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Deep Learning in
Biometrics EDITED BY
Mayank Vatsa • Richa Singh • Angshul Majumdar
Deep Learning in Biometrics
Deep Learning in Biometrics
Edited by
Mayank Vatsa
Richa Singh
Angshul Majumdar
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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Editors vii
Contributors ix
v
vi Contents
Index 307
Editors
Mayank Vatsa received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in computer science from
West Virginia University, Morgantown in 2005 and 2008, respectively. He is
currently an Associate Professor with the Indraprastha Institute of Informa-
tion Technology, Delhi, India, and a Visiting Professor at West Virginia Uni-
versity. He is also the Head for the Infosys Center on Artificial Intelligence at
IIIT Delhi. His research has been funded by UIDAI and DeitY, Government
of India. He has authored over 200 publications in refereed journals, book
chapters, and conferences. His areas of interest are biometrics, image pro-
cessing, computer vision, and information fusion. He is a recipient of the AR
Krishnaswamy Faculty Research Fellowship, the FAST Award by DST, India,
and several best paper and best poster awards in international conferences.
He is also the Vice President (Publications) of IEEE Biometrics Council, an
Associate Editor of the IEEE ACCESS, and an Area Editor of Information
Fusion (Elsevier). He served as the PC Co-Chair of ICB 2013, IJCB 2014, and
ISBA 2017.
Richa Singh received a Ph.D. degree in Computer Science from West Virginia
University, Morgantown, in 2008. She is currently an Associate Professor with
the IIIT Delhi, India, and an Adjunct Associate Professor at West Virginia
University. She is a Senior Member of both IEEE and ACM. Her areas of
interest are biometrics, pattern recognition, and machine learning. She is a
recipient of the Kusum and Mohandas Pai Faculty Research Fellowship at the
IIIT Delhi, the FAST Award by the Department of Science and Technology,
India, and several best paper and best poster awards in international confer-
ences. She has published over 200 research papers in journals, conferences, and
book chapters. She is also an Editorial Board Member of Information Fusion
(Elsevier), Associate Editor of Pattern Recognition, IEEE Access, and the
EURASIP Journal on Image and Video Processing (Springer). She has also
served as the Program Co-Chair of IEEE BTAS 2016 and General Co-Chair
of ISBA 2017. She is currently serving as Program Co-Chair of International
Workshop on Biometrics and Forensics, 2018, and International Conference
on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition, 2019.
Angshul Majumdar received his Master’s and Ph.D. from the University of
British Columbia in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Currently he is an assistant
professor at Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology, Delhi. His
research interests are broadly in the areas of signal processing and machine
vii
viii Editors
learning. He has co-authored over 150 papers in journals and reputed confer-
ences. He is the author of Compressed Sensing for Magnetic Resonance Im-
age Reconstruction published by Cambridge University Press and co-editor
of MRI: Physics, Reconstruction, and Analysis published by CRC Press.
He is currently serving as the chair of the IEEE SPS Chapter’s committee
and the chair of the IEEE SPS Delhi Chapter.
Contributors
ix
x Contributors
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Restricted Boltzmann Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Incorporating supervision in RBMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Other advances in RBMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 RBMs for biometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Autoencoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Incorporating supervision in AEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.2 Other variations of AEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Convolutional Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Architecture of a traditional CNNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.2 Existing architectures of CNNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Other Deep Learning Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Deep Learning: Path Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1 Introduction
The science of uniquely identifying a person based on his or her physiological
or behavioral characteristics is termed biometrics. Physiological characteris-
tics include face, iris, fingerprint, and DNA, whereas behavioral modalities
include handwriting, gait, and keystroke dynamics. Jain et al. [1] lists seven
factors that are essential for any trait (formally termed modality) to be used
for biometric authentication. These factors are: universality, uniqueness, per-
manence, measurability, performance, acceptability, and circumvention.
An automated biometric system aims to either correctly predict the iden-
tity of the instance of a modality or verify whether the given sample is the same
as the existing sample stored in the database. Figure 1.1 presents a traditional
pipeline of a biometric authentication system. Input data corresponds to the
1
2 Deep Learning in Biometrics
Segmentation Feature
Input Data Preprocessing Classification
or Detection Extraction
FIGURE 1.1
Illustrating the general biometrics authentication pipeline, which consists of
five stages.
∗ https://uidai.gov.in/
Deep Learning: Fundamentals and Beyond 3
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 1.2
Sample images showcasing the large intraclass and low interclass variations
that can be observed for the problem of face recognition. All images are
taken from the Internet: (a) Images belonging to the same subject depicting
high intraclass variations and (b) Images belonging to the different subjects
showing low interclass variations. (Top, from left to right: https://tinyurl.
com/y7hbvwsy, https://tinyurl.com/ydx3mvbf, https://tinyurl.com/y9uryu,
https://tinyurl.com/y8lrnvrm; bottom from left to right, https://tinyurl.com/
ybgvst84, https://tinyurl.com/y8762gl3, https://tinyurl.com/y956vrb6.)
Figure 1.2 presents sample face images that illustrate the low interclass
and high intraclass variations that can be observed in face recognition. In
an attempt to model the challenges of real-world applications, several large-
scale data sets, such as MegaFace [10], CelebA [11], and CMU Multi-PIE [12]
have been prepared. The availability of large data sets and sophisticated tech-
nologies (both hardware and algorithms) provide researchers the resources to
model the variations observed in the data. These variations can be modeled
in either of the four stages shown in Figure 1.1. Each of the four stages in
the biometrics pipeline can also be viewed as separate machine learning tasks,
which involve learning of the optimal parameters to enhance the final authen-
tication performance. For instance, in the segmentation stage, each pixel can
be classified into modality (foreground) or background [13,14]. Similarly, at
the time of preprocessing, based on prior knowledge, different techniques can
be applied depending on the type or quality of input [15]. Moreover, because
of the progress in machine learning research, feature extraction is now viewed
as a learning task.
Traditionally, research in feature extraction focused largely on hand-
crafted features such as Gabor and Haralick features [5,16], histogram of
oriented gradients [6], and local binary patterns [7]. Many such hand-crafted
4 Deep Learning in Biometrics
x1
w1
x2 w2
n
wn−1 Σ
i=1
wixi Output
xn−1 wn
Sum Step Function
xn
FIGURE 1.3
Pictorial representation of a perceptron.
features encode the pixel variations in the images to generate robust fea-
ture vectors for performing classification. Building on these, more complex
hand-crafted features are also proposed that encode rotation and scale vari-
ations in the feature vectors as well [17,18]. With the availability of training
data, researchers have started focusing on learning-based techniques, result-
ing in several representation learning-based algorithms. Moreover, because
the premise is to train the machines for tasks performed with utmost ease
by humans, it seemed fitting to understand and imitate the functioning of
the human brain. This led researchers to reproduce similar structures to
automate complex tasks, which gave rise to the domain of deep learning.
Research in deep learning began with the single unit of a perceptron [19],
which was able to mimic the behavior of a single brain neuron. Figure 1.3
illustrates a perceptron for an input vector of dimensionality n × 1, that
is, [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ]. The perceptron generates an output based on the input
as follows:
⎧ n
⎪
⎪
⎪ 1, if wi x i > 0
⎪
⎨
i=1
output = n
(1.1)
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ wi x i ≤ 0
⎩0, if
i=1
where wi corresponds to the weight for the ith element of the input. The be-
havior of the perceptron is said to be analogous to that of a neuron, since,
depending on a fixed threshold, the output would become 1 or 0. Thus, be-
having like a neuron receiving electrical signal (input), and using the synapse
(weight) to fire its output. Treating the perceptron as a building block, several
complex architectures have further been proposed. Over the past few years,
the domain of deep learning has seen steep development. It is being used
to address a multitude of problems with applications in biometrics, object
recognition, speech, and natural language processing.
Deep learning architectures can broadly be categorized into three
paradigms: restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs), autoencoders, and con-
volutional neural networks (CNNs). Restricted Boltzmann machines and
Deep Learning: Fundamentals and Beyond 5
h1 h2 h3 h4 h1 h2 h3 h4
v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.4
Pictorial representation of a Boltzmann machine and an RBM having a single
visible layer of three nodes (v1 −v3 ) and a single hidden layer of four nodes
(h1 −h4 ). The RBM does not have within-layer connections for the hidden and
visible layers: (a) Boltzmann Machine and (b) RBM.
6 Deep Learning in Biometrics
where:
n and r correspond to the number of visible and hidden units in the model,
and v ∈ {0, 1}n , h ∈ {0, 1}r
a and b are the visible and hidden bias vectors, respectively
wi,j is the weight connection between the visible unit vi and the hidden
unit hj
Therefore, the energy function consists of three terms, one for the visible
(input) data, one for the hidden representation, and the third for model-
ing the relationship between the hidden and visible vectors. In matrix form,
Equation 1.2 can be written as:
Thus, the loss function of an RBM can be expressed as the negative log-
likelihood of the probability that a network assigns to the visible vector and
written as:
n
RBM = − log(P (vi )) (1.6)
i=1
For a real-valued input vector, the data can be modeled as Gaussian variables,
resulting in the modification of the energy function for the RBM as follows:
n
r
n r
(vi − bi )2 vi
E(v, h) = − − bj h j − hj wi,j (1.7)
i=1
2σi2 j=1
σ
i=1 j=1 i
Using RBMs as the building blocks, deep architectures of deep belief network
(DBN) [21] and deep Boltzmann machine (DBM) [22] have also been proposed
in the literature. Both the models are created by stacking RBMs such that
the input to the nth RBM is the learned representation of the (n−1)th RBM.
A DBN has undirected connections between its first two layers (resulting in
an RBM) and directed connections between its remaining layers (resulting in
a sigmoid belief network). On the other hand, a DBM constitutes of stacked
Deep Learning: Fundamentals and Beyond 7
RBMs with only undirected connections between the layers. RBMs have been
used for addressing several challenging problems such as document modeling
[23,24], collaborative filtering [25], audio conversion, and person identification
[26–28]. Moreover, building on the unsupervised model of RBM, researchers
have also proposed supervised architectures to learn discriminative feature
representations [29,30].
mimicking certain properties of the human brain’s visual area, V2. A regular-
ization term is added to the loss function of an RBM to introduce sparsity in
the learned representations. Similar to the performance observed with stacked
autoencoders, the first layer was seen to learn edge filters (like the Gabor fil-
ters), and the second layer encoded correlations of the first-layer responses
in the data, along with learning corners and junctions. Following this, a con-
volutional deep belief network (CDBN) was proposed by Lee et al. [34] for
addressing several visual-recognition tasks. The model incorporated a novel
probabilistic max-pooling technique for learning hierarchical features from un-
labeled data. CDBN is built using the proposed convolutional RBMs, which
incorporate convolution in the feature learning process of traditional RBMs.
Probabilistic max-pooling is used at the time of stacking convolutional RBMs
to create CDBNs for learning hierarchical representations. To eliminate trivial
solutions, sparsity has also been enforced on the hidden representations. In-
spired by the observation that both coarse and fine details of images may pro-
vide discriminative information for image classification, Tang and Mohamad
proposed multiresolution DBNs [35]. The model used multiple independent
RBMs trained on different levels of the Laplacian pyramid of an image and
combined the learned representations to create the input to a final RBM. This
entire model is known as multiresolution DBN, and the objective is to extract
meaningful representations from different resolutions of the given input image.
Coarse and fine details of the input are used for feature extraction, thereby
enabling the proposed model to encode multiple variations. Further, in 2014,
in an attempt to model the intermodality variations for a multimodal classifi-
cation task, Srivastava and Salakhutdinov proposed the multimodal DBM [36].
The model aimed to learn a common (joint) representation for samples belong-
ing to two different modalities such that the learned feature is representative of
both the samples. The model also ensures that it is able to generate a common
representation given only a sample from a single modality. In the proposed
model, two DBMs are trained for two modalities, followed by a DBM trained
on the combined learned representations from the two previous DBMs. The
learned representation from the third DBM corresponds to the joint represen-
tation of the two modalities. Recently, Huang et al. proposed an RBM-based
model for unconstrained multimodal multilablel learning [37] termed a mul-
tilabel conditional RBM. It aims to learn a joint feature representation over
multiple modalities and predict multiple labels.
has been proposed for performing face verification in the wild [28]. Multiple
deep CNNs are trained using pairs of face images with the aim of extracting
visual relational features. Each ConvNet is trained on a separate patch-pair
of geometrically normalized face images. The high-level features learned from
the deep ConvNets are then provided as input to a discriminative RBM for
learning the joint distribution of the samples, labels, and the hidden rep-
resentations. The entire model is then used for performing classification of
face images in the wild. Taking inspiration from the multimodal DBM model
[36], Alam et al. presented a joint DBM for the task of person identification
using mobile data [26]. A joint model is built on two unimodal DBMs and
trained using a novel three-step algorithm. Learned representations from the
unimodal DBMs are provided as input to a common RBM, which then learns
the shared representation over two different modalities. In 2017, RBMs have
also been used to perform kinship verification on face images [39]. A hierar-
chical kinship verification via representation learning framework is presented
by Kohli et al. [39] which uses the proposed filtered contractive (fc) DBN.
fc-RBMs are used as the building blocks of the architecture, wherein a con-
tractive term has been added to the loss function of the traditional RBM, to
learn representations robust to the local variations in the images. Moreover,
a filtering approach has also been incorporated in the RBM, such that the
model uses the structural properties of face images and extracts meaningful
facial features for representation learning. Multiple independent fc-DBNs are
trained for local and global facial features; the learned representations are
then combined and provided as input to a final fc-DBN for feature learning.
It can thus be observed that RBMs have widely been used for addressing
the task of biometric authentication. As mentioned, models such as ConvNet-
RBM [28], joint DBM [26], and fc-DBN [39] have shown to perform well with
face images. Teh and Hinton proposed a rate-coded RBM, which is a neu-
rally inspired generative model for performing face recognition [40]. The pro-
posed algorithm creates generative models for pairs of face images belonging
to the same individual, which are then used for identifying a given test image.
Goswami et al. [41] also proposed a deep learning architecture, which is a com-
bination of a DBM and a stacked denoising autoencoder for performing face
verification in videos. One of the key contributions of the work is the inclu-
sion of sparsity and low-rank regularization in the formulation of a traditional
DBM. Other than face recognition, RBMs have also been explored for other
modalities, such as recognition of fingerprint and periocular images [30,42].
1.3 Autoencoder
Autoencoders (AEs) are unsupervised neural network models aimed at learn-
ing meaningful representations of the given data [43]. An AE model consists of
two components: the encoder and the decoder. The encoder learns a feature
10 Deep Learning in Biometrics
Representation (h)
FIGURE 1.5
Diagrammatic representation of a single-layer AE having input as x, learned
representation as h, and the reconstructed sample as x .
representation of the given input sample, and the decoder reconstructs the
input from the learned feature vector. The model aims to reduce the error
between the input and the reconstructed sample to learn representative fea-
tures of the input data. Figure 1.5 presents a diagrammatic representation
of a single-layer AE. For a given input vector x, a single-layer AE can be
formulated as follows:
2
arg min x − Wd φ(We x)2 (1.10)
We ,Wd
where:
We and Wd are the encoding and decoding weights respectively
φ is the activation function
Nonlinear functions such as sigmoid or tanh are often used as the activation
functions. If no activation function is used at the encoding layers, the model
is termed a linear AE. Equation 1.10 aims to learn a hidden representation
(h = φ(We x)) for the given input x, such that the error between the original
sample and the reconstructed sample (Wd h) is minimized. To create deeper
models, stacked AEs are used. Stacked AEs contain multiple AEs, such that
the learned representation of the first AE is provided as input to the second
one. A stacked AE with l layers is formulated as follows:
2
arg min x − g ◦ f (x)2 (1.11)
We , Wd
Deep Learning: Fundamentals and Beyond 11
1 1 1 1
where ρx = f (xi ) + 1 , ρxn i = f (xni ) + 1
N i 2 N i 2
The first term corresponds to the reconstruction error, the second is the
similarity-preserving term, and the remaining two correspond to the Kullback–
Leibler divergence [47]. Following this, Zheng et al. [48] proposed the con-
trastive AE (CsAE), which aimed at reducing the intraclass variations. The
architecture consists of two AEs, which learn representations of an input pair
12 Deep Learning in Biometrics
of images. For a given pair of images belonging to the same class, the architec-
ture minimizes the difference between the learned representation at the final
layer. For a k-layered architecture, the loss function of the CsAE is modeled
as follows:
2 2
arg min λ(x1 − g1 ◦ f1 (x1 )2 + x2 − g2 ◦ f2 (x2 )2 )
We , Wd
2
+(1 − λ) O1k (x1 ) − O2k (x2 ) 2
(1.13)
where:
x1 and x2 refer to two input samples of the same class
fj (x) and gj (x) correspond to the encoding and decoding functions of the
j th AE
For each AE, f (x) = φ(Wek φ(Wek−1 . . . φ(We1 (x)))) and g(x) = Wd1 (Wd2 . . .
Wdk (x)), where Wei and Wdi refer to the encoding and decoding weights of
the ith layer for both the AEs, and Ojk (x) is the output of the k th layer of the
j th AE.
Recently, Zhuang et al. [49] proposed a transfer learning-based super-
vised AE. They modified the AE model to incorporate a layer based on soft-
max regression for performing classification on the learned-feature vectors.
Although the encoding–decoding layers ensure that features are learned such
that the reconstruction error is minimized, the label-encoding layer aims to
incorporate discrimination in the learned features based on their classification
performance. In 2017, Majumdar et al. [50] presented a class sparsity–based
supervised encoding algorithm for the task of face verification. Class infor-
mation is used to modify the loss function of an unsupervised AE, by incor-
porating a l2,1 -norm–based regularizer. For input samples X, the proposed
architecture is formulated as:
2
arg min X − g ◦ f (X)2 + λ We Xc 2,1 (1.14)
We ,Wd
data with the aim of reconstructing the original, clean sample. That is, a noisy
sample is provided as input to the model, and the reconstruction error is min-
imized with respect to the clean, original sample. For a given input sample x,
the loss function of stacked denoising AE can be formulated as follows:
2
arg min x − g ◦ f (xn )2 (1.15)
We , Wd
that ReLU is faster and reduces the training time significantly [65]. It also
eliminates the vanishing gradient problem by converting all negative values
to 0. The function applied in this layer is given as follows:
Pooling layer : Pooling layers or downsampling layers are used for dimension-
ality reduction of the feature maps after the convolution and ReLU layers.
Generally, a filter size is chosen and an operation such as max or average is
applied on the input space, which results in a single output for the given sub-
region. For example, if the operation defined is max-pooling for a filter size of
2 × 2, the max of all values in the subregion is the output of the filter. This is
done for the entire feature map by sliding the filter over it. The aim of this op-
eration is to encode the most representative information, while preserving the
relative spatial details. This step not only enables dimensionality reduction,
but also prevents over-fitting.
Fully connected layer : After the convolutional and pooling layers, fully con-
nected layers are attached in the network. These layers function like a tradi-
tional neural network, where each element is considered an independent node
of the neural network. The output dimension of the final layer is equal to the
number of classes, and each value of the output vector is the probability value
associated with a class. This type of layer is used to encode supervision in
the feature-learning process of the CNNs because the last layer is used for
classification.
In CNNs, there is no fixed order in which its constituent layers are stacked.
However, typically a convolutional layer is followed by a pooling layer form-
ing a convolutional-pooling block. This block is repeated, depending on the
desired size of the network. These layers are followed by fully connected lay-
ers and the final layer is responsible for classification. ReLU is often attached
after each convolutional and fully connected layer to incorporate nonlinearity
in the feature-learning process. Figure 1.6 is an example of a traditional CNN
model consisting of five layers: two convolutional and two pooling, stacked
alternatively, and the final layer being the fully connected layer. Owing to the
flexibility in the architecture, researchers have developed different models for
performing feature extraction and classification tasks. Some recent develop-
ments involving CNNs are discussed in the next subsections.
FIGURE 1.6
Diagrammatic representation of a CNN having input as 24 × 24. The first
convolution layer learns four filters of 5 × 5, resulting in four feature maps of
size 20 × 20. This is followed by pooling with a filter size of 2 × 2. Pooling
layer is again followed by convolution and pooling layers. The final layer is a
fully connected layer, the output of which is used to perform classification.
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