual memory - When RAM is at capacity, part of secondary

storage is taken and used as RAM (virtual
memory)
- Volatile
- Taken as main memory
- Programs transferred to virtual memory when not
currently being ran
- Much slower

1.2.2 Secondary storage

The need for secondary - Used to store data and information we will need
storage later on
- Allows users to access software and to interact
with computer
- Without secondary storage, software would need
 to be installed each time for every time we use
comp
- Also wouldn’t be able to save any files e.g videos,
images etc

Optical ● Capacity
- Limited space: CDs=700MB, DVD=4GB,
Blu-ray=25GB
● Speed
- Relatively slow/long loading speeds
● Portability
- Is able to be carried around however it
needs a specific device (optical reader) to
be able to transfer data.
● Durability
- Can be fragile meaning it can be easily
damaged/ scratched
● Reliability
- Due to having specific marks lasered onto
disk, damage can destroy these marks,
irreversible
● Cost
- Cheaper than solid state and magnetic

Magnetic ● Capacity
- Can store near infinite amounts of data
● Speed
- Faster than optical but slower than solid
state. Is relatively fast
● Portability
- Usually internal, built within a computer,
but externals exist
● Durability
- Internal disk can be scratched if
overworked
- Magnets can damage the magnetisation of
drive
● Reliability
- Good reliability, able to achieve its purpose
despite buffering sometimes
● Cost
- Can be cheap, depends on how much
storage it can hold
- Good ratio f bytes to £

Solid state ● Capacity

- Has large capacity that is finite
● Speed
- Very fast loading speeds, transferring of
data due to having no moving parts
● Portability
- Most portable devices use SSD
● Durability
- Very durable as it has no moving parts that
 risk the SSD’s structure
● Reliability
- Very reliable due to its features
● Cost
- Expensive due to being higher quality and
relatively new technology

Suitable storage devices and -

storage media for a given
application

1.2.3 Units

The units of data storage: - Bit: smallest possible unit of data dictated by
● Bit binary code, one binary digit
● Nibble (4 bits) - Nibble: the smallest nibble is 4 bits. The largest
● Byte (8 bits) amount of bits that can represent a nibble is 15.
● Kilobyte (1,000 bytes - Byte: data that is represented by 8 singular bits of
or 1 KB) binary code
● Megabyte (1,000 KB) - Kilobyte: 1000 bytes
● Gigabyte (1,000 MB) - Megabyte: 1000 kilobytes
● Terabyte (1,000 GB) - Gigabyte: 1000 Megabytes
● Petabyte (1,000 TB) - Terabyte: 1000 Gigabytes
- Petabyte: 1000 Terabytes

How data needs to be - Analogue needs to be converted into binary

converted into a binary format - Binary operates with a bit 0 or 1 and not several
to be processed by a values like analogue to indicate different stages of
computer a process

sound file size - Sound files are usually 96 kbps - 160 kbps
- Sample size = Number of samples per second x
Number of bits per sample x length of sample in
seconds

image file size - Calculated by Surface area of a document by bit

depth and the DPI (Dots per inch)

text file size - Calculate by number of bits per character x

number of characters

1.2.4 Data storage

Numbers
How to convert positive - Each binary digit in an 8 bit code represents a
denary whole numbers to number
binary numbers (up to and - 00000000: 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1
including 8 bits) and vice - If there is a one in that binary position, that means
versa the number is present
- E.g 10101100 would equal to 128 + 32 + 8 + 4
Number representation (172) according to whether it is present or not
- This is how binary is converted into denary
- This process can also be used to convert denary
into binary

How to add two binary - Adding binary example

integers together (up to and 10011101
including 8 bits) and explain 01100100 +
overflow errors which may 10000001
occur - Two 0 = 0
- Two 1 = 0 with a remainder of 1
Binary Addition - A 1 and 0 = 1
- An overflow occurs when a remainder of 1 is
carried over the 8 bit limit eg 101101110

How to convert positive - Perform the steps for the binary to hexadecimal
denary whole numbers into conversion
2-digit hexadecimal numbers - Separate the number into nibbles and calculate
and vice versa the hex equivalent for each nibble with a table
- This table appears like this, representing a denary
Number representation number in binary which in turn has a hexadecimal
equivalent:
How to convert binary - Start at the rightmost digit and break the binary
integers to their hexadecimal number into nibbles ( 4 bits)
equivalents and vice versa - Convert each nibble into denary and then into its
hexadecimal value
Number representation - Combine the two nibbles again to get your answer
- Example: 1101 0111 = 13 7 = D7

Binary shifts - ALU, part of the CPU, is capable of binary shifting

- This means that binary digits in the accumulator
are shifted to the left or right depending on how
many spaces the ALU shifts
- For example 10110101 shifted to the left by 2 =
1011010100

1.2.4 Data storage

Characters

The use of binary codes to - Corresponding letter will be displayed when you
represent characters put in its binary counterpart

The term ‘character set’ - Character sets is a table of characters present on

a keyboard along with its binary counterpart

The relationship between the - ASCII, American Standard Code for Information
number of bits per character Interchange, is a subset of Unicode
in a character set, and the - Unicode covers characters across all forms of
number of characters which media and languages, such as emojis, numbers,
can be represented, e.g.: letters specific to certain languages and many
o ASCII more
o Unicode - ASCII only represents characters and letters in
the English language
- Unicode is more universal although it uses 32 bits
as opposed to ASCII’s 8 bits

1.2.4 Data storage

Images

How an image is represented - Images on computer screens are made up of

as a series of pixels, coded pixels
represented in binary - Using binary data, these pixels output certain
colours on the RGB scale
- The more bits present in a pixel, the more colours
are available to be outputted on a pixel
- Use of 1s and 0s

Metadata - Metadata stores and displays information about

image files
- Information can include:
- File size
- Width in pixels
 - Height in pixels
- Resolution in DPI
- Colour/bit depth
- Dimensions and resolutions

The effect of colour depth - To represent more colours in an image file,

and resolution on: greater bit depth will be needed to increase the
o The quality of the image pallet of RGB colours that can be shown
o The size of an image file - Increased bit depth = Increased file size

1.2.4 Data storage

Sound

How sound can be sampled - Sound is analogue and needs to be converted into
and stored in digital form binary to be understood by a computer
- This is done by sampling the height of the sound
waves at different regular intervals
- To produce a more accurate representation of the
song sample rate and bit depth must be increased
- Number of audio samples per second measured
in Hz (Hertz)
- Standard for an audio sample would be 44.1 kHz
(44,100 samples a second)

The effect of sample rate, - Increased frequency of sampling records more

duration and bit depth on: values per second
o The playback quality - This can increase the size of the audio file
o The size of a sound file

1.2.5 Compression

The need for compression - Occurs when a file is too big to be sent e.g file
size = 67GB
- Used for sending, downloading, storing and
archiving large files

Types of compression: - Lossy compression removes data from a file

o Lossy - For example, pixels and colour depth will be
o Lossless removed, making an image file look more
pixelated and blocky at times
1.3 Computer networks, connections and
protocols

1.3.1 Networks and topologies

Types of network: - LAN is short for Local Area Network

o LAN (Local Area Network) - LAN is a network that spans a relatively small
o WAN (Wide Area Network) geographical area e.g a building/house
- WAN is short for Wide Area Network
- Made up of multiple LANs and spans a large
geographical area
- An example of a WAN is the internet

Factors that affect the - Distance - the less distance data has to travel, the
performance of networks faster the network can work and send data to the
appropriate computer
- Transmission Media - the type of transmission
media used to connect devices together in a
network can also affect the way data is sent e.g
transmission through bluetooth may take longer
than through ethernet
- Number of devices in a network - the more
devices present in a network, the longer the data
will have to travel
- Bandwidth - the larger the capacity of the
transmission media, the faster data is sent
- Amount of data - the bigger the data file, the
longer it will take to send

The different roles of - Client servers and peer-to-peer networks allow

computers in a client-server users to collectively connect in order to exchange
and a peer-to peer network data
- Client servers are hubs that users can connect to
to use a specific service
- Peer-to-peer networks do not use servers and
hubs; instead they have clients connect to each
other to exchange data

The hardware needed to - WAP - short for Wireless Access Point. It’s a
connect stand-alone component associated with networks that connect
computers into a Local Area devices using Wi-fi to a network. They work
Network: wirelessly through signals and are commonly
o Wireless access points used for public spaces. Devices such as phones
o Routers can turn into WAPs e.g hotspot or data. Do not
o Switches read MACs of data packets and instead broadcast
o NIC (Network Interface to every device
Controller/Card) - Routers - connect LANs to WANs such as the
o Transmission media internet. Also dictates how data is sent in a
computer in a network by analysing computer IP
address, cable traffic and possible routes that
data can travel ASAP
 - Switches - a device in a network that connects
computers in a network together in order for data
exchange to be possible. It establishes a secure
connection between computers while offering fast
loading speeds. Only sends the packets of data to
the intended node with the help of signals from a
computer's MAC card. Overall, switches offer a
secure and reliable connection between devices
in a network while having all the advantages of a
normal hub device.
- NIC - short for Network Interface Card. Piece of
hardware found in the motherboards of
computers. Assigns computers in a network MAC
addresses to ensure data exchange is between
the two appropriate computers.
- Transmission Media - refers to the hardware that
connects devices within a network, or networks to
networks, together.

The Internet as a worldwide - DNS - short for Domain Name Server. Converts
collection of computer domain names into IP addresses in order to
networks: identify devices in a network that have requested
o DNS (Domain Name the data. Also responsible for storing info about
Server) domains accessed by computer and their
o Hosting corresponding IP addresses
o The Cloud - Hosting - a web server that transmits data to other
o Web servers and clients websites
- The Cloud - refers to the storage or computing of
data and files that are directly run through the use
of the internet
- Web servers and clients - used to provide a
specific type of service for clients.

Star and Mesh network - Topologies a certain way computers in a network

topologies are layed out.
- Star topologies have each computer connected to
a router, hub or switch
- Mesh topologies have each computer and device
in a network connected directly to each other

1.3.2 Wired and wireless networks, protocols and layers

Modes of connection: - Ethernet - special type of cable comprised of

o Wired copper wires used to connect computers to each
● Ethernet other in a network
o Wireless - Wireless - transmission media which does not use
● Wi-Fi any sort of physical hardware but uses signals to
● Bluetooth transmit data
- Wi-Fi - wireless technology that allows computers
and devices outside of a network to connect to the
internet.
- Bluetooth - wireless technology that has two
 devices paired together through radio signals to
transmit data

Encryption

IP addressing and MAC - MAC - short for Media Access Control. Ensures
addressing that computers in a network are uniquely
identified. This allows routers to correctly send
data to the appropriate computer as devices can
share the same IP if in the same network, making
data transfer harder
- IP addressing - delivers Packets from Host
(Sender) to Destination (Recipient). It sends the
packets by different routes

Standards - Standards - rules used to allow interaction

between different manufacturers and producers.
Essential in making understanding universal.

Common protocols including: - The TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

o TCP/IP (Transmission provides an error free way of transmission
Control Protocol/Internet between two routers. It breaks down data packets
Protocol) being sent into packets.
o HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer - The IP (Internet Protocol) delivers these packets
Protocol) by using different routes in a WAN
o HTTPS (Hyper Text - HTTP - (HyperText Transfer Protocol) a protocol
Transfer Protocol Secure) that enables data transfer of webpages between a
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol) client and server
o POP (Post Office Protocol) - HTTPS - a protocol similar to HTTP except that it
o IMAP (Internet Message offers encryption to websites dealing with the use
Access Protocol) of sensitive and private information
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer - FTP - (File Transfer Protocol) a protocol used to
Protocol) transfer files to and from servers and computers
within a WAN
- POP3 - (Post Office Protocol) a protocol that
retrieves emails from a server for user access.
The email is removed from the server and
transferred to user’s computer
- IMAP - (Internet Message Access Protocol) a
protocol that is similar to POP as it retrieves
emails for a computer but does not redact it from
its original server
- SMTP - (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) a protocol
that sends emails to a server/computer

The concept of layers - A concept used to describe how data is being

exchanged within the boundaries of a network
- Concept allows for easier understanding of
networks and easier to work with
- The four layers are:
- Application - this is the program or app that allows
a user to request for data exchange from a
network
- Transport - the layer that provides reliable access
 to process data exchange. It splits the processed
data into packets and is then sent off
- Internet/Network - provides internetworking and
searches where to deposit the packets of data by
using the source of data IP address and recipient
IP address
- Network Interface - allows for the transmission
between the two computers sending and
exchanging the data packets. This layer also
attaches the unique recipient’s and sender’s MAC
address on to the data in order for it to arrive at
the correct computer in a network
- The concept of layers can have layers removed or
changed as each layer is self contained
1.4 Network Security

1.4.1 Threats to computer systems and networks

Forms of Attack:

o Malware - Type of software that infiltrates, disables and

harms computers or computer systems
- Often used to gain sensitive/private info to gain
access of bank accounts
- Different types of malware designed to infiltrate
and corrupt computer systems in different ways
- Examples of malware are viruses(replicates and
inserts itself into private files), trojans(disguised as
standard program which contains malicious code),
worms(spreads, self-replicate and destroy/ steal
files on computers) and spyware(software which
gathers data without the user knowing)

o Social engineering, e.g. - Social engineering are techniques and attacks on

phishing, people as the ‘weak computers which involve tricking a victim into
point’ giving their private info
- Phishing is a very popular method of social
engineering
- Done through sending fake emails requiring the
victim to enter in their own private information

o Brute-force attacks - Brute force attacks are digital attacks that have
curated algorithms guess the password of a
victim’s account
- Commonly used to gain access to bank accounts
belonging to big individuals or big corporations

o Denial of service attacks - Commonly referred to a DOS attack

- Digital attack used to invade and crash servers or
networks, disallowing devices from entering them
- Done by sending a lot of internet traffic in one go,
causing the bandwidth of a network or server to
overload, causing the site to crash
- This makes the site inaccessible to devices and
therefore bars them from entering or using the site

o Data interception and theft - Act of stealing and intercepting data while it's
being sent through a data traffic in a network
- Common and basic type of attack
- Usually done through the use of a packet sniffer
which detects and examines data traffic in a
network e.g. internet

o The concept of SQL - The act of injecting malicious code to cause a

injection database to crash
- Code from database is outputted, which allows a
hacker to amend or delete sections of SQL
statements
 - These changes are then inputted into the
database’s system

1.4.2 Identifying and preventing vulnerabilities

Common preventions:

o Penetration testing - A method of infiltration into a computer network in

order to identify weaknesses and vulnerabilities in
a system

o Anti-malware software - Prevents malware from entering your computer’s

files and corrupting code

o Firewalls - A program that analyses and monitors data

coming in to your computer to prevent malicious
code or unauthorised users from entering

o User access levels - A system that determines what information can be

edited and accessed by different accounts

o Passwords - A program which asks a user to input a string of

data in order to confirm the user’s identity and
allow access to their account

o Encryption - A program that disguises data as it is sent through

a network’s traffic by scrambling it through
algorithms in order to protect itself from hackers

o Physical security - Method of prevention which has a person use

physical instalments such as cameras, security
guards and door locks
 1.5 Systems software

1.5.1 Operating systems

The purpose and functionality of operating systems:

o User interface - A system which allows communication between a

device and user
- It is the system which allows communication
between the user and the device they’re using
and how they can interact with each other through
different formats
- Examples include touch screens and keyboards
- Graphical user interface - GUI for short, a method
of communication which has the user interact with
graphical, visual components such as buttons,
icons and symbols
- Command line interface - CLI for short, a text
based form of interaction which has the user enter
text commands in order to complete tasks on a
computer

o Memory management and - Function present in an operating system

multitasking - Responsible for transferring programs in and out
of the memory while allocating free space for
other programs
- Multitasking - a function that allows multiple
programs to run on a computer at the same time

o Peripheral management - Peripheral management - function that dictates

and drivers peripheral input and output devices connected to
a computer e.g keyboards and printers
- Peripheral - a piece of hardware used to transfer
data in and out of a computer
- Device drivers - programs designed to allow the
OS to interact, communicate and manage
peripherals connected to the computer. Used to
control specific types of hardware

o User management - User management - manages the allocation of

accounts present in a computer’s system. Also
manages the security pertaining to these accounts
and governs what level of access they have.

o File management - File management - controlled by the OS and

organises data in a specific order depending on
usage. Also deals with the naming, movement
and deletion of files

1.5.2 Utility software

The purpose and functionality - Different programs that help maintain and improve
of utility software the computer’s systems
- Keep the computer up to date

o Encryption software - Encryption is the process of scrambling data into

unreadable code. This is done by converting the
characters into numbers and converting them into
cypher (unreadable code)
-

o Defragmentation - Defragmentation is a process which has a

computer rearrange the files present in a
computer’s storage system. This process is done
by the defragmenter device which rearranges files
according to how long they will take for a
computer to gather and load.
-

o Data compression - A process that a computer uses which involves

files that are being sent between computers in a
network. Data compression has the file be
reduced by having data taken away from it; this
allows a file to be sent much quicker to a
recipient.
- Lossy - data is removed from a file permanently
before being sent, reducing the quality of an
image
- Lossless - data is removed from a file before
being sent but is restored once received and
opened.
-
1.6 Ethical, legal, cultural and environmental
impact

1.6.1 Ethical, legal, cultural and environmental impact

Impacts of digital technology on wider society including:

o Ethical issues - Issues that affect the way a person or group of

people act according to their ethical standards

o Legal issues - Issues that affect the laws set to dictate and
govern how the technology is used

o Cultural issues - Issues that affect the way a person or group of

people depending on how they look, act or
behave towards certain subjects

o Environmental issues - Issues that affect the health and status of the
environment

o Privacy issues - Issues that affect the privacy of an individual or a

group of people and the rights they have to
securing their data

1.6.1 Ethical, legal, cultural and environmental impact

Legislation relevant to Computer Science:

o The Data Protection Act - Data must be collected for specified legitimate
2018 reasons.
- Data must be processed lawfully, fairly and in a
transparent manner.
- Data must be adequate, relevant and limited.
- Data must be accurate and where necessary kept
up to date.
- Data must not be kept for longer than is
necessary.
- Data must be processed in a manner that ensures
security.
- Data controller must be able to prove that their
measures are sufficient e.g policies.

o Computer Misuse Act 1990 1) No unauthorised access to data.

2) No unauthorised access to data, with the
intentions to make modification
3) No unauthorised access to data or modification of
 data

o Copyright Designs and 1) Giving a copy to a friend.

Patents Act 1988 2) Making a copy and then selling it.
3) Using the software on a network unless the
license allows it.
4) Renting the software without the permission of the
copyright holder.

o Software licences (i.e. open Open Source:

source and proprietary)
Source code is accessible
Can be edited
Free
Can make addons
A community of people contribute so bugs are easily fixed
No formal support
No liability if it causes damage

Closed Source:

Source code is not accessible

Cannot be edited
Normally costs money
Cannot make addons
Only the manufacturer contributes to its development
Support is provided
Liability if it causes damage