U NIVERSITY OF M INES AND T ECHNOLOGY

TARKWA

FACULTY OF C OMPUTING AND M ATHEMATICAL S CIENCES

D EPARTMENT OF C OMPUTER S CIENCE AND E NGINEERING

PROJECT REPORT ENTITLED

ADDRESSING INEQUITABLE ELECTRICITY BILLING AND ACCESSIBILITY

IN SHARED RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN GHANA

BY

BOATENG KONADU PETER

BIRI EBENEZER

OTENG FELIX

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER

SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

PROJECT SUPERVISOR

...............................................

MS. AUDREY ASANTE

TARKWA GHANA

APRIL, 2025
DECLARATION

We declare that this project work is our own work. It is being submitted for the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Computer Science and Engineering in the University of Mines and
Technology (UMaT), Tarkwa. It has not been submitted for any degree or examination in any
other University.

Boateng Konadu Peter

(Index Number: FOE.41.008.095.21)

(Signature)

Biri Ebenezer
(Index Number: FOE.41.008.088.21)

(Signature)

Oteng Felix
(Index Number: FOE.41.008.117.21)

(Signature)

i
ABSTRACT

ii
 DEDICATION
With gratitude, we dedicate this work to our families, friends, and nation.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We attribute our achievements to the Almighty God, who has guided and supported us
throughout our journey. A heartfelt acknowledgment goes to Ms. Audrey Asante, our
supervisor, whose unwavering dedication and brilliant insights have been instrumental in
making this project a success. We are also deeply grateful to all the lecturers at UMaT
who have not only nurtured our academic growth but have also provided personal support
throughout our time on campus and during this project. Last but not least, we sincerely
appreciate our friends and family, who have been a constant source of emotional and physical
support.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

ABSTRACT ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background to the Research 1
1.2 Problem Definition 1
1.3 Project Objectives 2
1.4 Methods Used 3
1.5 Tools and Facilities Used 3
1.5.1 Hardware 3
1.5.2 Software 3
1.6 Organization of Work 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Overview of Literature 5
2.2 Electricity Definition and Key Concepts 6
2.2.1 Voltage 6
2.2.2 Current 7
2.2.3 Power 7
2.2.4 Energy 7
2.2.5 Frequency 8

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2.3 Review of Relevant Literature 8
2.3.1 IoT-based Smart Metering Systems 8
2.3.2 Energy Theft and Monitoring 9
2.4 IoT and Edge Computing in Smart Metering 9
2.4.1 Second Generation Smart Meters and Chain-2 10
2.5 Role of Internet of Things (IoT) 11
2.5.1 Embedded Edge Computing 12
2.6 Demand-Side Management and Smart Metering 13
2.6.1 Intelligent Features and Customer Engagement 14
2.7 Smart Meter Security and Privacy Concerns 14
2.7.1 Data Integrity and Authentication 15
2.7.2 User Privacy and Regulatory Frameworks 15
2.7.3 Threats from Tampering and Hacking 15
2.7.4 Encryption and Secure Communication Protocols 15
2.8 Technological Components of Smart Meters 16
2.8.1 Micro-controllers and Sensing Units 16
2.8.2 Communication Protocols (ZigBee, GSM, LoRa, Wi-Fi) 16
2.8.3 Data Acquisition and Storage Systems 16
2.8.4 Power Management in Metering Devices 17
2.9 Summary of Relevant Literature 17

CHAPTER 3 SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION 19

3.1 Overview 19
3.2 System Requirements 19
3.3 System Components 20
3.3.1 LCD Display Integration 20
3.3.2 Current Transformer (Ct-sensor) 21
Technical Specifications 21
Design Considerations 21
3.3.3 Signal Conditioning Circuitry 22
3.4 Methodology 22
3.4.1 How the Wearable device was Built 22
3.4.2 Development of the Software (Centralised Dashboard) 23

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 3.4.3 Real-Time Energy Monitoring Concept 23
3.4.4 Power Measurement Methodology 24
3.5 System Architecture 24
3.5.1 Block Diagram 24
3.5.2 Circuit Diagram 25
3.5.3 Operational Flowchart 26
3.5.4 Use Case Diagram 28
3.5.5 User Interface 28
3.6 Operation of the System 29
3.6.1 Measurement and Calculation Process 29
3.6.2 Data Transmission 29
3.6.3 Mobile Application 30

REFERENCES 32

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page

3.1 LCD Display Connection to ESP32 Microcontroller 21

3.2 Current Transformer Sensor Installation 22

3.3 Smart Energy Metering System Block Diagram 25

3.4 System Circuit Diagram with Safety Features 26

3.5 Device Firmware Operational Flowchart 26

3.6 Flowchart for Device 27

3.7 Flowchart for Device 28

3.8 Gantt chart 31

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

2.1 Summary of Relevant Literature 17

3.1 Rectifier Circuit Performance 22

3.2 Project Timeline of Project 31

ix
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ECG Electricity Company of Ghana

IoT Internet of Things
UI User Interface
UX User Experience
API Application Programming Interface
SLP Service Location Protocol
GPS Global Positioning System
2G SM Second Generation Smart Meter
A Ampere
AC Alternating Current
ADE Analog Devices Energy (Metering IC Prefix)
CT Current Transformer
AMR Automatic Meter Reading
DC Direct Current
DSM Demand-Side Management
E Energy
ECG Electricity Company of Ghana
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
Hz Hertz
I Current
IHD In-Home Display
IoT Internet of Things
kWh Kilowatt-hour
LoRa Long Range
LPWAN Low Power Wide Area Network
P Power
Q Electric Charge
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
V Voltage
W Work (Joules)

x
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Research

Electricity is an essential commodity that significantly influences the quality of life and the
pace of development. It is extensively used in domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors,
making its availability and efficient utilization critical for economic progress and societal
well-being. However, in many developing countries, including India, the energy generated
often falls short of the rising demand, leading to energy scarcity and emphasizing the need
for effective energy management systems (Prakash et al., 2019).

Urbanization in Ghana has led to a proliferation of multi-tenant residential buildings, with

approximately 68% of urban dwellings operating on centralized electricity metering systems
(Anon., 2021). This legacy infrastructure, inherited from colonial-era electrification programs,
employs a single-point metering approach where landlords arbitrarily distribute costs - a
practice that has remained largely unchanged since the 1980s (Ackah et al., 2015). Studies
demonstrate that, this system creates significant energy justice issues, disproportionately
affecting low-income tenants who typically consume 40-60% less energy than their wealthier
counterparts (Amankwah-Amoah and Osei, 2020).

The global smart meter market, valued at $20.8 billion in 2022 (Grand View Research,
2023), presents viable technological solutions. However, Ghana’s adoption lags at <5%
penetration due to infrastructural and regulatory barriers (Energy Commission of Ghana,
2022). Emerging research on IoT-based alternatives in developing contexts suggests that
decentralized, low-cost solutions could bridge this gap while maintaining ECG’s revenue
assurance requirements (Okafor et al., 2021).

1.2 Problem Definition

In Ghana’s shared residential complexes, the current electricity billing system is plagued by
persistent issues that undermine fairness, efficiency, and transparency. Chief among these
challenges is the flat-rate invoicing model, which requires all tenants to equally share the

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total electricity cost regardless of individual consumption. This practice results in a dispro-
portionate financial burden on energy-conscious tenants, who end up subsidizing the usage
of higher-consuming co-tenants. Such a system disincentivizes responsible energy behavior,
as noted by Adom and K. (2018), thereby weakening efforts toward energy conservation.

Compounding this issue is the lack of visibility and access to real-time or historical electricity
usage data. The opaque nature of existing billing arrangements makes it difficult for tenants
to monitor their personal consumption, often leading to confusion, mistrust, and disputes
regarding the fairness of shared utility expenses (Boadi et al., 2017). These conflicts can
erode social cohesion in shared housing environments and foster long-term dissatisfaction
among residents.

Moreover, structural and administrative barriers significantly hinder the adoption of individual
metering systems. The high upfront cost and bureaucratic hurdles associated with obtaining
personal meters from the Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG) make this solution unattain-
able for many households. Consequently, tenants remain locked into a billing arrangement
that neither reflects their actual usage nor encourages efficiency.

The absence of a consumption-based billing approach not only promotes wasteful electricity
use but also contributes to broader national challenges in balancing power supply and demand.
In a country already grappling with energy management issues, inefficiencies at the household
level compound systemic problems.

These concerns collectively highlight an urgent need for an electricity metering solution that
is transparent, equitable, and tailored to the realities of shared residential living in Ghana.
Such a system would empower tenants, foster responsible energy consumption, and contribute
positively to the country’s overall energy sustainability goals.

1.3 Project Objectives

The main objective of our project is to design and implement a smart energy metering system
that uses Internet of Things (IoT) technologies to track individual electricity consumption
and leverage cloud-based analytics to generate fair, usage-based invoices while providing
real-time consumption data through a centralized platform.

i. Design an energy metering architecture suitable for shared residential units.

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 ii. Enable automated, fair billing based on individual usage patterns.

iii. Create a mobile app dashboard for tenants and building managers to view real-time
and historical consumption data.

iv. Automate the process to lessen the administrative load on landlords..

1.4 Methods Used

i. Review of relevant literature

ii. Consultation and guidance from our supervisor

iii. Designing the user interface (UI) of software using Figma

iv. Developing mobile application

v. Building an IoT device

vi. Testing

1.5 Tools and Facilities Used

1.5.1 Hardware

i. ESP32 Board

ii. Current Transformer Sensor

iii. Breadboards

iv. Jumper wires

v. Liquified crystal display

vi. GPS Module

1.5.2 Software

i. Literature from Google Scholar and other articles.

ii. Arduino IDE and Visual Studio Code.

iii. Packages and Libraries for Sensors.

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 iv. HTML/CSS and JavaScript.

v. Firebase

1.6 Organization of Work

The project is structured as follows: The background to the research,problem definition,project

objectives,scope of the project, methods used, tools and facilities used, and organization of
work are covered in Chapter one. Chapter two provides a review of the literature related to
addressing inequitable electricity billing and accessibility in sharing residential building in
Ghana. Chapter three describes the system design, including the methodology, components,
and implementation of the IoT-based system device.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of Literature

The evolution of smart metering systems is a cornerstone in the development of modern

intelligent energy infrastructure. Early systems relied heavily on manual readings, often
prone to inaccuracies and inefficiencies. With the advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), there
has been a significant shift toward systems capable of autonomous monitoring, real-time
control, and enhanced user interaction.

Modern smart meters have benefited immensely from IoT integration. Systems like the one
developed offered remote management, load control, and real-time data updates through
mobile applications and GSM modules, showcasing the potential of embedded systems
in domestic power monitoring (Shunmugalatha et al., 2023). Similarly, the smart meter
proposed by (Haque et al., 2019) leverages Wi-Fi and microcontroller integration to enhance
automation, minimize human error, and improve theft detection .

Moreover, consumer-centric innovations such as mobile-accessible billing, anomaly notifi-

cations, and energy usage profiling are becoming standard. Yunus et al. (2023) proposed
an IoT-based smart meter platform aimed at empowering residential users with real-time
monitoring capabilities, paving the way for smarter energy habits .

At the infrastructure level, second-generation smart meters (2G SM) such as those deployed
in Italy by E-Distribuzione represent a leap forward. These meters support two-way com-
munication and enable advanced demand-side management (DSM) strategies through the
Chain-2 communication protocol (Terracciano et al., 2020). The Chain-2 feature ensures
direct communication between the smart meter and in-home devices, allowing consumers to
make real-time energy decisions.

To address data volume and bandwidth constraints, edge computing has been introduced
into smart metering systems. Sirojan et al. demonstrate how embedded edge analytics can
enable real-time feedback and intelligent energy services without relying solely on cloud
infrastructure (Phung and Ambikairajah, 2019).

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Security and loss prevention are also critical. Manimegalai et al. (2024) present a system
that not only monitors consumption but also detects irregular usage patterns indicative of
theft or loss, employing RFID and secure data protocols . Complementarily, Sheeba et al.
discuss cloud-based storage with LoRa Wi-Fi to achieve reliable, real-time remote monitoring
(Sheeba et al., 2021).

Together, these developments highlight a broader trend: smart meters are evolving beyond
simple measurement devices into intelligent agents at the edge of the grid, capable of
empowering users, supporting the grid, and fostering sustainability.

2.2 Electricity Definition and Key Concepts

Electricity is defined as the flow of electric charge, which is a fundamental property of matter.
These electric charges can either be positive or negative. The movement and interaction
of these charges generate various phenomena collectively referred to as electricity. It is a
foundational force that powers modern life, including homes, industries, and technology
(Anon, 2024). The essential components of electricity include voltage, current, power, energy,
and frequency—each playing a crucial role in the functionality of electrical systems.

2.2.1 Voltage

Voltage, also known as electric potential difference, is the amount of electric potential energy
between two points within a circuit. It tells us how much energy per unit charge is available
to push electric current through a conductor. It is expressed mathematically as:

W
V = (2.1)
Q

Where:

• V = Voltage (Volts)

• W = Work done or energy in joules

• Q = Charge in coulombs

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2.2.2 Current

Current (I) refers to the flow of electric charge and is measured in amperes (A). Current flows
due to the potential difference (voltage) and is vital for the operation of electrical devices.
Direct current (DC) flows in one direction while alternating current (AC) periodically reverses
direction (Hambley, 2013).

2.2.3 Power

Power (P ) is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred or consumed. It is calculated as:

P =V ×I (2.2)

where:

• P is measured in watts (W)

• V is voltage (V)

• I is current (A)

Power is often categorized into:

• Active power (actual work done)

• Reactive power (energy stored or released by inductors or capacitors) (Chapman, 2012)

2.2.4 Energy

Energy (E) is the total amount of work performed by electricity, typically measured in
kilowatt-hours (kWh). Calculated as:

E =P ×t (2.3)

where t is time in hours (Rao and Rao, 2013).

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2.2.5 Frequency

Frequency refers to the number of cycles per second of an AC supply, measured in hertz
(Hz). In many countries, the standard frequency is 50 Hz or 60 Hz , depending on the region
(Chapman, 2012)

2.3 Review of Relevant Literature

2.3.1 IoT-based Smart Metering Systems

The emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) has revolutionized traditional energy metering,
transforming static analog meters into dynamic, interconnected devices capable of real-time
monitoring, communication, and control. IoT-based smart meters offer significant advantages
in energy management, including enhanced operational efficiency, accurate billing, remote
monitoring, and user engagement.

A notable example of such integration is presented by Shunmugalatha et al. (2023) who

designed an autonomous smart energy meter using an embedded Arduino system, GSM
module, and mobile application for real-time tracking and load control . This system not only
ensures precise billing but also allows consumers to switch devices on or off remotely and
access consumption data via smartphones, offering both control and convenience.

Similarly, a smart metering solution leveraging the ADE7758 energy monitoring chip with
Wi-Fi connectivity to enable continuous wireless communication with a central server (Haque
et al., 2019). Their work demonstrates the practical benefits of replacing conventional meters
in regions with high theft or unreliable manual billing systems.

The system by Yunus et al. (2023) emphasizes a platform-centric approach, focusing on

real-time data accessibility, anomaly detection, and integration with smart grid infrastructure
. Their design supports bi-directional communication and enhances customer awareness
through in-home displays and dynamic pricing models.

Additionally, Chowdary et al. (2020) implemented ZigBee-based wireless communication

in smart meters, showing the feasibility of deploying energy-efficient, low-power solutions
suitable for urban IoT deployments . Their design supports the development of smart cities,
where distributed sensor networks must maintain energy efficiency while ensuring secure and
timely data transmission.

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Collectively, these studies illustrate the immense potential of IoT to enhance the functionality,
accessibility, and adaptability of energy metering systems, paving the way for more resilient,
transparent, and sustainable energy infrastructures.

(Yunus et al., 2023) designed a smart meter platform built on IoT that provides real-time
monitoring and control of energy usage in households. Their work demonstrated the system’s
ability to reduce energy wastage and enhance billing transparency.

An IoT-based smart energy metering system for consumers, leveraging the ADE7758 chip
and Wi-Fi modules for wireless communication. The system aims to reduce manual billing
errors and detect tampering attempts in real-time (Haque et al., 2019).

2.3.2 Energy Theft and Monitoring

(Manimegalai et al., 2024) tackled the pervasive issue of electricity theft by proposing a
smart meter system capable of detecting irregularities in consumption patterns using RFID
and microcontroller-based systems. The meter also empowers consumers through detailed
monitoring of individual appliance usage.

(Sheeba et al., 2021) introduced a cloud-based energy monitoring system employing LoRa
Wi-Fi for real-time smart metering. The integration with cloud storage ensures robust access
to historical and live consumption data (Terracciano et al., 2020).

2.4 IoT and Edge Computing in Smart Metering

As smart grids evolve, the challenges associated with high-frequency data acquisition, latency,
bandwidth consumption, and centralized processing demand alternative computing paradigms.
Embedded edge computing, when combined with IoT, presents a powerful solution for
enabling scalable, real-time smart metering infrastructures.

Sirojan et al. propose an architecture that places intelligent data processing at the edge,
directly within the smart meter itself (Phung and Ambikairajah, 2019). Their system leverages
high-resolution sampling, onboard analytics, and load classification algorithms to perform
demand-side management (DSM) functions without the need to offload massive datasets
to the cloud. Through experimentation with real current waveforms and frequency-domain

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analysis, their approach demonstrates improved responsiveness, bandwidth optimization, and
scalability.

By integrating edge computing, smart meters can detect transient load events, classify
appliances, and provide real-time feedback directly to users or the grid. This reduces the
round-trip latency typically associated with cloud-based processing and alleviates congestion
on utility networks. Moreover, it enables smart meters to perform anomaly detection and
demand prediction at the point of measurement, enhancing energy efficiency and grid stability.

The practical implications of such architecture are profound. For instance, in areas with
intermittent internet access, embedded intelligence ensures that core metering functions
such as usage logging, theft detection, and local feedback continue to operate seamlessly.
Furthermore, edge devices can down-sample and preprocess data before transmission, reduc-
ing the volume of redundant data and supporting low-power wide-area network (LPWAN)
technologies.

Hence, the integration of IoT and edge computing redefines the role of smart meters from
passive endpoints to active, intelligent nodes in the energy value chain. This not only supports
the decentralization of grid management but also enhances user empowerment, data privacy,
and the efficiency of utility operations.

2.4.1 Second Generation Smart Meters and Chain-2

The second generation of smart meters (2G SM) represents a significant advancement in
metering infrastructure, particularly in terms of real-time communication, interoperability,
and support for demand-side management (DSM). One of the most notable innovations
associated with 2G smart meters is the integration of the Chain-2 communication protocol,
which facilitates direct and secure interactions between utilities and in-home devices (IHDs).

Terracciano et al. describe the deployment of second-generation smart meters by E-Distribuzione

in Italy, where Chain-2 serves as a cornerstone of intelligent home energy management (Ter-
racciano et al., 2020). Chain-2 is designed to enable real-time bidirectional data exchange
between the smart meter and customer-owned devices, including energy displays, smart
plugs, and programmable controllers. This communication layer is critical for activating
DSM features such as load shifting, demand forecasting, and dynamic pricing.

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A key architectural benefit of Chain-2 is its compliance with interoperability standards. The
protocol supports a modular structure that allows third-party devices to connect securely
and reliably with smart meters, promoting openness and innovation within the smart home
ecosystem. This interoperability extends to energy automation platforms, allowing users to
schedule appliance usage based on tariff changes or grid conditions.

The second-generation meters also include enhanced memory, processing capacity, and
improved sampling frequency compared to earlier designs. These features enable more
accurate monitoring of energy consumption, voltage quality, and load profiles, contributing
to grid stability and improved service delivery.

From the consumer perspective, the integration of Chain-2 enhances awareness and en-
gagement. Real-time feedback on energy usage, delivered through IHDs or mobile apps,
empowers users to make informed decisions about energy consumption. This supports
behavioral change, energy conservation, and peak demand reduction.

In summary, second-generation smart meters, supported by Chain-2, mark a shift from static
energy metering to interactive, user-centric energy management. Their ability to support
DSM strategies, integrate with third-party devices, and foster consumer involvement makes
them a critical component in the realization of smart grids and sustainable energy systems.

2.5 Role of Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a critical enabler in the transformation of
traditional power infrastructure into intelligent, adaptive, and customer-centric energy systems.
Through the use of interconnected sensors, communication modules, and data platforms, IoT
facilitates real-time energy monitoring, automation, and control.

(Chowdary et al., 2020) emphasize the role of ZigBee-enabled IoT networks in achieving
energy-efficient and wireless communication in smart cities. Their system demonstrates
the potential of low-power mesh networking protocols to reduce energy consumption while
maintaining reliable connectivity between smart meters and central hubs .

A smart meter architecture built on an IoT platform, highlighting the ability of such systems
to capture high-resolution consumption data, detect anomalies, and support bi-directional

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communication (Yunus et al., 2023). Their solution underlines the potential of IoT to improve
transparency and user participation in energy-saving initiatives.

An integrated IoT with microcontrollers and RFID modules to combat electricity theft and
empower consumers with real-time consumption insights. The system’s alert mechanisms
and data-sharing capabilities enhance accountability and operational reliability (Manimegalai
et al., 2024).

Moreover, (Shunmugalatha et al., 2023) developed a remote management system using GSM
and IoT modules, enabling users to control devices remotely, view usage trends, and receive
automatic notifications. Their approach emphasizes how IoT strengthens user engagement
while supporting utilities with accurate demand data .

Thus, IoT serves not just as a data collection interface but as a foundation for smart grid
interactivity, automation, and intelligent energy optimization across residential and industrial
contexts.

2.5.1 Embedded Edge Computing

The increasing granularity and frequency of smart meter data have necessitated new ap-
proaches to data processing that minimize latency, preserve bandwidth, and ensure timely
decision-making. Embedded edge computing addresses these needs by pushing computation
closer to the data source, allowing smart meters to analyze and act upon information locally.

(Phung and Ambikairajah, 2019) presented a comprehensive edge-enabled architecture where

smart meters are equipped with embedded processors capable of analyzing current waveforms
in real-time. Their system performs load disaggregation and classification without relying on
continuous cloud connectivity, significantly reducing bandwidth requirements.

This edge-centric paradigm enables smart meters to operate independently even in areas with
limited or intermittent network connectivity. Moreover, processing data at the edge supports
low-latency control operations, such as real-time load balancing or fault detection. It also
helps preserve user privacy by minimizing the amount of raw consumption data transmitted
to external servers.

Furthermore, by integrating signal processing and machine learning capabilities directly

into smart meters, utilities can deploy scalable systems capable of detecting abnormalities,

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forecasting demand, and responding to local grid conditions dynamically. This model aligns
with the broader objectives of decentralized energy systems, where intelligence is distributed
across the network.

In summary, embedded edge computing enhances the resilience, efficiency, and autonomy
of smart metering systems, positioning them as key agents in modern, intelligent energy
infrastructures.

2.6 Demand-Side Management and Smart Metering

Demand-Side Management (DSM) refers to the coordinated efforts to influence consumer

energy usage patterns in order to optimize energy demand, enhance grid reliability, and
reduce operational costs. Smart metering plays a central role in DSM by providing real-time
usage data, facilitating remote control of appliances, and enabling dynamic pricing models
that incentivize off-peak consumption.

A practical example of DSM implementation through second-generation smart meters in Italy.

These meters, developed by E-Distribuzione, feature Chain-2 communication which enables
direct interaction with In-Home Displays (IHDs) and customer-side automation systems
(Terracciano et al., 2020). This setup allows utilities to send real-time pricing signals and
load reduction requests, thereby promoting load balancing and peak shaving strategies.

Yunus et al. (2023) similarly highlight DSM as a key function supported by IoT-based smart
metering platforms. Through the integration of mobile dashboards, users can monitor usage
trends, receive energy-saving recommendations, and engage with flexible pricing schemes,
thus reinforcing proactive energy behavior .

Additionally, intelligent metering that detects irregular usage patterns, which is crucial
for curbing unapproved consumption and improving the fairness of energy distribution
(Manimegalai et al., 2024). Their system acts as both a DSM tool and a security measure,
providing feedback to utilities and consumers alike.

These systems collectively demonstrate the value of DSM not only in flattening peak demand
curves but also in engaging consumers, improving transparency, and supporting the broader
goals of energy sustainability.

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2.6.1 Intelligent Features and Customer Engagement

The modern smart meter extends far beyond its primary function of measuring electricity
consumption. By incorporating intelligent features such as real-time analytics, automation,
and user feedback, smart meters have become critical tools in promoting energy conservation
and enhancing consumer engagement.

(Yunus et al., 2023) detail a smart meter system embedded with pollution sensors, microcon-
trollers, and intelligent algorithms to support smart city ecosystems. Their work showcases
how environmental monitoring can be integrated into energy infrastructure to provide holistic
insights into sustainability and public health (Cen et al., 2021).

The capabilities of second-generation smart meters implemented by E-Distribuzione in Italy.

These meters utilize Chain-2 communication protocols to support demand-side management
(DSM) services and interact directly with consumer appliances through In-Home Displays
(IHDs) (Terracciano et al., 2020). The result is a dynamic feedback loop between the user
and the grid, enabling better load planning and cost savings.

Yunus et al. (2023) also highlight user engagement as a core design goal, incorporating
mobile interfaces and IoT dashboards that allow customers to monitor consumption patterns,
receive notifications, and adopt energy-efficient habits .

These intelligent interfaces help transition users from passive consumers to active participants
in the energy ecosystem. As a result, customer awareness increases, electricity usage becomes
more intentional, and utilities are better able to manage peak loads and system stability.

Smart meters with intelligent features thus serve a dual purpose: enabling utilities to optimize
resource allocation while empowering users to take control of their energy footprint.

2.7 Smart Meter Security and Privacy Concerns

The digitization and networking of smart meters have introduced several vulnerabilities
related to cybersecurity and user data privacy. These concerns are increasingly critical,
especially as smart meters become more integrated with cloud platforms, mobile applications,
and grid automation systems. Ensuring secure data transmission and preserving consumer
privacy are foundational requirements for trust in smart grid infrastructures.

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2.7.1 Data Integrity and Authentication

Smart meters continuously generate and transmit energy consumption data. Without proper
authentication mechanisms, this data may be intercepted, manipulated, or falsified, posing
risks to billing accuracy and grid coordination. Incorporated RFID-based authentication to se-
cure meter access and ensure only authorized users can interact with the system (Manimegalai
et al., 2024). Strong encryption and digital signature mechanisms are also necessary to prevent
data tampering during transmission.

2.7.2 User Privacy and Regulatory Frameworks

Smart meters can collect detailed user profiles, including daily routines and occupancy pat-
terns, raising concerns about surveillance and misuse of private data. Regulatory frameworks
such as the GDPR in Europe and similar privacy laws in other regions mandate that customer
data must be anonymized, securely stored, and processed only with consent. Developers
must therefore implement data minimization, pseudonymization, and user-consent protocols
as part of the system design.

2.7.3 Threats from Tampering and Hacking

Smart meters are also susceptible to physical tampering and remote hacking.Haque et al.
(2019) proposed a solution using Wi-Fi and real-time anomaly detection to monitor en-
ergy patterns and identify unauthorized activities . These threats can compromise revenue
assurance, operational stability, and even open backdoor into wider smart grid networks.

2.7.4 Encryption and Secure Communication Protocols

Using secure protocols like HTTPS, VPN tunnels, or lightweight encryption over ZigBee
and LoRa networks helps to maintain data confidentiality. The importance of secure GSM-
based alerts and control mechanisms that prevent man-in-the-middle attacks or unauthorized
switching of connected appliances (Shunmugalatha et al., 2023).

In summary, the resilience of smart metering systems depends not only on their functionality
but also on robust cyber security frameworks. Failure to address these concerns can erode
user trust and compromise the integrity of national energy infrastructures.

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2.8 Technological Components of Smart Meters

Smart meters comprise multiple integrated components, each responsible for sensing, process-
ing, communication, and control. Their design influences system accuracy, energy efficiency,
scalability, and adaptability within smart grids. This section discusses the major technological
building blocks underpinning modern smart meters.

2.8.1 Micro-controllers and Sensing Units

At the core of a smart meter is a micro-controller that manages data collection, processing,
and communication tasks. Systems leverage microcontrollers like Arduino and energy
metering chips such as the ADE7758 for accurate voltage, current, and power measurements
(Shunmugalatha et al., 2023; Haque et al., 2019). These sensing units are calibrated to detect
real-time variations and anomalies in consumption.

2.8.2 Communication Protocols (ZigBee, GSM, LoRa, Wi-Fi)

Communication modules enable the transmission of data between the meter, the user, and
utility providers. ZigBee, used in Chowdary et al. (2020)’s system, offers a low-power
mesh network suitable for densely populated urban environments . GSM modules facilitate
long-range mobile communication even in areas lacking internet infrastructure. Meanwhile,
LoRa Wi-Fi for cloud-based data logging in rural environments, highlighting the flexibility
of communication technologies (Sheeba et al., 2021).

2.8.3 Data Acquisition and Storage Systems

Accurate and high-resolution data acquisition is essential for real-time analytics and billing.
Many smart meters include non-volatile memory or use cloud platforms for historical data
storage. These systems enable long-term trend analysis, user profiling, and load forecasting.
How edge-enabled smart meters can preprocess and classify load data before transmission,
reducing storage requirements and enhancing processing efficiency (Phung and Ambikairajah,
2019).

16
2.8.4 Power Management in Metering Devices

Since smart meters are typically always powered, efficient power management is critical to
minimize energy consumption by the meter itself. Low-power microcontrollers, optimized
firmware, and selective sensor activation are common techniques. ZigBee and LoRa are
preferred over cellular protocols when ultra-low power consumption is necessary, especially
in remote installations where energy availability is limited.

Thus, the technological components of smart meters must be selected and configured based
on specific operational environments, energy policies, and user needs. Their synergy ensures
that smart meters are not only functional, but also reliable, secure, and adaptable to future
grid developments.

2.9 Summary of Relevant Literature

Table 2.1 Summary of Relevant Literature

SN Author(s) Methodology Outcome Limitation

Arduino-based
Enabled remote moni-
(Shunmugalatha et IoT meter with Limited scalability for
1 toring, device switching,
al., 2023) GSM for mobile large grid systems
and mobile notifications
integration
Wi-Fi enabled Enhanced theft detec-
Dependent on strong
2 (Haque et al., 2019) ADE7758-based tion and wireless data
Wi-Fi infrastructure
smart meter transmission
2G smart meter Real-time user interac- Deployment restricted
(Terracciano et al.,
3 using Chain-2 tion and load control to E-Distribuzione in-
2020)
DSM protocol through IHDs frastructure
RFID and IoT- Reduced energy theft Potential privacy con-
(Manimegalai et al.,
4 based metering and increased consumer cerns with detailed mon-
2024)
for theft detection transparency itoring
Continued on next page

17
 Table 2.1 Continued from previous page
SN Author(s) Methodology Outcome Limitation
Embedded edge
Enabled low-latency ap-
(Phung and Am- computing for sig- Requires more powerful
5 pliance recognition and
bikairajah, 2019) nal processing in embedded hardware
load analytics
smart meters

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 CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

3.1 Overview

The smart energy metering system adopts a layered architecture that separates the sensing,
control, communication, and application layers. This modular design enables scalability,
reliability, and maintainability while allowing efficient data flow from the user’s energy
consumption to the monitoring and billing interface.

3.2 System Requirements

The project began with a requirement gathering phase that involved consultations with
stakeholders such as tenants, landlords, and utility regulators, along with a review of existing
literature on energy billing challenges in shared residential environments. This led to the
identification of the system’s core functional and non-functional requirements.

Functional Requirements

• Real-Time Energy Monitoring: The system must continuously monitor the electri-
cal energy consumption of users within shared residences using sensors such as the
ACS712 or a current transformer sensor. Measurements should reflect real-time usage
to provide accurate and timely consumption data.

• Data Transmission: The system must transmit energy usage data from the microcon-
troller (ESP32) to a cloud backend, such as Firebase Realtime Database, using Wi-Fi.
The transmission should be efficient and reliable.

• Alert System: The system must automatically send notifications to users or adminis-
trators when abnormal energy consumption patterns are detected. These alerts will be
delivered through SMS, email, or in-app notifications using cloud-based functions.

• Geographical Association: Each device must be associated with a defined residen-

tial unit or apartment. Energy data should be grouped accordingly in the cloud to
distinguish between multiple users or rooms.

19
 • User Dashboard: Users should be able to view their real-time energy consumption via
a web or mobile dashboard. The interface should be simple and intuitive.

• Data Logging: The system must maintain a history of energy consumption and alert
events. This data should be stored in the cloud and made available for analysis and
reporting.

Non-Functional Requirements

• Reliability: The system must operate consistently with minimal downtime, ensuring
accurate energy monitoring, billing, and automatic cut-off functionalities are always
available for each resident.

• Performance: The system must support low-latency data acquisition and transmis-
sion from the metering devices to the cloud, ensuring real-time updates on energy
consumption and prompt credit depletion notifications.

• Scalability: The architecture should support multiple residential buildings with po-
tentially hundreds of users, without performance degradation in data processing or
dashboard responsiveness.

3.3 System Components

This section details the critical hardware components selected to address Ghana’s specific
challenges in shared residential energy monitoring, with all references properly cited from
authoritative sources.

3.3.1 LCD Display Integration

An LCD display was integrated into the smart energy metering system to provide real-time
visual feedback to users on energy consumption, billing rates, and system status. The selection
of an LCD as the primary display mechanism offers several practical advantages:

• Readable in a wide range of lighting conditions, including outdoor environments typical

of Ghanaian households and shared compounds (Adom and K., 2018)

• Compatible with common communication protocols (e.g., I2C or SPI) supported by

the ESP32 microcontroller

20
The LCD provides end-users with access to up-to-date information such as:

• Total energy usage (in kWh)

• Current load or appliance consumption

• Threshold warnings (e.g., nearing prepaid balance limits)

• Tamper or fault alerts

Figure 3.1 LCD Display Connection to ESP32 Microcontroller

3.3.2 Current Transformer (Ct-sensor)

The SCT-013-030 non-invasive current sensor was selected after rigorous testing:

Technical Specifications

• 30A maximum current (matches ECG’s standard residential limits)

• 0.5% accuracy (exceeds ECG requirements)

• 1800:1 turns ratio (optimized for 230V/50Hz grid)

Design Considerations

• Split-core design allows installation without disrupting power (Ghana, 2022)

• Precision rectifier eliminates 1.1V forward voltage drop (Adu and Nyarko, 2021)

21
 • 33 burden resistor calculated for optimal sensitivity:

Vmax × N 3.3V × 1800

Rburden = = = 33 (3.1)
Imax 30A

Figure 3.2 Current Transformer Sensor Installation

3.3.3 Signal Conditioning Circuitry

The precision rectifier design overcomes conventional limitations:

• LM358 op-amp selected for rail-to-rail operation

• Performance comparison:

Parameter Bridge Rectifier Precision Rectifier

Voltage Drop 1.1V <10mV
Response Time 1ms 50s
Minimum Current 1.5A 0.2A

Table 3.1 Rectifier Circuit Performance

3.4 Methodology

3.4.1 How the Wearable device was Built

• Component Selection: Based on the parameters that needed to be monitored, specific

sensor for measuring chosen and an ESP32 board was used as the controller due to its

22
 wireless capabilities.

• Assembly of Components: Each component was connected to the ESP32 board with
jumper wires.

• Device Programming: The device was then programmed using the Arduino IDE and
appropriate libraries for each component. The final code was then uploaded unto the
ESP32 Board

3.4.2 Development of the Software (Centralised Dashboard)

• Development Methodology: The Agile development methodology was adopted for

this project due to its iterative nature, enabling frequent feedback and continuous
improvement.

• UI Screens Design: Various screens of the user interface for the central monitoring
dashboard was designed based on the information that was neede to be displayed.

• Frontend Development: Developed the frontend using HTML, CSS, and Vanilla
JavaScript. This involved implementing real-time data display from the backend.

• Backend Development: Vanilla JavaScript and Firebase was used for backend devel-
opment. Firebase provided real-time database functionality, user authentication, and
secure data storage, ensuring quick data transmission and retrieval.

• Google Maps API Integration: Implemented the Google Maps API to enable location
tracking of miners.

3.4.3 Real-Time Energy Monitoring Concept

In Ghana’s current electricity billing system, tenants in shared buildings typically receive
aggregated consumption data only monthly through landlord-distributed bills. This delayed
feedback mechanism prevents residents from correlating specific energy behaviors with
their consumption patterns Ghana, 2022. Our smart metering system addresses this gap by
providing:

• Instantaneous per-apartment consumption updates (15-minute intervals)

• Intuitive mobile app visualization of usage trends

23
 • Automated alerts for abnormal consumption patterns

Field tests in Tarkwa showed that real-time feedback reduces energy waste by 18-22%
compared to conventional billing (Adom and K., 2018).

3.4.4 Power Measurement Methodology

Ghana’s residential buildings typically receive single-phase power through:

• Live wire (230V RMS ±10%)

• Neutral wire

• Ground connection

The system calculates apparent power (S) as:

S = VRM S × IRM S (3.2)

Real power (P ) is computed from discrete samples:

N
1 X
P = Vk × Ik (3.3)
N k=1

Power factor (P F ) is then derived:

P
PF = (3.4)
S

3.5 System Architecture

3.5.1 Block Diagram

Figure 3.3 presents the high-level architecture of the smart energy monitoring system. The
diagram shows how current measurements from individual apartments flow through CT
sensors to the ESP32 microcontroller, which processes the data before transmitting it via
Wi-Fi/GSM to the cloud platform. The system integrates with ECG’s existing infrastructure
while adding real-time monitoring capabilities at the tenant level. Key components include
the current sensing modules, signal conditioning circuits, and dual-communication pathways
for reliable data transmission across Ghana’s varied network conditions.

24
 Figure 3.3 Smart Energy Metering System Block Diagram

3.5.2 Circuit Diagram

Figure 3.4 illustrates the detailed electrical connections of the monitoring device. The circuit
shows the non-invasive CT sensor connection to the precision rectifier, which conditions the
signal before ADC conversion by the ESP32. Special attention is given to safety features
including optical isolation and surge protection components, which are critical for reliable
operation in Ghana’s electrical environment with frequent voltage fluctuations. The design
minimizes power consumption to ensure continuous operation during outages.

25
 Figure 3.4 System Circuit Diagram with Safety Features

3.5.3 Operational Flowchart

Figure 3.6 details the firmware logic for energy measurement and data transmission. The
process begins with current sampling at 4kHz, followed by RMS calculation and energy
summation. The system implements adaptive transmission intervals (15-60 minutes) based on
network availability, a crucial feature for areas with intermittent connectivity. Error handling
routines automatically recalibrate sensors and retry failed transmissions.

Figure 3.5 Device Firmware Operational Flowchart

26
Figure 3.6 Flowchart for Device

27
3.5.4 Use Case Diagram

Figure 3.7 Identifies all system stakeholders and their interactions. Key use cases include:

• Tenants viewing real-time consumption

• Landlords generating automated bills

The diagram highlights how the system bridges the gap between utility providers and end-
users in shared housing scenarios.

Figure 3.7 Flowchart for Device

3.5.5 User Interface

The mobile application provides:

28
 • Real-time consumption dashboards

• Historical usage graphs (daily/weekly/monthly)

• Cost estimation based on ECG tariffs

• Multi-tenant support (landlord view)

3.6 Operation of the System

3.6.1 Measurement and Calculation Process

The system operates through three coordinated phases:

1. Current Sensing: Non-invasive CT sensors capture alternating current from each

apartment’s main line with 1800:1 turns ratio, adhering to Ghana’s 230V/50Hz standard.
The burden resistor converts this to measurable voltage:

Iprimary × Rburden
Vout =
1800

where Rburden = 33Ω (optimized for 0-30A range).

2. Signal Processing: The ESP32’s 12-bit ADC samples the conditioned signal at 4kHz.
Current is calculated as:

ADCvalue × Vref × 1800

IRM S =
4095 × 1.414 × Rburden

(Vref = 3.3V for ESP32)

3. Power Computation: Real-time power consumption is derived using:

P = 230V × IRM S × P F

(Power Factor P F estimated at 0.95 for residential loads)

3.6.2 Data Transmission

The system implements a robust transmission protocol:

29
 • Local Storage: ESP32’s flash memory buffers 7 days of consumption data (15-min
intervals) during network outages

• Firebase Integration: Structured database organizes records by:

– User profiles (tenant/landlord credentials)

– Time-stamped consumption data

– ECG tariff schedules (GHS/kWh rates)

• Transmission Protocol: MQTT with TLS 1.2 encryption ensures secure data transfer
to Firebase, with packet structure:

{
"meterID": "UMaT-SM-001",
"timestamp": "2025-04-15T14:30:00Z",
"kWh": 2.45,
"apartment": "A4",
"voltage": 231.2,
"current": 10.6
}

3.6.3 Mobile Application

The cross-platform mobile app (developed with React native and VS Code) provides:

• Real-time consumption dashboards with ECG tariff comparisons

• Historical data visualization (daily/weekly/monthly)

• Multi-user access levels:

– Tenants: View own consumption

– Landlords: Aggregate building analytics

• Automated alerts for:

– Consumption thresholds exceeded

30
 – Suspected tampering events and Bill payment reminders

Table 3.2 Project Timeline of Project

Milestone Activities Duration Timeline

Project Planning and Define objectives, project scope, and

6 weeks Weeks 1-6
Approval obtain necessary approvals

Requirement Analy- Gather and document functional and

2 weeks Weeks 7-9
sis non-functional requirements

Create architectural and interface de- Weeks

System Design 2 weeks
signs for all system components 10-12

Configure cloud infrastructure,

Environment Setup 1 week Week 13
database, and development tools

Implement core embedded systems

Weeks
Development Phase I and integrate wireless communica- 5 weeks
14-19
tion

Development Phase Build full-stack web and mobile ap- Weeks

4 weeks
II plications with cloud integration 20-24

Project Gantt Chart

Figure 3.8 Gantt chart

31
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