Assignment Set 1

1. Describe in brief the following network topologies: A) Star B) Ring C) Bus With suitable diagrams, and also mention at least one real time usage of the above Topologies. Ans:

a. The Star

Fig 1. STAR topology Of all the topologies, the star topology is one of the oldest. This system roughly parallels a telephone system. Star topology has the nodes connected to a central or host computer by a twisted pair cable. This wiring concentrator is called a hub and it implies that unlike bus topology, here several wires are being used. Each cable is connected to the stations NIC at one end and to a port on the hub at the other. The hubs are placed in wiring closets centrally located in a building. When one of the computers on the network sends a signal, the host routes it to the node that it is addressed to. There is no direct connection between the nodes on the network except through the host computer. Advantages of using star topology are 1. Network can be easily expanded, by adding a new workstation which requires adding a network interface card and connection wire to the central computer. 2. Single cable failure affects only individual stations. 3. Incremental cost for additional stations is low up to the expansion limits of the central computer. Major disadvantages are

The central computer is a single point of failure which may cause the entire network to fail. Message delay may be high because of throughput limitations at the central computer. The initial cost of a star network is high because the central computer must be installed with a margin for expansion.

Star Topology Conclusion

A Star Network Topology is best suited for smaller networks and works efficiently when there is limited number of nodes. One has to ensure that the hub or the central node is always working and extra security features should be added to the hub because it s the heart of the network.

b. The Ring

Fig 3. RING topology

Ring topology arranges the nodes on the network in a circle. When one of the computers on network sends a signal, it passes it to the next node on the network. If it is not addressed to that node, it is retransmitted to the next node and so on around the circle until it reaches the node it is addressed to. The connections between computers are not direct; instead, each computer attaches to a hub and the ring itself resides inside the hub. This network is a broadcast network. The ring topology is especially useful when the interconnection medium is not wire, but optical fibre. One disadvantage of using this architecture is that adding a new user means breaking into the ring, and that is sometimes not convenient. Another drawback to the ring topology is that any failure at any user or inter user link may cause the entire network to stop. If a user is unable to receive and pass along the DATAit receives from the ring, the chain of events is stopped.

c. The Bus

Fig 2. BUS topology

In bus topology, a common pathway called a bus is shared by many users. Bus or linear, architecture connects all nodes to a single bus, much as the components are organized within the computer. Users can be connected to the bus at any point. A signal addressed to another node is sent to the bus. All other nodes on the network examine the signal to see if it is addressed to one of them. Typically, wires connect each node to the networks backbone, which is a fixed length of cable with terminators at both ends to stop reflections when signals hit the end. Advantages of bus topology are

Users can be put anywhere along its length and added for very low cost and with little difficulty.

If the bus interface circuitry is designed properly, failures of one user will not affect other users or the bus operation. Major drawbacks are It requires more management than the star. Since the bus is shared, there has to be a protocol that is used to decide whose turn it is, what to do when another user is active, and how to prevent DATA of various users from colliding on the bus. The bus topology is hardly used these days because of the single cable used, which makes it fairly difficult to detect the exact location of problems when there are glitches.

2 . a - Brifly explain ISDN, ADSL and Leased lines. b What is internet and intranet?

Ans... A. ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communications standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in 1988 in the CCITT red book. Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the classic telephone system. There are several kinds of access interfaces to ISDN defined as: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) The entry level interface to ISDN is the Basic(s) Rate Interface (BRI), a 128 kbps service delivered over a pair of standard telephone copper wires. Primary Rate Interface (PRI) The other ISDN access available is the Primary Rate Interface (PRI), which is carried over an E1 (2048 kbps) in most parts of the world. An E1 is 30 'B' channels of 64 kbps one 'D' channel of 64 kbps and a timing and alarm channel of 64 kbps. Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) In the 1980s the telecommunications industry expected that digital services would follow much the same pattern as voice services did on the public switched telephone network, and conceived a grandiose end-to-end circuit switched services, known as Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (B-ISDN).

ADSL:
Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is a type of digital subscriber line technology, a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over copper telephone lines than a conventional voiceband modem can provide. It does this by utilizing frequencies that are not used by a voice telephone call. A splitter, or DSL filter, allows a single telephone connection to be used for both ADSL service and voice calls at the same time. ADSL can generally only be distributed over short distances from the telephone exchange, typically less than 4 kilometres , but has been known to exceed 8 kilometres if the originally laid wire gauge allows for further distribution.

LEASED LINES:
A leased line is a service contract between a provider and a customer, whereby the provider agrees to deliver a symmetric telecommunications line connecting two or more locations in exchange for a monthly rent (hence the term lease). It is sometimes known as a 'Private Circuit' or 'Data Line' in the UK or as CDN (Circuito Diretto Numerico) in Italy. Unlike traditional PSTN lines it does not have a telephone number, each side of the line being permanently connected to the other. Leased lines can be used for telephone, data or Internet services. Some are ringdown services, and some connect two PBXes. Typically, leased lines are used by businesses to connect geographically distant offices. Unlike dial-up connections, a leased line is always active. The fee for the connection is a fixed monthly rate. The primary factors affecting the monthly fee are distance between end points and the speed of the circuit. Because the connection doesn't carry anybody else's communications, the carrier can assure a given level of quality. In India, leased lines are available at speeds of 64 kbps, 128 kbps, 256 kbps, 512 kbps, 1 Mbps, 2 Mbps, 4 Mbps, 8 Mbps, 16 Mbps T1(1.544 Mbps) or E1(2.048 Mbps).

B. Internet:
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support email. Benefits of Internet: Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper, book and other print publishing are adapting to Web site technology, or are reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has enabled or accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social

networking. Online shopping has boomed both for major retail outlets and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.

Intranet:
An intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to securely share any part of an organization's information or network operating system within that organization. The term is used in contrast to internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes, the term refers only to the organization's internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization's information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal point of internal communication and collaboration. Any of the well known Internet protocols may be found in an intranet, such as HTTP (web services), SMTP (e-mail), and FTP (file transfer protocol). Internet technologies are often deployed to provide modern interfaces to legacy information systems hosting corporate data. Increasingly, intranets are being used to deliver tools and applications, e.g., collaboration (to facilitate working in groups and teleconferencing) or sophisticated corporate directories, sales and customer relationship management tools, project management etc., to advance productivity. Benefits of Intranet: Intranet provides a lot of useful things to us like - Workforce productivity, Communication Business operations and management, Cost-effective, Enhance collaboration, Cross-platform capability, Built for one audience, Promote common corporate culture and Supports a distributed computing architecture etc.

Q. 3. Write a sort note on... a. Nested Links b. Forward and Reverse Links c. Anchor

Ans. A. Nested Links: Links:

Links are the most fundamental part of the world wide web. It is the links that tie it all together. There are three different kinds of links you can have on your website:

Links to anchors on the current page (Internal).

Links to other pages within the current site (Local)

Links to pages outside the current site (Global).

It is possible to make texts and images work as links. With a little creativity other objects, such as pushbuttons or even drop-down menus can work as links as well. This section will cover the usual links: Texts and Images. The tags used to produce links are the <a> and </a>. The <a> tells where the link should start and the </a> indicates where the link ends. Everything between these two will work as a link. The target of the link is added to the <a> tag using the href="http://www.whateverpage.com" setting. The example below shows how to make the word here work as a link to yahoo. Click <a href="http://www.yahoo.com">here</a> to go to yahoo.

You simply:

Specify the target in the <a href=" ">.

Then add the text that should work as a link.

Finally add an </a> tag to indicate where the link ends.

There are a few settings that can be useful for controlling the colors of text links. This page will teach you how to:

Define colors for all links on the page.

Define colors for individual links on the page.

Define colors for all links on the page The general color of text links is specified in the <body> tag, like in the example below: <body link="#C0C0C0" vlink="#808080" alink="#FF0000">

link - standard link - to a page the visitor hasn't been to yet. (standard color is blue #0000FF).

vlink - visited link - to a page the visitor has been to before. (standard color is purple #800080).

alink - active link - the color of the link when the mouse is on it. (standard color is red - #FF0000). NESTED LINKS ARE NOT PERMITED IN HTML

Links and anchors defined by the A element may not be nested. ILLEGAL EXAMPLE: The following example illustrates nested links. Nested links are not permitted.
This text contains <A name="outer-anchor" href="next-outer.html">an outer anchor and and link and <A name="inner-anchor" href="next-inner.html">an inner anchor and link.</A></A>

Ans B. Forward and Reverse Links......

The title attribute may be set for both A and LINK to add information about the nature of a link. This information may be spoken by a user agent, rendered as a tool tip, because a change in cursor image, etc. Thus, we may augment a previous example by supplying a title for each link:
<BODY> ...some text... Go to <A href="./chapter2.html" title="Get chapter two.">chapter two</A>. See also this <A href="../images/forest.gif" title="GIF image of enchanted forest">map of the enchanted forest.</A> </BODY>

Reverse Links The rel and rev attributes play complementary roles. Consider two documents A and B.
Document A: <LINK href="docB" rel="foo">

Has exactly the same meaning as:

Document B: <LINK href="docA" rev="foo">

Ans C.
Anchor: An anchor is a piece of text which marks the beginning and/or the end of a hypertext link. The text between the opening tag and the closing tag is either the start or destination (or both) of a link. Attributes of the anchor tag are as follows.
HREF OPTIONAL. If the HREF attribute is present, the anchor is sensitive text: the start of a link. If the reader selects this text, (s)he should be presented with another document whose network address is defined by the value of the HREF attribute . The format of the network address is specified elsewhere . This allows for the form HREF="#identifier" to refer to

another anchor in the same document. If the anchor is in another document, the attribute is a relative name , relative to the documents address (or specified base address if any). @@NOTE: This refers to the URI specification, which does not cover relative addresses. There is no specification of how to distinguish relative addresses from absolute addresses. NAME OPTIONAL. If present, the attribute NAME allows the anchor to be the destination of a link. The value of the attribute is an identifier for the anchor. Identifiers are arbitrary strings but must be unique within the HTML document. Another document can then make a reference explicitly to this anchor by putting the identifier after the address, separated by a hash sign . @@NOTE: This feature is representable in SGML as an ID attribute, if we restrict the identifiers to be SGML names. REL OPTIONAL. An attribute REL may give the relationship (s) described by the hypertext link. The value is a comma-separated list of relationship values. Values and their semantics will be registered by the HTML registration authority . The default relationship if none other is given is void. REL should not be present unless HREF is present. See Relationship values , REV . REV OPTIONAL. The same as REL , but the semantics of the link type are in the reverse direction. A link from A to B with REL="X" expresses the same relationship as a link from B to A with REV="X". An anchor may have both REL and REV attributes. URN OPTIONAL. If present, this specifies a uniform resource number for the document. See note . TITLE OPTIONAL. This is informational only. If present the value of this field should equal the value of the TITLE of the document whose address is given by the HREF attribute. See note . METHODS OPTIONAL. The value of this field is a string which if present must be a comma separated list of HTTP METHODS supported by the object for public use. See note .

All attributes are optional, although one of NAME and HREF is necessary for the anchor to be useful. See also: LINK .

Example of use:
See <A HREF="http://www.w3.org/">CERN</A>'s information for more details. A <A NAME=serious>serious</A> crime is one which is associated with imprisonment. ... The Organization may refuse employment to anyone convicted of a <a href="#serious">serious</A> crime.

Q 4. a. How to download a file from Internet? Answer:

How to download Files

What Downloading Means
When you download a file, you access digital information (electronic "bits") from a remote computer using a modem. Almost everything you do on the Web is some form of downloading-it's as simple as clicking your mouse. When you open a Web page, for instance, you are actually downloading a file and its associated graphics from a Web server. Your Web browser then attempts to display the Web page or file. First, the browser checks the file extension for the page (the letters following the period after the file name, like "doc" or "htm"). If your browser is unable to recognize the extension, you are prompted to select a viewer for the file-that is, you tell the browser which software program to use to view the file. You also have an option to save the file to your computer or to the network drive of your choice. You can also download files by clicking the link to the file with your right mouse button (or holding down the mouse button if you are using a Macintosh) and then selecting Save to Disk from the pop-up dialog box. Depending on your browser configurations, you are prompted to save the file to your hard drive (C drive), or the file downloads automatically to your computer desktop.

Downloading Files From the Internet

Downloading files from the Internet is a simple process that usually requires few steps. Depending on the file type, you can download files by opening them, by choosing to save them and then opening them, or by saving them and extracting or decompressing them. Instructions and tips for downloading files are included here.

Downloading and saving a file To download a file, save it to your local computer drive or network drive. Most Web browsers ask you to choose a folder where you want to save the file. Make a note of the name and location of the folder so you can easily find the downloaded file. Restrictions to downloading Almost any file found on the Internet can be downloaded and saved. Sometimes, however, you can't download a file; there are many possible reasons.

File size. The file may be too large and too slow to download. File type. You don't have software needed to view or use the file. Policy restrictions. Your organization does not allow the file to be downloaded because of its type, content, or source. File cost. The overwhelming majority of files available on the Internet are either free or available for a trial period at no charge. Others must be paid for, and many require you to electronically sign or accept a licensing agreement that restricts use, distribution, sharing, editing, or manipulation of the file.

b. Who invented the Internet?

Answer:
A single person did not create the Internet that we know and use today. Below is a listing of several different people who've helped contribute and develop the Internet. The idea The initial idea is credited as being Leonard Kleinrock's after he published his first paper entitled "Information Flow in Large Communication Nets" on May 31, 1961. In 1962 J.C.R. Licklider becomes the first Director of IPTO and gave his vision of a galactic network. In addition to the ideas from Licklider and Kleinrock, Robert Taylor helped create the idea of the network, which later became ARPANET. Initial creation The Internet as we know it today first started being developed in the late 1960's. In the summer of 1968, the Network Working Group (NWG) held its first meeting chaired by Elmer Shapiro with the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) with attendees: Steve Carr, Steve Crocker, Jeff Rulifson, and Ron Stoughton. In the meeting the group discussed solving issues related to getting hosts to communicate with each other. In December 1968, Elmer Shapiro with SRI released a report "A Study of Computer Network Design Parameters." Based on this work and earlier work done by Paul Baran, Thomas Marill and others; Lawrence Roberts and Barry Wessler helped to create the final version of the Interface Message Processor (IMP) specifications. Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN) was later awarded the contract to design and build the IMP sub network.

Introduction of the Internet to the general public UCLA puts out a press release introducing the public to the Internet on July 3, 1969. First network equipment August 29, 1969 the first network switch and the first piece of network equipment called "IMP", which is short for (Interface Message Processor) is sent to UCLA. On September 2, 1969 the first data moves from UCLA host to the switch. In the picture to the right, is a picture of Leonard Kleinrock next to the IMP. The first distributed message and network crash On Friday October 29, 1969 at 10:30 p.m., the first Internet message was sent from computer science Professor Leonard KleinRock's laboratory at UCLA, after the second piece of network equipment was installed at SLI. This connection not only enabled the first transmission to be made, but is also considered to be the first Internet backbone. The first message to be distributed was "LO", which was an attempt at "LOGIN" by Charley S. Kline to log into the SLI computer from UCLA. However, the message was unable to be completed because the SLI system crashed. Shortly after the crash, the issue was resolved and he was able to log into the computer. E-mail is developed Ray Tomlinson introduces network e-mail in 1972. The first messaging system to send messages across a network to other users. TCP is developed Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn design TCP during 1973 and later publish it with the help of Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in December of 1974 in RFC 675. First commercial network A commercial version of ARPANET known as Telenet is introduced in 1974 and considered by many to be the first Internet Service Provider (ISP). Ethernet is conceived Bob Metcalfe develops Ethernet idea in 1973. TCP/IP is created In 1978 TCP splits into TCP/IP driven by Danny Cohen, David Reed, and John Shoch to support real-time traffic. This allows the creation of UDP. TCP/IP is later standardized into ARPANET in 1983 and is still the primary protocol used for the Internet. DNS is introduced

Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel introduce DNS in 1984. HTML In 1990 Tim Berners-Lee develops HTML, which made a huge contribution to how we navigate and view the Internet today. WWW Tim Berners-Lee introduces WWW to the public on August 6, 1991.

c. What do u mean by spamming? Answer:

Spam is the use of electronic messaging systems (including most broadcast media, digital delivery systems) to send unsolicited bulk messages indiscriminately. While the most widely recognized form of spam is e-mail spam, the term is applied to similar abuses in other media: instant messaging spam, Usenet newsgroup spam, Web search engine spam, spam in blogs, wiki spam, online classified ads spam, mobile phone messaging spam, Internet forum spam, junk fax transmissions, social networking spam, television advertising and file sharing network spam. Spamming remains economically viable because advertisers have no operating costs beyond the management of their mailing lists, and it is difficult to hold senders accountable for their mass mailings. Because the barrier to entry is so low, spammers are numerous, and the volume of unsolicited mail has become very high. In the year 2011, the estimated figure for spam messages is around seven trillion. The costs, such as lost productivity and fraud, are borne by the public and by Internet service providers, which have been forced to add extra capacity to cope with the deluge. Spamming has been the subject of legislation in many jurisdictions. A person who creates electronic spam is called a spammer.

Spamming in different media:

Email: Email spam, also known as unsolicited bulk Email (UBE), junk mail, or unsolicited commercial email (UCE), is the practice of sending unwanted email messages, frequently with commercial content, in large quantities to an indiscriminate set of recipients.

Instant Messaging Instant Messaging spam makes use of instant messaging systems. Although less ubiquitous than its e-mail counterpart, according to a report from Ferris Research, 500 million spam IMs were sent in 2003, twice the level of 2002. Mobile phone Mobile phone spam is directed at the text messaging service of a mobile phone. This can be especially irritating to customers not only for the inconvenience but also because of the fee they may be charged per text message received in some markets. Spam targeting search engines (spamdexing) Spamdexing (a portmanteau of spamming and indexing) refers to a practice on the World Wide Web of modifying HTML pages to increase the chances of them being placed high on search engine relevancy lists. These sites use "black hat search engine optimization (SEO) techniques" to deliberately manipulate their rank in search engines. Many modern search engines modified their search algorithms to try to exclude web pages utilizing spamdexing tactics. SPIT

SPIT (SPam over Internet Telephony) is VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) spam, usually using SIP (Session Initiation Protocol).