ADVANCED LEVE PURE MATHEMATICS NOTES

Topics

1. Mathematical Logic

2. Indices, surds and logarithms

3. Inequalities

4. Polynomials

5. Partial Fractions

6. Quadratic Theory

7. Relations and functions

8. Permutations and Combinations

9. Sequences and Series

10. Binomial theorem

11. Mathematical Proofs

12. Trigonometry

13. Coordinate Geometry

14. Limits and differentiation

15. Numerical Methods

16. Integration

17. Ordinary differential equations

18. Complex numbers

19. Vectors

20. Matrices and transformations

 1. MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
Subtopics

 Introduction
 Statements
 Truth tables and truth values
 Logical Equivalence
 Tautologies and Contradictions
 Quantifiers.

A) Introduction

The word logic originates from the Greek word ‘’logos’’ meaning reason. Logic is the study of correct
reasoning. It is the order which the human intellect follows in knowing the truth and drawing concrete conclusions.
Logic is generally called the science of reasoning.

B) Statements

A statement or proposition is a sentence that is either true or false but not both. E.g. Messi is the greatest
footballer of all time.

- All statements are sentences but not all sentences are statement. Statements in logic are usually denoted by lower
case letters such as 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, …

- A simple statement is made up of only one statement. E.g. John is tall

- A compound statement is a statement that is made up of two or more simple statement linked together by
connectives.

For example, consider the following simple statements

𝑝: It is raining

𝑞: James is playing football in the field

A compound statement can be formed from the above statements as follows: It is raining, and James is
playing football in the field. The word and in the statement above is called a connective. Other examples of
connectives include: or, not, but, therefore, because etc.

C) Truth Values and Truth tables

- The veracity of a statement is its truth value that is either true (T) or false (F).

- Truth tables can be used to show how logical connectives work. They have columns for each statement and each
row corresponds to one possible combination of truth values.

- The number of possibilities in a truth table of 𝐧 statements is given by 𝟐𝐧 .

(i) Negation

The negation is a logical operation that changes the truth value of a statement.

- If 𝑝 is a statement, then the negation of 𝑝 is denoted ∼ 𝒑 or ¬𝒑 and read as “not 𝒑”.

- If 𝑝: I am an anglophone, then ~𝑝: I am not an anglophone.

- If 𝑝 is T, then ~𝑝 is F and vice versa.

The truth table is as shown

 𝑝 ~𝑝
T F
F T

(ii) Conjunction

It is a compound statement made up of simple statements linked together by the connective 𝐚𝐧𝐝.

- For two statements 𝑝 and 𝑞, the conjunction is denoted 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 and is read as 𝒑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒒.

- 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true when p and q are both true and false otherwise.

- The truth table is as shown

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
(iii) Disjunction

It is a compound statement made up of simple statements linked together by the connective 𝐨𝐫.

- For two statements 𝑝 and 𝑞, the disjunction is denoted 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and is read as 𝒑 𝐨𝐫 𝒒.

- 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true when at least one of the two statements is true and false when both statements are false.

- The truth table is as shown

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
(iv) Implications

Implications or conditionals represented as 𝒑 ⟹ 𝒒 are statements of the form if 𝒑 then 𝒒 or 𝒑 implies 𝒒. 𝑝 is called
the hypothesis (premise) and 𝑞 is called the conclusion.

- 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 is false only when 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true.

The truth table is as shown

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝⟹𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
- The inverse of 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 is the statement ~𝑝 ⟹ ~𝑞.

- The converse of 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 is the statement 𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝.

- The contrapositive of 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 is the statement ~𝑞 ⟹ ~𝑝.

(v) Biconditionals

Biconditionals also called double implications are denoted 𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞 and read as 𝒑 if and only if 𝒒. The biconditional is
true when both statements have the same truth value and false otherwise.

The truth table is as shown

 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝⟺𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Exercise

1) Build a truth table for the following propositions

a) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⟹ ~𝑞 b) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⟹ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) c) ~𝑝 ⟹ (~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)

2) If 𝑝: Eric plays golf and 𝑞: Oscar plays tennis. Write the statements represented by the following.

a) 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 b) ~𝑞 ⟹ 𝑝 c) ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)

3) If 𝑝: Paul is happy, 𝑞: Paul paints a picture and 𝑟: Ryan is happy, write down the following statements in symbolic
form.

a) If Paul is happy and paints a picture, then Ryan isn’t happy.

b) If Paul is happy, then he paints a picture.

c) Ryan is happy only if Paul paints a picture.

4) If 𝑝: Angelo comes to the party

𝑞: Bruno comes to the party

𝑟: David comes to the party

𝑠: Suzy comes to the party

Write down the following statements in ordinary English

a) 𝑠 ⟹ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) b) 𝑟 ⟹ (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) c) 𝑠 ⟺ (𝑟 ∧ ~𝑝) d) (~𝑠 ⟹ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑠 ⟹ ~𝑞)

D) Logical Equivalence

Two statements 𝑝 and 𝑞 are said to be logically equivalent if they have the same truth tables. The symbol for logical
equivalence is ≡.

Examples

1) Contrapositive: 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑞 ⟹ ~𝑝

2) Conditional disjunction: 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞

3) Double Negation: ~(~𝑝) ≡ 𝑝

4) De Morgan’s Law: ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 and ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞.

5) Negation of an implication: ~(𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞

Exercise: Using truth tables, show that

a) ~(𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞) ≡ 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 b) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ ~𝑞 ≡ ~(~𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) c) [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (~𝑝 ⟹ ~𝑞)] ≡ 𝑞

E) Tautologies and Contradictions

A tautology is a logical statement that is always true and a contradiction is a logical statement that is always
false.

Examples of tautologies

1) The law of syllogism: [(𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑟)] ⟹ (𝑝 ⟹ 𝑟)]

2) 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝

3) (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⟹ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)

- The negation of a tautology is a contradiction and vice versa.

Exercises

1) Using truth tables, show that [(𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 ⟹ 𝑟)] ⟹ (𝑝 ⟹ 𝑟)] is a tautology.

2) Using truth tables, determine whether [(𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞) ⟹ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)] is a tautology.

F) Quantifiers

There are two types of quantifiers: Existential and universal quantifiers.

- The universal quantifier is ‘for every’ and denoted ∀ while the existential quantifier is ‘‘there exist’’ and it is
denoted ∃.

- The quantifier ∃! Is read as “there exist a unique.’’

- The negation of one quantifier is the other.

Exercise: Write the statement all integers are rational numbers with the use of quantifiers and negate it.
 2.INDICES, SURDS AND LOGARITHMS

Subtopics

 Indices
 Definition
 Laws of indices
 Simple exponential equations
 Graphs of exponential functions
 Surds
 Definition
 Properties of surds
 Reduction of surds to basic form
 Conjugate surds
 Rationalizing the denominator of a surd
 Logarithms
 Definition
 Laws of logarithms
 Changing the base of a logarithm
 Natural or Naperian logarithms
 Simple Logarithmic equations

I) Indices

a) Definition

A number is said to be in index form if it can be expressed in the form 𝑎 where 𝑎 is the base and 𝑛 is the exponent
(index or power)

𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × … × 𝑎 (𝑛 times)

b) Laws of indices

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are non- zero real numbers, then

×
(i) 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑎 (ii) 𝑎 ÷ 𝑎 = 𝑎 (iii) (𝑎 ) = 𝑎 ,1 = 1

(iv) 𝑎 = 1 (v) 𝑎 = (vi) (𝑎 × 𝑏) = 𝑎 × 𝑏

(vii) (𝑎 ÷ 𝑏) = 𝑎 ÷𝑏 (viii) √𝑎 = 𝑎 (ix) √𝑎 =𝑎

Example: Find the value of each of the following

1) 27 2) 3

Exercise: Find the value of each of the following

× ×
1) 2) 3) ×

( ) ×( ) ×( )
4) × ×
× (256) 5) ×
c) Simple Exponential Equations

- If 𝑎 = 𝑎 , 𝑎 ≠ 0 then 𝑥 = 𝑦

- If 𝑎 = 𝑏 , 𝑛 ≠ 0 then 𝑎 = 𝑏.

Example: Solve the following exponential equations

1) 3 = √3 2) = 3) 3 = 4

Exercise

1) Solve the following exponential equations

a) (𝑥 + 2) = −27 b) 2(4 + 1) = 66 c) 9 = 3√81

d) 3 − 12(3 ) + 27 = 0 e) =1 f) 2 +2 = 17

g) 2 − 3 √2 −4=0 h) 16 − 5 ∙ 2 +1=0 i) 6 + 9 = 2

2) a) If 𝑎 = 𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏) , 𝑏 > 1, 𝑎 > 1, 𝑥, 𝑦 ≠ 0, show that 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1

b) If 𝑎 = (𝑎𝑏) = (𝑎𝑏 ) , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ , show that 2𝑥𝑧 = 𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑧).

3) If 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2, find the value of 𝑥 +𝑦 .

4) Given that 2 − 2 = 2016, find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.

√
5) Solve the following equations: a) 128𝑥 − 2 +2 =0 b)𝑥 = 729 c) 𝑥 =

6) If 𝑥 + = −1, find the value of 𝑥 + .

II) Surds

a) Definition

If the nth root of a number is irrational, then the root is a surd. E.g. √3, √2, √27, √25 etc. Generally, quadratic surds
are of the form √𝑎 + 𝑏√𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ and 𝑐 ∈ ℤ . E.g. √3 + √7, 2 + 3√5, 12 − 7√3 etc.

b) Properties of surds

If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ , then

(i) √𝑎 × 𝑏 = √𝑎 × √𝑏 (ii) √𝑎 ÷ 𝑏 = √𝑎 ÷ √𝑏 (iii) √𝑎 × √𝑎 = 𝑎

(iv) 𝑝√𝑎 × 𝑞√𝑏 = 𝑝𝑞√𝑎 × 𝑏 (v) 𝑝√𝑎 ÷ 𝑞√𝑏 = (vi) √𝑎 ± 𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 ± √𝑏

Example: Find a simplified expression for 2√2 + 1

c) Reduction of surds to basic form

To reduce a surd to basic form is to write it in the form 𝑎√𝑏 where 𝑏 is neither a perfect square nor a multiple of a
perfect square excluding 1.

Example: Reduce the following surds to basic form and simplify

 √ √ √
1) √28 − √63 2)
√

d) Conjugate Surds

If two different surds are multiplied and the result gives a rational number, then the two surds are said to be
conjugates of each other. Generally, 𝑎 + 𝑏√𝑐 and 𝑎 − 𝑏√𝑐 are conjugates of each other.

e) Rationalizing the denominator of a surd

To rationalize the denominator of a surd, we proceed as follows:

- If the denominator is a simple surd e.g. , we multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the surd in the
√
denominator.

- If the surd is of the form , we multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of the
√
denominator.

Example: Rationalize the denominator of the following surds

√
a) b) c)
√ √ √

f) Square root of a surd

Example: Find the square root of the following surds

a) 3 + 2√2 b) 7 − 2√10 c) 53 − 10√6

Exercise

1) Simplify the following expressions leaving your answer in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏√𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ

√ √ √
a) √3 − 1 2√3 + 1 b) − c) +
√ √ √ √

√ √ √
2) If 𝑥 = , then find the value of +
√ √ √ √

√
3) Given that = 𝑎 + 𝑏√3, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
√

4) Given that 𝑥 = 2 + √3 and 𝑦 = 2 − √3, show that

a) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 b) 𝑥𝑦 = 1 c) = 2 + √3

5) Given that 𝑎 = 2 + √3, express 𝑎 − in the form 𝑥 + 𝑦√3 where 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.

6) Show that 5 + 2√6 − = 2√2

√

7) Given that 𝑎 = + + , show that 𝑎 < 18.

√ √ √

8) Without using a calculator, find the value of √70 × 71 × 72 × 73 + 1

9) Solve 3 3 3√3 …

10) Solve the equation 2 + √3 + 2 − √3 =4

III) Logarithms

a) Definition

The logarithm of a number is an index.

Consider the following: 1000 = 10 ⟹ log 1000 = 3. 2 = 16 ⟹ log 16 = 4.

- log 𝑏 is read as “log b base a.”

- log 𝑎 can simply be written as log 𝑎.

b) Laws of logarithms

Let 𝑎, 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑛 be positive real numbers.

(i) log 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑥 + log 𝑦 (ii) log 𝑥 𝑦 = log 𝑥 − log 𝑦 (iii) log 𝑥 = 𝑛 log 𝑥

(iv) log 𝑎 = 𝑛, in particular, log 1 = 0 and log 𝑎 = 1

(v) log 𝑎 = (vi) 𝑎 = 𝑥, in particular, 10 =𝑥

c) Changing the base of a logarithm

Generally, log 𝑏 =

If 𝑐 = 10, then log 𝑏 = and if 𝑐 = 𝑏, then log 𝑏 = .

d) Natural or Naperian logarithms

These are logarithms to the base 𝑒.

log 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 where 𝑒 = 2.718 …

e) Simple logarithmic equations

These are equations containing at least one logarithm.

= If log 𝑥 = log 𝑦, then 𝑥 = 𝑦.

- log 𝑥 = 𝑦, then 𝑎 = 𝑥.

Exercises

1) Solve leaving your answer to 2d. p the equation 3 = 12.

2) Find the value of each of the following

a) (log 128)(log 81) b) log 8√2 c) 5

3) Show that log 2 + log 16 − log √27 =

4) Show that

a) log 𝑥 = log 𝑥 b) log 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑥 + log 𝑦

5) Find the value of 4 when 𝑥 = log 25

6) Solve the following logarithmic equations

a) log (2𝑥 − 1) = 2 b) log(3𝑥 + 1) = log 64 c) log (𝑥 + 44) − log 2𝑥 = 1

d) log 𝑥 = log 2 e) log 𝑦 = log 9 f) log 𝑥 + 3 log 3 − 4 = 0

g) log 𝑥 − log 𝑥=0

7) a) Given that 2 = 3 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1, show that 𝑥 =

b) Given that 5 = 7 = 1225, show that =2

8) Show that log 𝑥 = and use it to solve the pair of simultaneous equations log 𝑦 + log 𝑥 = 3 and log 𝑦 +
2 log 𝑦 = 3

9) (a) Express log 10 in terms of 𝑚 and 𝑛 if log 6 = 𝑚 and log 5 = 𝑛

(b) Express log 60 in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏 if log 30 = 𝑎 and log 24 = 𝑏

(c) Express log 24 in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏 if log 15 = 𝑎 and log 18 = 𝑏

10) Given that log 18 = 𝑎 and log 54 = 𝑏, show that 𝑎𝑏 + 5(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 1

11) Solve the following equations

a) (5 )(2 )=4 b) 6 =3 ∙4 c) ln 𝑥 = 2 d) log 𝑒 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 − 𝑒

e) 4 + 6 = 9 f) 3 + 4 = 5 g) log [7 + log [13 + log (𝑥 + 4)]] = 2

h) 𝑥 = √𝑥 + 1 i) log √𝑥 = log 𝑥.
 3. INEQUALITIES

Subtopics

 Basic rules of inequalities

 Linear inequalities
 Quadratic inequalities
 Rational Inequalities
 Absolute value inequalities

a) Basic rules of inequalities

The different inequality symbols are <, >, ≤ and ≥.

- Adding (subtracting) a number from both sides of an inequality maintains the inequality sign.

- An inequality is preserved if multiplied (divided) by a positive number and reversed if multiplied (divided) by a
negative number.

- Never multiply(divide) through an inequality by an expression whose sign is unknown.

b) Linear inequalities

These are inequalities involving linear expressions i.e. expressions in which the highest power of the
unknown is 1.

Exercise: Solve the following inequalities and represent your solution on a number line

a) 𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0 b) 5 − 4𝑥 > 13 c) − ≤ ≤ d) 0 ≤ log (2𝑥 − 3) ≤ 2

c) Quadratic Inequalities

These are inequalities involving quadratic expressions.

- The quadratic expression 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is always positive if 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, and it is always negative if
𝑎 < 0 and 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0.

- The quadratic expression 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is non- negative if 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≤ 0, and it is non-positive if 𝑎 < 0
and 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≤ 0.

Exercise

1) a) Show that 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 5 > 0, ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

b) Show that 𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 10 > 0 for all real values of 𝑥.

2) Solve the following inequalities and represent your solution on a number line

a) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) < 0 b) 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0 c) (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 3) < 𝑥 − 3

d) 3 < 243 e) 𝑥(𝑥 − 6) ≥ 𝑥 f) ln(𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2) ≤ 0

d) Rational Inequalities
( )
These are inequalities that can be expressed in the form ( )
< 0, > 0, ≤ 0 or ≥ 0.

Exercise

1) Find the set of values of 𝑥 for which

( )
a) <1 b) >3 c) 𝑥 − 3 <

d) > e) >

2) Show that for all real values of 𝑥, 6𝑥 + 12𝑥 + 7 > 0 and hence find the range of values of 𝑥 for which ( )( )
≥
0.

( )
3) Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which >0

e) Absolute value (Modulus) inequalities

𝑥, if 𝑥 ≥ 0
The absolute value of 𝑥 denoted |𝑥| is given by |𝑥| = .
−𝑥, if 𝑥 < 0

By definition, |𝑥| = √𝑥 .

Properties of the absolute value function

- |𝑥| = 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑎 or 𝑥 = −𝑎.

- |𝑥| < 𝑎 ⟹ −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎.

- |𝑥| > 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑥 > 𝑎 or 𝑥 < −𝑎.

Exercise: Solve the following inequalities

a) |4𝑥 + 1| ≥ 9 b) |𝑥 − 3| < |3𝑥 + 1| c) |𝑥 − 𝑥 − 4| > 2

d) >3

Note: When the expression in the absolute value on one side of the inequality is the same or the negation of the
𝑥, if 𝑥 ≥ 0
expression on the other side, the inequality can easily be solved using |𝑥| = .
−𝑥, if 𝑥 < 0

Exercise:

1) Solve the following for 𝑥

( )( )
a) = b) = c) ≥

2) Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which:

a) 𝑥 − |𝑥| − 6 < 0 b) |𝑥| − 𝑥 ≥ 0 c) 3 − |2 − 𝑥| ≤ 2𝑥

3) Show that if 0 < 𝑟 < 𝑠, then <

4) Using the same axes, draw the graphs of 𝑦 = |𝑥 + 1| and 𝑦 = |2 − 𝑥|. Hence determine the set of values of 𝑥 for
which |𝑥 + 1| ≥ |2 − 𝑥|.

5) Using the same axes, draw the graphs of 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 1| and 𝑦 = |2𝑥 − 1| − 1. Hence determine the set of values of 𝑥
for which |2𝑥 − 1| − |𝑥 − 1| > 1.

6) Show that if 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are positive numbers, then ≥8

f) Irrational Inequalities

1) Solve the following irrational inequalities

a) √𝑥 + 1 ≤ 2𝑥 − 4 b) √𝑥 + 4 < 7 − 2𝑥 c) √𝑥 + 1 < 3 − 3𝑥
 4.POLYNOMIALS

Subtopics

 Definition
 Division of polynomials
 Remainder and factor theorem

a) Definition

A polynomial is any expression of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑑 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

b) Division of polynomials

Polynomials can be divided using the long division method.

Exercise: Divide

1) 𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 6 by 𝑥 + 2 2) 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 4 by 𝑥 + 1 3) 𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 11𝑥 + 6 by 𝑥 − 1.
( )
- Generally, ( )
= Quotient + ( )
. This implies that 𝑓(𝑥) = Quotient × 𝑔(𝑥) + Remainder.

- The remainder is always of degree one less than the divisor.

- If the divisor 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, the quotient = 𝑄(𝑥) and the remainder = 𝑅(𝑥), then

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑅(𝑥)

c) Remainder and Factor Theorem

- Remainder theorem: It states that “If 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏, then the remainder is 𝑓 ∓ .

- Factor theorem: It states that “𝑎𝑥 ± 𝑏 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) iff 𝑓 ∓ = 0.

- If 𝑓(𝑎) = 0, then a is a root of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

If we are given any polynomial of the form 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑑 to factorize without an

initial factor, we proceed as follows:

 Find the product 𝑎𝑑

 Find the factors of 𝑎𝑑
 Substitute some of the factors of 𝑎𝑑 (trial and error) in 𝑔(𝑥) to see if we can obtain zero, thus locating a root
and thus a factor.

Exercises

1) A polynomial of degree 3 is such that when divided by 2𝑥 − 3, the quotient is 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 and the remainder is
−2. Find the polynomial

2) Find the remainder when 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4 is divided by

𝑎) 𝑥 − 1 b) 2𝑥 + 1.

3) Find the remainder when 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 is divided by 𝑥 − 1.

4) Find the remainder when a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎 .

5) Given that 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑥 + 2, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Hence solve completely the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

6) Factorise completely the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 11𝑥 + 6.

7) When a cubic polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 2, the remainder is 4, when 𝑝(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 3, the
remainder is 7. Show that when 𝑝(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3), the remainder is 3𝑥 − 2.

8) Given 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 is a third- degree polynomial.

a) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) leaves a remainder of 8 and -24 when divided by 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 + 3 respectively, find the remainder
when 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3).

b) Given that 𝑥 + 2 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) and that the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) passes through the point with coordinates (0,6),
find 𝑓(𝑥).

Theorem: If (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a repeated factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓′(𝑥).

Proof

(𝑥 − 𝑎) is a repeated factor of 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑄(𝑥)

Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥, 𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑄′(𝑥) + 2(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑄(𝑥)

= (𝑥 − 𝑎)[(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑄′(𝑥) + 2𝑄(𝑥)]

This implies that (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓′(𝑥).

Example: Given that (𝑥 − 2) is a repeated factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants, find
the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
 5. PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Subtopics

 Rational expression
 Expressing rational expressions as partial fractions

a) Rational expression
( )
A rational expression is an expression of the form ( )
where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials.

( )
- To express a rational expression such as ( )
into partial fractions, we first have to determine whether it’s proper or
improper.
( )
- ( )
is said to be proper if the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑄(𝑥) and improper if the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is
greater than or equal to the degree of 𝑄(𝑥).

- If the rational expression is improper, we can first express it into mixed fractions by long division.

b) Expressing rational expressions as partial fractions

Case 1: When 𝑄(𝑥) has only non- repeated linear factors

Here, 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎 )(𝑥 − 𝑎 ) ∙ … (𝑥 − 𝑎 ) where 𝑎 ≠ 𝑎 … ≠ 𝑎 .

( )
In this case, ( )
= + + ⋯+ , 𝐴 , 𝐴 , … , 𝐴 ∈ ℝ.

Exercise: Express the following rational expressions into partial fractions

1) ( )( )
2) ( )
3) ( )( )( )
4)

Case 2: When 𝑄(𝑥) has repeated linear factors

Here, 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) ∙ … (𝑥 − 𝑎) (n times) i.e. 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)

𝑃(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
= + + ⋯+ ,𝐴 ,𝐴 ,…,𝐴 ∈ ℝ
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑥 − 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑎)

Exercise: Express the following rational expressions into partial fractions

a) ( )( )
b) ( )

Case 3: When 𝑄(𝑥) has irreducible quadratic factors in the denominator

If 𝑄(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) where 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 is irreducible, then

𝑃(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= +
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

Exercise: Resolve the expression ( )( )

into partial fractions.

Case 4: When the irreducible quadratic factor of 𝑄(𝑥) is repeated.

( )
Here, ( )
= +( )
+ ⋯+ ( )
Exercise:

1) Express ( )( )
as partial fractions.

2) Given that 𝑔(𝑥) = ( )( )

, express 𝑔(𝑥) in partial fractions. Hence or otherwise, obtain the first three terms in
the expansion of 𝑔(𝑥) in ascending powers of 𝑥.
 6. QUADRATIC THEORY

Subtopics

 Introduction
 Quadratic function
 Quadratic Equation
 Application of the quadratic formula

a) Introduction

Any expression that can be expressed in the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑥 is the unknown, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0 is called
a quadratic expression.

b) Quadratic function

It is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑥 is the unknown, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0.

- 𝑓(𝑥) can be expressed into another form using the process of completing the square

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

=𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥+

= 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥+ + −

=𝑎 𝑥+ +

=𝑎 𝑥+ +

- Quadratic functions have parabolic shapes.

- If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑎 > 0, then 𝑓(𝑥) has a minimum value and a valley shape (∪).

- If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑎 < 0, then 𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum value and a mountain shape (∩).

𝟒𝒂𝒄 𝒃𝟐
- The maximum or minimum value of a quadratic function is obtained from 𝟒𝒂
.

𝒃
- The line 𝒙 = − 𝟐𝒂 is the equation of the line of symmetry. The line of symmetry divides the parabola into two equal
parts.

𝒃 𝟒𝒂𝒄 𝒃𝟐
- The coordinates of the maximum or minimum point is given by − 𝟐𝒂 , 𝟒𝒂
.

- The vertex is the point at which the line of symmetry meets the maximum or minimum point.

Exercises: Find the maximum or minimum value of the following functions

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 9

Sketching quadratic functions

To sketch quadratic functions, we need just three things: the intercepts, the axis of symmetry and the
maximum (minimum) point

Exercise:
1) Sketch the following quadratic functions

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 6 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 9 − 𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 4|

2) Given that 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 5 = 𝑃(𝑥 − 𝑄) + 𝑅? Find the values of the constants 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅. Hence, find the greatest
value of .

c) Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is any equation that can be expressed in the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 where 𝑥 is the
unknown, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0.

Solving quadratic equations by completing the square

Exercise: Solve the following quadratic equations by completing the square

a) 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0 b) −4𝑥 − 9 = −12𝑥

Derivation of the quadratic formula

Let’s solve the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 by completing the square

𝑏 𝑐
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + = 0
𝑎 𝑎

⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑥+ + =0+

⟹ 𝑥+ + =

⟹ 𝑥+ = −

⟹ 𝑥+ =

⟹𝑥+ =±

√
⟹ 𝑥+ =±

√
⟹𝑥=− ±

±√
⟹𝑥=

±√
𝑥= is known as the quadratic formula.

Exercise: Consider the equation 2𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 2 = 0.

(i) Show that 0 can’t be a solution of the equation.

(ii) Deduce that the equation above has the same solution as 2𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 8 − + = 0.

Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 + ,
(iii) show that 𝑥 + =𝑦 −2

(iv) Show that if 𝑥 is a solution of 2𝑥 − 9𝑥 + 8 − + = 0, then 2𝑦 − 9𝑦 + 4 = 0.

Application of the quadratic formula

(i) Nature of roots of quadratic equations

The quantity 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called the discriminant and it is used to determine the nature of roots of quadratic
equations.

- If 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, then the quadratic equation has real and distinct roots.

- If 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, then the quadratic equation has equal (repeated) roots.

- If 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, then the quadratic equation has complex roots (imaginary or no real roots).

- If 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0, then the quadratic equation has real roots.

- If a quadratic equation has roots of the same sign, then the product of the roots is positive and 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 ≥ 0.

- The discriminant of a perfect square is 0.

Exercises

1) Find the range of values of 𝑘 for which the equation

a) (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 − 3𝑘𝑥 + 4(1 − 𝑘) = 0 has repeated roots.

b) 𝑥 + (𝑘 − 3)𝑥 + 1 = 0 has real and distinct roots.

c) 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘 + = 0 has real roots.

2) Find the possible values of 𝑏 for which 9𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 16 is a perfect square.

3) Find the range of values of 𝑘 for which the expression 𝑥 + 2𝑘𝑥 + 5𝑘 is positive for all real values of 𝑥.

4) Given that 𝑥 is real, and that 𝑘 = 3(𝑥 + 1) 2𝑥 − 1, show that 𝑘 ≥ 3(𝑘 + 3).

5) Show that for all real values of 𝑥, 𝑥 ≠ 3, 𝑦 = cannot lie between 4 and 12.

6) If 𝑥 is real, show that − 1 4 is the minimum value of ( )

.

7) Show that the roots of the equation 𝑝𝑥 + (𝑝 + 𝑞)𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are real for all values of 𝑝 and 𝑞.

8) Find the range of values of 𝑘 for which the equation 𝑥 + (𝑘 − 3)𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 has roots of the same sign.

9) Show that if 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0, then the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 1 and .

10) Determine the value(s) of 𝑎 for which 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 4 is the square of a polynomial of degree 2.

11) Find the value of 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≠ 1, for which the two equations 𝑘𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 and 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 have a
common root.

12) Find the range of values of 𝑘 for which the function ( )( )

where 𝑥 is real takes all real values.
13) If 𝑥 is real, find the range of when 𝑏 = 21. Find also the range of values of b for which the range of is ℝ.

(ii) Relationship between the roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation

Let the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 be

√ √
𝛼= and 𝛽 = .

Sum of roots: 𝛼 + 𝛽 = and product of roots: 𝛼𝛽 =

- If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the quadratic equation, then (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0

⟹ 𝑥 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0

⟹ 𝑥 − (sum of roots)𝑥 + (product of roots) = 0

⟹ 𝑥 − 𝑆𝑥 + 𝑃 = 0.

Some useful identities

1) 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝛽) − 2𝛼𝛽 2) |𝛼 − 𝛽| = (𝛼 + 𝛽) − 4𝛼𝛽

3) 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 ) 4) 𝛼 − 𝛽 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 )

Exercises

1) If the roots of the quadratic equation 2𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 3 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽, find the value of

a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 b) 𝛼𝛽 c) 𝛼 + 𝛽 d) |𝛼 − 𝛽| e) +

2) Form a quadratic equation with integral coefficients whose roots are and − .

3) Given that the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽, form a quadratic equation with
integral coefficients whose roots are 𝛼 and 𝛽 .

4) Q quadratic equation 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 has roots 𝛼 and 𝛽. Without solving the equation,

a) Find the value of + .

b) Find the quadratic equation with integral coefficients whose roots are and .

5) If the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑥 + 2𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 differ by 2, show that 𝑝 = 1 + 𝑞.

6) Given that the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 ≠ 0 are 𝛽 and 𝑛𝛽,

show that (𝑛 + 1) 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑛𝑏 .

7) If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑥 − 21𝑥 + 4 = 0 and that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are both positive, find the values of
𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽.

8) Given that 𝑎 is a real constant, prove that the roots 𝛼 and 𝛽 of the equation

(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) = 0 are real. Find the value of 𝑎 in the case where 𝛼 = 3𝛽.

9) Given that the roots of the quadratic equation 𝑥 + (2𝑘 + 2)𝑥 + 2𝑘 + 5 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽,
a) Find the values of the constant 𝑘 for which 𝛼 = 𝛽.

b) For 𝑘 > 0, find the quadratic equation with integral coefficients whose roots are 2𝛼 + 𝛼𝛽 and 2𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽.
 7. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Subtopics

 Binary Relations
 Cartesian product
 Properties of binary relations
 Equivalence relations
 Ordered Relations
 Functions
 Domain of definition and range
 Injective, surjective and Bijective functions
 Parity of a function
 Periodic function
 Continuous functions

I) Binary Relations

a) Cartesian Product

Given two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, the cartesian product of 𝐴 and 𝐵 denoted 𝐴 × 𝐵 is the set of ordered pairs in which
the first element of each pair belongs to 𝐴 and the second element to 𝐵.

𝑨 × 𝑩 = {(𝒂, 𝒃), 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩}

- A relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵.

b) Properties of binary relations

1) Reflexivity: A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is said to be reflexive iff ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑎𝑅𝑎.

2) Symmetry: A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is said to be symmetric iff ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑎𝑅𝑏, then 𝑏𝑅𝑎.

3) Transitivity: A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is said to be transitive iff ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑅𝑐, then 𝑎𝑅𝑐.

4) Antisymmetry: A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is said to be antisymmetric iff ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑅𝑎, then

𝑎 = 𝑏.

c) Equivalence Relation

It is a relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

- Equivalence classes: Let 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 and suppose 𝑅 is an equivalence relation in 𝐵, the equivalence classes of 𝑏 is denoted
[𝑏] is the set of all elements related to 𝑏.

- Equivalence classes are pairwise disjoint.

Exercise

1) Show that the relation R defined on ℤ by 𝑥 R 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑥 + 𝑦 is even is an equivalence relation.

2) Show that the relation “is a factor of” is an equivalence relation.

3) A binary relation R is defined over the set of integers by 𝑥 R 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3𝑐. Prove that R is an equivalence
relation.

4) A relation R is defined on ℤ × ℤ by (𝑎, 𝑏) R (𝑥, 𝑦) ⟺ 𝑦 − 𝑏 = 𝑥 − 𝑎. Show that R is an equivalence relation.

5) In ℕ × ℕ, show that the relation defined by (𝑎, 𝑏)𝑅(𝑐, 𝑑) ⟺ 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 is an equivalence relation.

d) Ordered Relations

- If a relation 𝑅 is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive on a non-empty set 𝐴, it is called a partial order relation in
𝐴.

- If a relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is

(i) transitive

(ii) Either 𝑎𝑅𝑏 or 𝑏𝑅𝑎, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵

then 𝑅 is said to be a total (weak) ordered relation.

- A strict ordered relation is denoted by the letter 𝑆. There is a strict ordered relation over a set 𝐴 when

(i) 𝑆 is transitive, that is ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴, if 𝑎𝑆𝑏 and 𝑏𝑆𝑐, then 𝑎𝑆𝑐.

(ii) ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, either 𝑎𝑅𝑏 or 𝑏𝑅𝑎 but not both.

Exercise: Let the relation R “greater than or equal to” defined on the set of natural numbers ℕ. Show that this relation
is partial ordered.

II) Functions

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two sets, a function from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a relation that assigns to each element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, a unique element 𝑏 ∈
𝐵. 𝐴 is called the domain and 𝐵 is called the codomain.

a) Domain and Range

- The domain of a function is the set of values for values for which the function is defined. The domain of 𝑓 is denoted
𝐷 or 𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓).

- The range (image set) of a function 𝑓 is the set of values that 𝑓 can take. It is a subset of the codomain.

Exercise

1) State the domain of definition of the following functions

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3 b) 𝑔(𝑥) = c) ℎ(𝑥) = √9 − 𝑥 d) 𝑓(𝑥) = log(𝑥 − 3)

2) Find the range of the following functions

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = ,𝑥 ≠ b) 𝑔(𝑥) = ,𝑥 ∈ ℝ

- Vertical line test: If a vertical line intersects a graph at more than one point, then the graph is not a function.

b) Injective, surjective and bijective functions

- A function 𝑓 is said to be injective (one to one) if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑏 ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷 .

Horizontal line test: If a horizontal line, cuts a graph at only one point, then the graph is an injective function.

- A function 𝑓 is said to be surjective (onto mapping) if its range equals its codomain.

- A function 𝑓 is said to be bijective if it is both injective and surjective.

Exercises
1) Show that the following functions are injective

a) 𝑓: 𝑥 ⟼ , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ − b) 𝑔: 𝑥 ⟼ , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ −1

2) Show that the function 𝑓: ℝ ⟶ ℝ defined by

(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 3 (ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 6 is not injective.

3) Show that the function 𝑓: 𝐷 ⟶ 𝐷 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3 is

a) surjective if 𝐷 = ℝ.

b) not surjective if 𝐷 = ℤ .

4) A function whose domain is 𝐷 where 𝐷 = ℝ − {2} and whose codomain is ℝ is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = . Find the
range of 𝑓 and show that 𝑓 is not surjective.

5) The function 𝑓: ℝ ⟶ ℝ − {1} is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ −3

a) Show that 𝑓 is bijective.

b) Obtain the composite function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥) and its inverse.

6) The function 𝑔 and the composite function 𝑔𝑓 are defined by 𝑔: 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,

( )
𝑔𝑓: 𝑥 ⟶ , 𝑥 ≠ 4, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Find the function 𝑓 and show that it is injective.

7) A function f is defined by 𝑓: 𝑥 ⟶ , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ . Find 𝑓 stating its domain.

- A point 𝑎 is said to be a fixed point of 𝑓(𝑥) iff 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎.

Exercise: Given that 𝑎 is a fixed point of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 4, find the value of 𝑎.

d) Parity of a function

- A function 𝑓 is said to be odd iff 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), ∀ − 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 . E.g. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥) =
tan 𝑥 , 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥

- Odd functions are symmetrical about the origin.

- A function 𝑓 is said to be even iff 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), ∀ − 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 . E.g. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 .

- Even functions are symmetrical about the 𝑦- axis.

Exercise: Determine the parity of the following function

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 6 b) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 c) ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 d) 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 cos 𝑥

e) Periodic Functions

These are functions that repeat at equal intervals. A function 𝑓 is periodic with period 𝑎 if

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘𝑎), 𝑘 ∈ ℤ.

Exercise

1) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 < 1 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 3) for all 𝑥, sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for −4 ≤
𝑥 < 4 and find the values of 𝑓(−13), 𝑓(−42.5) and 𝑓(57.5).
 𝑥 , 0≤𝑥<2
2) Given that 𝑓 is a periodic function of period 4 and 𝑓(𝑥) = , find 𝑓(9) and sketch the curve of
𝑥 + 2, 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 4
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) from −4 ≤ 𝑥 < 8.

f) Continuous functions

A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous at a point 𝑥 = 𝑎 if

 𝑓(𝑎) exists
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
⟶ ⟶
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).
⟶

Exercise

cos 𝑥 , − ≤ 𝑥 < 0
1) The function 𝑓 is defined on the interval − ≤ 𝑥 ≤ by 𝑓(𝑥) =
3𝑎 − ,0 < 𝑥 ≤

Find the value of 𝑎 for which 𝑓 is continuous on the interval.

2) The function 𝑓 is defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ 1. Find the value of 𝑐 for which 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.
𝑐, 𝑥=1

−𝑥 − 𝑥 + 6, 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 2
3) The function 𝑓 is periodic of period 5. Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑎𝑥 − 4, 2≤𝑥≤5

a) Find the value of 𝑎 for which 𝑓 is continuous.

b) Find the value of 𝑓(−1)

c) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in the interval −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7.

 8. PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

Subtopics

 Factorial notation
 Permutations
 Combinations

a) Factorial Notation

The factorial of a nonnegative number 𝑛 is written as 𝑛! And read as “𝑛 factorial”. By definition,

𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) ∙ … (2)(1). Furthermore, 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)! And 0! = 1

!
Note: (𝑚 × 𝑛)! ≠ 𝑚! × 𝑛!, !≠ !
and (𝑚 ± 𝑛)! ≠ 𝑚! ± 𝑛!

! !
Exercise: Without using calculators, evaluate: 1) !
2) !× !

b) Permutations

Permutation means arrangement. It is the display of items in which the order is very important.

- Consider the three letters A, B and C. The three letters can be arranged in 6 different ways:

ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB and CBA

Remark: 6=3!

Therefore, there are n! ways of arranging n objects in a group (line) without repetition.

Exercise: Find the number of ways of arranging 5 different numbers in a line.

Permutation of n different objects taken r at a time

Arranging n objects taken r at a time is done in 𝑛 ways.

!
By definition, 𝑛 =( )!

Exercise

1) How many different arrangements of the word chemistry are there using four letters at the time.

2) In a class of 20 students, find the number of ways in which the first, second and third prices can be awarded.

3) Find the number of 5-digit numbers which can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 without repetition.
Find how many of these numbers will be greater than 50,000.

Remark: Once a digit is chosen, the number of chances for the next digit reduces because repetition is not allowed.

Consider two activities A and B. If A can be done in m ways and B in n ways, then A and B can be done in mn
ways. A or B can be done in m+n ways.

Exercise: A code is of the form A2B in which the first element must be a vowel, the second digit from 1 to 9 inclusive
and the third a consonant. Calculate the number of different messages which can be sent with this code.

Generally, to arrange r things from n different things in a line with repetition allowed, there are n ways of
doing so.

Exercise: How many three-digit numbers can be formed from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 if repetition is allowed.
Permutation of n objects of which some are repeated.
𝐧!
The arrangement of n objects of which some are repeated r, s or t times is given by 𝐫!×𝐬!×𝐭!.

Exercises

1) Find the number of permutations that can be made from letters of the word

a) MOTOMBOLOMBO b) CALCULUS

2) Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word CONGRESS in which G is the first letter.

3) Find the number of arrangements of 4 letters of the word PROBLEM which begins with a vowel and ends with a
consonant.

4) A telephone dial is numbered 0 to 9 inclusive. If 0 is dialed first, the caller is connected to the internal exchange
system. Find how many local calls can be made given that the local number has 8 digits.

5) Find the number of ways in which 2 boys and 6 girls can be seated in a row, if two boys must not sit next to each
other.

6) Find the number of permutations that can be formed by using the letters of the word COMMONWEALTH given
that the M’s must not be together.

7) Find the number of permutations of letters of the word mathematics in which all the vowels are together.

8) How many even numbers greater than 2000 can be made from the integers 1, 2, 3, 4 if each digit is used only once.

9) Find the number of integers between 1000 and 4000 which can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 if each digit may
be used

a) only once.

b) more than once.

10) Cars in the ten regions of Cameroon are in the form OU1599H where the two letters at the beginning show the
province in which the car is registered, the 4 digits following the two letters are taken from the digits 0 to 9 inclusive
and the letter at the end is one of the 26 letters of the alphabet. Given that the four digits must not all be zero, find the
maximum number of cars which can be registered in Cameroun using this system.

11) In a village, there are four bars which closes one day in a week.

a) Determine the number of ways we can assign a closing day to each bar per week.

b) Determine the number of ways we can assign a closing day to each bar per week given that two bars cannot close
on the same day.

c) Determine the number of ways we can assign a closing day to each bar per week given that everyday, we should
have at least one bar that is open.

Arrangements round a circular table

Generally, if n persons are to sit round a circular table, any one of them can be considered as the “head” and the other
(n-1) persons arranged in (n-1)! Ways. Therefore, the arrangement of n objects in a circle is done in (n-1)! ways.

Exercise

1) Find the number of ways in which 10 cows can be placed in a circular milking parlour.

2) a) In how many ways can 7 children join hands to form a circle if they all face inward?
 b) In how many of these ways will Desmond join hands with his special friends Alex and Ngong?

Arrangements around a circular wire or ring

( )!
Generally, if there are n beads to be arranged around a circular wire (ring), then this can be done in ways.

Exercise: In how many ways can six beads be arranged on to a circular wire.

c) Combinations

Combination means selection. Here, the order in which the items appear do not matter.
!
- The selection of r objects from n objects can be done in 𝑛 =( )! !

𝑛
-𝑛 can also be written as .
𝑟

- The selection of r objects from n objects implies the rejection of (n-r) objects. Hence, 𝑛 =𝑛 .

Exercise

1) A committee of 5 boys and 7 girls is to be selected from a group of 8 boys and 9 girls. In how many ways can the
committee be formed?

2) How many selections are there of four letters of the following words

a) SPHERICAL b) ARRANGEMENT

3) A committee of 4 is to be chosen from 3 teachers and 3 students. Find the number of ways this can be done if the
committee is to contain

a) At least 1 teacher b) At least 1 teacher and 1 student.

4) In an evangelistic meeting, 11 pastors and 5 elders are to form 8 pairs of preachers in which an elder is paired with a
pastor. Find the number of ways the 8 pairs can be formed.
 9. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Subtopics

 Definition
 Arithmetic progression
 Geometric progression
 Sigma notation

a) Definition

- A sequence is a list of numbers following a definite pattern. E.g. 1, 3, 5, 7, … 8, 5, 2, -1, … 1, 4, 9,

…,400 2, 6, 18, …

- A series is the sum of elements of a sequence. E.g. 1+3+5+7+… 8+5+2+-1+…

1+4+9+…+400 2+6+18+…

b) Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

- A sequence (series) is said to be an arithmetic progression if between any two consecutive terms, there is a constant
common difference (d). We obtain elements of an A.P by constantly adding the same number (d).

- Examples of arithmetic progressions: 1, 4, 7, 10, … 10, 8, 6, 4, … -5+2+9+16+…+93.

- The nth term of an A.P. is given by 𝑻𝒏 or 𝑼𝒏 where 𝑻𝒏 = 𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅 where 𝑎 is the first term, d the common
difference and 𝑛 the number of terms.

- If an A.P. has n terms, then the last term is given by 𝒍 = 𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅.

𝒙 𝒚
- For any two numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, the arithmetic mean of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is given by 𝟐
.

Sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic progression

𝒏 𝒏
-The sum of the first n terms of an A.P. is given by 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐 (𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅) or 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟐 (𝒂 + 𝒍).

- Generally, 𝑻𝒏 = 𝑺𝒏 − 𝑺𝒏 𝟏 .

Exercises

1) Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the sequence 3, 5, 7, …

2) The sum of the first n terms of an A.P is 𝑆 = 𝑛 + 2𝑛, find

a) the general term of the sequence

b) The number of terms whose sum is 575.

3) The sum of the first 9 terms of an A.P is 126. Given that the 7th term is 4 times the 2nd term, find

a) the first 3 terms of the sequence

b) the sum of terms from 10th to 20th inclusive

4) Find the least number of terms needed for the sequence 1, 3, 5, … to get a sum greater than 4000.

5) The sum of three positive terms is 24 and their product is 440. Given that the numbers are in an A.P, find the
smallest of them.
6) The sum of the 6th, 8th and 9th terms of an A.P. is equal to the 23rd term of the progression. The sum of the 3rd and 6th
terms of the progression is 18. Find the first term and common difference of the progression.

7) An A.P with first term 5 and common difference 2 consists of 3n terms. Given that the sum of the first n terms and
the sum of the last n terms are in the ratio 7:27, find n and the sum of the middle n terms. Hence show that the sum of
the first n terms and the second n terms are in the ratio 7:17.

8) The 10th and 16th terms of an A.P are in the ratio 7:11, find the ratio of the sum of the first 10 terms to the sum of the
first 16 terms

9) Given that 𝑥 − 3, 2𝑥 + 1 and 7𝑥 − 2 are the first three consecutive terms of an A.P, find the value of 𝑥 and the sum
of the first 10 terms of the progression.

10) Given that the sum of the first and second terms of an A.P is 𝑥 and the sum of the nth and

(n-1) th term is 𝑦. Prove that the sum of the first n terms of the A.P is 𝑆 = (𝑥 + 𝑦).

11) A particular A.P. has a positive common difference and is such that for any three adjacent terms, 3 times the sum of
their squares exceed the square of their sum by 37.5. Find the common difference.

c) Geometric Progression (G.P.)

- A sequence (series) is said to be a G.P. if between any two consecutive terms there is a constant common ratio (r).
We obtain elements of a G.P. by constantly multiplying the terms by a number (r).

- Examples of geometric progressions: 1, 2, 4, 8, … 27, 9, 3, 1, …

- The nth term of a G.P. is given by 𝑻𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏 𝟏

.

- The last term of a G.P. containing n terms is given by 𝒍 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏 𝟏

.

- The geometric mean of any two numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 is given by 𝒙 × 𝒚.

Sum of the first n terms of a geometric progression

Generally, the sum of the first n terms of a G.P is given by

𝒂(𝒓𝒏 𝟏) 𝒂(𝟏 𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 = 𝒓 𝟏
, if |𝑟| > 1 or 𝑺𝒏 = 𝟏 𝒓
if |𝑟| < 1.

- If 𝑟 = 1, then 𝑺𝒏 = 𝒏𝒂.

- Generally, 𝑻𝒏 = 𝑺𝒏 − 𝑺𝒏 𝟏

- A geometric progression is said to be convergent if |𝑟| < 1 and divergent if |𝑟| ≥ 1.

𝒂
- The sum to infinity of a G.P. converges if and only if it converges and it is given by 𝑺 = 𝟏 𝒓.

Exercises

1) The sixth term of a G.P is 96 and the third term is 12. Find the first term and the common ratio.

2) A G.P. has first term 𝑎. Find the common ratio given that 8 times the sum of the first 6 terms is 9 times the sum of
the first 3 terms.

3) Given that 𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 − 2 and 3𝑥 + 8 are three consecutive terms of a G.P. Find the possible values of 𝑥 and the
corresponding values of the common ratio. Using the larger value of the common ratio, find the least value of n for
which the sum of the first n terms exceed 1000.
4) Find the sum to infinity of the sequence 1, , , … if it exists.

( ) ( )
5) Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which the series −( )
+( )
− ⋯ converges.

6) A convergent geometric progression with first term 𝑎 is such that the sum of all the terms after the nth term is 3
times the nth term. Find the common ratio of the progression and show that the sum to infinity of the progression is
4𝑎.

d) The Sigma Notation

The Greek letter sigma (𝛴) meaning summation is an abbreviation representing a series. Here, only the general term is
given.

Properties of 𝛴

(i) ∑ 𝑎𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓(𝑟)

(ii) ∑ 𝑎 = 𝑛𝑎

(iii) ∑ 𝑓(𝑟) + 𝑔(𝑟) = ∑ 𝑓(𝑟) + ∑ 𝑔(𝑟)

Exercise: Find the value of the following

a) ∑ 4 b) ∑ c) ∑ (6𝑟 − 8)

Summation of some standard series

( )
1) ∑ 𝑟= (proof)

( )( )
2) ∑ 𝑟 = (proof)

( )
3) ∑ 𝑟 = (proof)

Exercise

1) Find ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1) and hence ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1).

2) Find the sum of the series 11 + 12 + ⋯ + 50

3) Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which the series ∑ converges.

4) Determine the values of 𝑥 for which ∑ =

 10. BINOMIAL THEOREM

Subtopics

 Pascal’s Triangle
 The Binomial theorem

A Binomial is an algebraic expression with two terms only. E.g. 𝑥 + 2, 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑥…

a) Pascal’s Triangle

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 1

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1𝑎 + 1𝑏

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 = 1𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 1𝑏

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 = 1𝑎 + 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 1𝑏

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 4𝑎 𝑏 + 6𝑎 𝑏 + 4𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 = 1𝑎 + 4𝑎 𝑏 + 6𝑎 𝑏 + 4𝑎𝑏 + 1𝑏

1 n=0
1 1 n=1
1 2 1 n=2
1 3 3 1 n=3
1 4 6 4 1 n=4

Exercise: With the use of Pascal’s triangle, expand the following

1) (𝑎 + 2𝑏) 2) (4𝑥 − 3𝑦) 3) (2 − 𝑥)

b) The Binomial Theorem

In the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏) , where 𝑛 is a negative number or a fraction, Pascal’s triangle doesn’t work, we apply the
binomial theorem.

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 1𝑎 + 1𝑏

1 1
= 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏
0 1
1 1
= 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏
0 1

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 1𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 1𝑏

2 2 2
= 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏
0 1 2
2 2 2
= 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏
0 1 2

(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 1𝑎 + 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 1𝑏
 3 3 3 3
= 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏
0 1 2 3

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
Generally, (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + ⋯+ 𝑎 𝑏
0 1 2 𝑛
𝑛
= ∑ 𝑎 𝑏
𝑟
𝑛
- (𝑎 + 𝑏) = ∑ 𝑎 𝑏 is known as the binomial theorem.
𝑟
𝑛
- 𝑎 𝑏 is known as the general term.
𝑟
𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = ∑ 𝑎 𝑏
𝑟
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + ⋯+ 𝑎 𝑏
0 1 2 𝑛
( )
= 𝑎 + 𝑛𝑎 𝑏+ !
𝑎 𝑏 + ⋯ + 𝑏 where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ .

In particular, if 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = 𝑥, then

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)

(1 + 𝑥) = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥
2! 3!

We can express (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥) as 𝑎 1+ . The expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥) is valid if <1.

- The term independent of 𝑥 in an expansion is the term for which the power of 𝑥 is 0.

Exercise

1) Find the first four terms in the expansion of

a) (2 + 𝑥) b) c) √1 + 2𝑥

2) The first three terms in the expansion of (1 + 𝑎𝑥) are 1 + 14𝑥 + 84𝑥 , find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑛.

3) Expand (1 + 𝑥 ) as a series in ascending powers of 𝑥 up to and including the term in 𝑥 . By putting 𝑥 = , obtain
an approximate value for the cube root of 65 to 3d.p.

4) Show that if 𝑥 is so small that 𝑥 and higher powers od 𝑥 are negligible,

= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 . By putting 𝑥 = , show that √5 = .

5) Express 𝑓(𝑥) = ( )( )
in partial fractions. Hence find the first four terms in the expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) in
ascending powers of 𝑥.

6) Find the numerical value of the term independent of 𝑥 in the expansion of 𝑥 − .

7) Find the coefficient of 𝑥 in the expansion of 𝑥 + .

8) Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which each of the following expansions are valid
a) (3 + 2𝑥) b) .

9) The first three terms in the series expansion of are 1, −2𝑥 and 4𝑥 respectively. Determine the value of 𝑘
and state the range of values of 𝑥 for which the expansion is valid.

10) Expand (2 + 3𝑥) up to and including the term in 𝑥 . Use these terms to find an approximate value of (2.03) to
4d.p.

11) Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 ) in ascending powers of 𝑥.
 11. MATHEMATICAL PROOFS

Subtopics

 Introduction
 Direct proof by deduction
 Direct proof by counter example
 Indirect proof by contradiction
 Indirect proof by contrapositive
 Proof by mathematical induction.

a) Introduction

A mathematical proof is a coherent way of showing that a proposition is true given that another is true. A
mathematical proof follows logical arguments which do not contradict each other, beginning with a hypothesis and
showing the expected.

Various methods of proofs exist in mathematics: Direct and indirect proofs.

b) Direct proof by deduction

Deductive reasoning works from general to particular. It is a type of reasoning in which we hold the
hypothesis and examine the possibilities of reaching a specific logical conclusion.

Example: Show that for any odd integer 𝑛, 𝑛 is odd.

Exercise: Show that if 𝑥 and 𝑦 are two consecutive integers, then 𝑥 + 𝑦 is odd.

c) Direct proof by counter example

This is a method used to proof that a statement is not true.

Example: Show that the statement “the equation 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0 has two solutions in the set of integers is false.

d) Indirect proof by contradiction: A common way of proving a proposition is to assume that it is false and then
show that it leads to a logical contradiction. To prove that the statement 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞 is true, we start by assuming that it
is false i.e 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 is true and show that this will lead to a fallacy.

Example: Prove by contradiction that

a) For any integer 𝑛, if 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛 is odd.

b) √2 + √6 < √15

c) √5 is irrational.

Exercise: Prove that: a) , b) √2 are irrational.

√

e) Indirect proof by contrapositive

To prove that 𝑝 ⟹ 𝑞, it suffises to show that ~𝑞 ⟹ ~𝑝.

Exercise: Prove by contrapositive that

1) For any integer 𝑛, if 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑛 is odd.

2) For any integer 𝑛, if 𝑛 − 2𝑛 + 7 is even, then 𝑛 is odd.

f) Proof by mathematical induction.

This method is used when we are given a statement which implies to any positive integer 𝑛. To prove a statement by
mathematical induction, we proceed as follows:

- Prove that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1.

- Assume that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 and show that it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.

- Conclude that the statement is true for all positive integer 𝑛.

Exercise

1) Prove by mathematical induction that for all positive integers 𝑛,

( )
a) ∑ (2𝑟 − 1) = 𝑛 b) ∑ ( )
= c) ∑ 𝑟 =

( )( )
d) ∑ = e) ∑ 𝑟(𝑟 + 3) = f) ∑ log 1 + = log(𝑛 + 1)

g) ∑ 3 (2𝑟 + 5) = 3 (𝑛 + 2) − 6

2) Given that 𝑛 is any positive integer, prove by mathematical induction that

a) 7 + 5 is divisible by 6.

b) 7 is a factor of 2 +3 .

c) 13 − 4 is a multiple 9
( )( )
d) 1 + 2 + ⋯ + (2𝑛) =

3) The function 𝑓, for each positive integer 𝑛, is given by 𝑓(𝑛) = 15 − 8 .

(i) Express 𝑓(𝑛 + 1) − 8𝑓(𝑛) in the form 𝑘(15 ), 𝑘 ∈ ℝ.

(ii) Hence, or otherwise, prove that 15 − 8 is a multiple of 7 for all 𝑛 ≥ 2.

 12. TRIGONOMETRY

Subtopics

 Radian Measure
 Trigonometric ratios
 Quadrants
 Trigonometric identities
 Inverse trigonometric ratios
 Trigonometric equations
 Graphs of trigonometric functions
 General solution of trigonometric equations
 Compound angle transformations
 Sine and cosine rule
 Area of a triangle
 Arc length, area of sector, area of segment
 Small angles

a) Radian measure

One radian is the angle made at the centre of any circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.

1 revolution = 2𝜋 radians=360 . This implies that 1 = radians and 1 radian (1 ) = .

Note: We abbreviate 𝜋 radians as 𝜋 rads not 𝜋 .

Exercise

1) Express the following in radians: a) 90 b) 72 .

2) Convert the following to degrees: a) b) .

b) Trigonometric ratios

The six trigonometric ratios are: sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant and cotangent.

Consider the right- angled triangle below

𝜃
Adjacent Hypotenuse sin 𝜃 = , cos 𝜃 = , tan 𝜃 = , tan 𝜃 = ,

sec 𝜃 = , cosec 𝜃 = , cot 𝜃 =

Opposite

Special Angles

𝜃 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

sin 𝜃 0 1 √2 √3 1
2 2 2
cos 𝜃 1 √3 √2 1 0
2 2 2
tan 𝜃 0 1 1 √3 ∞
√3
- Two angles are said to be complementary if they sum up to 90°. E.g. 30° and 60°, 15° and 75°.

Remark: sin 30° = cos 60° and sin 60° = cos 30°, sin 75° = cos 15° and sin 15° = cos 75°.

-Generally, if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are complementary i.e. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 90°, then sin 𝐴 = cos 𝐵 and sin 𝐵 = cos 𝐴. This implies that
for any acute angle 𝜃, sin 𝜃 = cos(90° − 𝜃) and cos 𝜃 = sin(90° − 𝜃).

- Angles measured in the anticlockwise direction are positive and angles measured in the clockwise direction are
negative.

c) Quadrants

The cartesian plane is divided into four regions called quadrants. These quadrants are used to determine the
trigonometric ratio for angles of any size.

2nd 1st
d
Sin All

180° − 𝜃 𝜃
180° + 𝜃 360° − 𝜃

Tan Cos

3rdd 4th

Every angle in the first quadrant has a correspondence in the other quadrant. E.g. 30° in the first quadrant
corresponds to 180° − 30° = 150° in the second quadrant, 180° + 30° = 210° in the third quadrant and so on.

Exercise:

1) Without using calculators, find the values of the following

a) sin 300° b) cos 300° c) tan 150°

2) Given that sin 𝜃 = 3 5 and 𝜃 is acute, find the value of

a) cos 𝜃 b) tan 𝜃 c) tan(90 − 𝜃).

3) Find the value of tan 𝐴 and sec 𝐴 if cos 𝐴 = 8 17 and 270 < 𝐴 < 360 .

d) Trigonometric Identities
y

From Pythagoras theorem, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑟

r y From the right- angled triangle, 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and

𝜃
O x
A
 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.

⟹ (𝑟 cos 𝜃) + (𝑟 sin 𝜃) = 𝑟

⟹ cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 1…………(1)

(1) ÷ cos 𝜃 gives 1 + tan 𝜃 = sec 𝜃……………(2)

(1) ÷ sin 𝜃 gives 1 + cot 𝜃 = cosec 𝜃…………(3)

- Equation (1), (2) and (3) are generally referred to as Pythagorean identities.

Compound angle identities

(i) sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± sin 𝐵 cos 𝐴

(ii) cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

±
(iii) tan(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = ∓

Factor Formulae

(i) 2 sin 𝑃 cos 𝑄 = sin(𝑃 + 𝑄) + sin(𝑃 − 𝑄)

(ii) 2 cos 𝑃 sin 𝑄 = sin(𝑃 + 𝑄) − sin(𝑃 − 𝑄)

(iii) 2 cos 𝑃 cos 𝑄 = cos(𝑃 + 𝑄) + cos(𝑃 − 𝑄)

(iv) −2 sin 𝑃 sin 𝑄 = cos(𝑃 + 𝑄) − cos(𝑃 − 𝑄)

Letting 𝑃 = and 𝑄 = , we obtain

(i) sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 = 2 sin cos

(ii) sin 𝐴 − sin 𝐵 = 2 cos sin

(iii) cos 𝐴 + cos 𝐵 = 2 cos cos

(iv) cos 𝐴 − cos 𝐵 = −2 sin sin

Multiple angle identities

Multiple angles are angles of the form 2𝐴, 3𝐴, 4𝐴 etc

sin 2A = sin(𝐴 + 𝐴) = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

cos 2𝐴 = cos(𝐴 + 𝐴) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐴 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐴 = cos 𝐴 − sin 𝐴

But cos 𝐴 + sin 𝐴 = 1. This implies that

cos 2𝐴 = 1 − 2 sin 𝐴 and cos 2𝐴 = 2 cos 𝐴 − 1. This implies that

sin 𝐴 = and cos 𝐴 = .

2 tan 𝐴
tan 2𝐴 =
1 − tan 𝐴
Half angle identities

If we let 𝑡 = tan , then sin 𝜃 = , cos 𝜃 = and tan 𝜃 = .

Exercises

1) Prove the following trigonometric identities

a) cos 2𝜃 = b) =

c) cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 − sin 𝐵 d) sin 3𝐴 = 3 sin 𝐴 − 4 sin 𝐴

e) cos 3𝐴 = 4 cos 𝐴 − 3 cos 𝐴 f) = tan 𝐴

g) sin 2𝐴 = h) cos 𝐴 − sin 𝐴 = cos 2𝐴

i) = tan 𝜃 j) (cos 𝐴 + 2 sin 𝐴) + (sin 𝐴 − 2 cos 𝐴) = 5

k) = tan 𝜃 l) cos 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 = (3 + cos 8𝜃)

m) = 2 cos 𝑥 − sec 𝑥.

2) Without using tables or calculators, find the value of tan 105 .

3) Given that 90° < 𝜃 < 180° and that sin 𝜃 = , find the value of 1 + sin 2𝜃.

4) Without using tables or calculators, find the values of cos 2𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 when 𝑥 = 𝜋 3.

5) Eliminate 𝑡 from the equations 𝑥 = tan 2𝑡 and 𝑦 = tan 𝑡.

6) Find the exact value of sin if cos 𝜃 = , 0 < 𝜃 <

e) Inverse trigonometric ratios

The inverse trigonometric ratios are sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 and tan 𝑥.

If sin 𝜃 = 𝑥, then 𝜃 = sin (𝑥).

f) Trigonometric Equations

These are equations involving trigonometric ratios. To solve trigonometric equations with ease,

 Note the variations of the trigonometric ratios in the various quadrants

 Master your trigonometric identities
 Strictly observe the range of solutions

Exercise

1) Solve the following trigonometric equations

a) sin 𝑥 = for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360 h) sin 3𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤

b) 4 cos 𝑥 = 1 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 i) 3 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = −3 for −180 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 180

c) tan 𝑥 − 1 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋 j) sin 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 = 1 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360

d) 2 + cos 2𝑥 = 3 cos 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360 k) sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 360

e) cos 𝑥 = sin 2𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 l) cos 𝑥 = cos 3𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 180

f) sin 𝑥 − √3 cos 𝑥 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 m) sin 𝜃 + − sin 𝜃 − = for

g) √2 sin 𝑥 + = 1 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

2) Without using tables or calculators, evaluate

a) tan 𝜃 if 𝜃 = tan 5 7 b) tan √3 √3

12 + tan 24 2 + tan 5 in terms of 𝜋.

3) Solve the following equations

a) tan (3𝑥) + tan (2𝑥) = 𝜋 4 b) tan (2) − tan (4) = tan (𝑥)

4) Show that

a) sin(2arc tan 𝑥) = b) tan (𝑥) + tan (𝑦) = cot

5) If 𝜃 = sin , show that sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 = ±

f) Graphs of trigonometric equations

1) The graph of y=𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

1,5

0,5
y- axis

0
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720

-0,5

-1

-1,5
x in degrees

Domain: ℝ

Period: 2𝜋

2) The graph of 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

 1,5

0,5
y-axis

0
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
-0,5

-1

-1,5
x in degrees

Domain: ℝ

Period: 2𝜋

3) The graph of 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙

h) General solution of trigonometric equations

To get the general solution of trigonometric equations, we first have to determine the principal value.

1) General solution of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝒔

𝑥 = (−1) PV + 𝜋𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

Example: Find the general solution of

i) sin 𝜃 = ii) sin(𝜃 + 30°) =

√

2) General solution of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 = 𝒄

𝑥 = ±PV + 2𝜋𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ

√
Example: Find the general solution of cos 𝜃 = .

3) General solution of 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 = 𝒕

𝑥 = PV + 𝜋𝑛

Example: Find the general solution of tan 2𝑥 + = −√3.

4) General solution of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑷 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑸

𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑛 + 𝑄 or 𝑃 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 − 𝑄

Example: Find the general solution of

a) sin 𝑥 = sin 5𝑥 b) sin 3𝑥 + sin 𝑥 = 0

5) General solution of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑷 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑸

𝑃 = ±𝑄 + 2𝜋𝑛

Example: Find the general solution of cos 𝑥 + = cos − 3𝑥

Exercise

1) Verify that 𝑎 + 𝑏 = [(𝑎 + 𝑏 ) + (𝑎 − 𝑏 ) ].

Hence, show that = (cos 2𝐴 + sec 2𝐴). Find the general solution of = 2, giving your
answer correct to 2d.p.

2) Show that cos 3𝜃 = 4 cos 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃. Hence or otherwise,

a) Find all the solutions of the equation cos 3𝜃 = in the interval 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.

b) Solve the equation 4𝑥 − 3𝑥 = giving your answer correct to 4d.p.

i) Compound angles transformation

The expression 𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥 can be expressed in one of the forms 𝑅 cos(𝑥 ± 𝛼) or 𝑅 sin(𝑥 ± 𝛼) where 𝑅 > 0 and
𝛼 is acute. This is the compound angle form.

Exercise

1) Given that 𝑓(𝜃) = 3 sin 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃, express 𝑓(𝜃) in the form 𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑅 > 0 and 0 < 𝛼 <
√
90 . Hence find the value of 𝜃 in the range 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90 for which 𝑓(𝜃) = .

2) Given that 𝑓(𝜃) = cos 𝜃 − √3 sin 𝜃, express 𝑓(𝜃) in the form 𝑅 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) where 𝑅 > 0 and 0 < 𝛼 < . Hence
find the minimum value of | ( )|

3) Express 𝑓(𝜃) where 𝑓(𝜃) = √3 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 in the form 𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑅 cos(𝜃 + 𝜆) where 𝑅 > 0 and 𝜆 is an acute
angle. Hence find the general solution of the equation √3 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = √2. Find also the maximum and minimum
values of 𝑔(𝜃) = ( )
.

4) Show that |sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥| ≤ √2 for all 𝑥.

j) Sine and cosine rule

Consider triangle ABC below

 A

𝑐 𝑏

B 𝑎 C

Sine rule: It is used when:

- Two angles and any side of a triangle are given.

- Two sides and an angle opposite to them is given.

The sine rule is given by: = = .

Cosine rule: It is used when:

- Two sides are given and the angle between them is known.
- Three sides are given to calculate the angles.

The cosine rule is given by: 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴, 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑐 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵 and

𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶

Exercise

1) In triangle ABC, 𝑎 = 7.2𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 8.9𝑐𝑚 and < 𝐵 = 55°. Solve the triangle.

2) Given that in triangle ABC, 𝑐 = 7.5𝑐𝑚, 𝑏 = 3.6𝑐𝑚 and < 𝐴 = 105°. Solve the triangle.

3) Find the largest angle in a triangle whose sides are of length 2cm, 4cm and 5cm.

j) Area of a triangle

𝑐 𝑏

B 𝑎 C

- The area of triangle ABC above is given by 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝐶 or 𝑎𝑐 sin 𝐵 or 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝐴.

Heron’s formula: Area of triangle ABC is given by 𝐴 = 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) where 𝑠 = .
Exercise: Find the area of the triangle whose sides are of length 7𝑐𝑚, 9𝑐𝑚 and 12𝑐𝑚.

k) Arc lengths, Area of sector and Area of segment

P Length of minor arc 𝑷𝑸 is given by 𝑙 = 𝑟𝜃 if 𝜃 is in radians and

𝑙= × 2𝜋𝑟 if 𝜃 is in degrees.
𝑟 °

𝜃 𝑙 Area of minor sector is given by 𝐴 = 𝑟 𝜃 if 𝜃 is in radians and

𝑟 𝐴= °
× 𝜋𝑟 if 𝜃 is in degrees.

Area of minor segment = Area of minor sector–Area of triangle

Q
= 𝑟 𝜃 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃

Exercise

1) A chord PQ of length 12cm subtends an angle of 60 at the centre of a circle. Calculate in terms of 𝜋,

a) the length of the minor arc

b) the area of the sector containing angle 60

c) the area of the minor segment cut off by PQ.

l) Small angles

𝑦 = tan 𝜃 𝑦=𝜃 From the graph it is clear that sin 𝜃 < 𝜃 < tan 𝜃.

𝑦 = sin 𝜃 As 𝜃 becomes very small and positive,

sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃.

We know that cos 𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin

O 𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin

≈1−2

=1−

Therefore, as 𝜃 becomes small and positive, cos 𝜃 ≈ 1 − .

Exercise: Find an approximation for the following if 𝜃 is very small.

1) 2) .
 13. COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Subtopics

 Introduction
 The straight line
 Distance between two points
 Midpoint of a line segment joining two points
 Division of a line in a given ratio
 Gradient of a line joining two points
 Equation of a straight line
 Intersection of two lines
 Angle between two straight lines
 Parallel and perpendicular lines
 Perpendicular distance from a point to a line
 Reduction to linear form
 Linearization of particular functions
 Circle geometry
 Definition
 Equation of a circle
 Tangents to circles
 Conditions for two circles to touch

A) Introduction

Geometry is the branch of mathematics that enables us to work out the relationship between shapes, forms
and space. The basic components of geometry are points, lines and planes. In coordinate geometry, we can use
graphs and coordinates to find measurements and useful information about geometric figures.

B) The straight line

a) Distance between two points

If 𝐴(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and 𝐵(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) are endpoints of a line segment, then the distance 𝐴𝐵 is given by

𝐴𝐵 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 )

Example: Find the value of 𝑥 given that the distance between 𝑀(1,3) and 𝑁(𝑥, 9) is 10.

b) Midpoint of a line segment joining two points

The midpoint 𝑀 of the line segment joining the points 𝐴(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and 𝐵(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) is given by

𝑥 +𝑥 𝑦 +𝑦
𝑀= ,
2 2

Example: Given that the midpoint of the line segment joining 𝐴(3, 𝑥) and 𝐵(𝑦, 4) is (1, −1), find the values of 𝑥 and
𝑦.

c) Division of a line in a given ratio

- If 𝐶 divides the line segment joining 𝐴(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and 𝐵(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) internally in the ratio 𝑚: 𝑛, then 𝐶 has coordinates
, .
- If 𝐶 divides the line segment joining 𝐴(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and 𝐵(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) externally in the ratio 𝑚: 𝑛, then 𝐶 has coordinates
, .

Example: P and Q have coordinates (3,2) and (−6,8) respectively. Find the coordinates of the point that divides PQ
internally in the ratio 2: 3.

d) Gradient of a line joining two points

It is the measure of the steepness of a line with respect to the horizontal. The gradient of a straight line passing
through 𝐴(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and 𝐵(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) is given by 𝑚 = .

- Collinear points are points that lie on the same line. The gradient of a line joining any pairs of collinear points in the
same.

Example

1) Find the gradient of the straight line passing through the points 𝑃(3, −6) and 𝑄(10,18).

2) Given that the points 𝑃(1,5), 𝑄(2, 𝑏) and 𝑅(𝑎, 2𝑎 + 3) are collinear. Find the values of a and b.

e) Equation of a straight line

Every straight line in a plane can be represented as a linear equation involving the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦. Generally, the
equation of a straight line is of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.

(i) Gradient- intercept form: It is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 where 𝑚 is the gradient and 𝑐 is the 𝑦- intercept (the
point where the line cuts the 𝑦- axis). A line cuts the 𝑦 − axis when 𝑥 = 0.

Example: State the gradient and 𝑦- intercept of the line 5𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 8 = 0.

(ii) Gradient and one-point form: The equation is of the form 𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 ).

Example: Find the equation of the straight line which has gradient 2 and passes through the point (−1, −5).

(iii) Two points form: The equation can be obtained from = .

Example: Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the points 𝑃(3.2) and 𝑄(7.8) giving your
answer in the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.

(iv) Double- intercept form: It is of the form + = 1 where (𝑎, 0) and (0, 𝑏) are the coordinates of the 𝑥 and 𝑦
intercepts respectively.

Example: Express the line 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 36 = 0 in the double intercept form. Hence, find the coordinates of the 𝑥 and 𝑦
intercepts.

f) Intersection of two lines

- Two lines intersect at a point. To find the point of intersection of the lines 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 , we
solve the equations simultaneously.

Example: Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the lines 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 and 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 6.

g) Angle between two straight lines

The tangent of the acute angle between the pair of lines 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 is given by
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 = 𝟏 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
.
- If 𝑚 𝑚 = −1, then 𝛼 = 90°. In other words, the two lines are perpendicular.

Example: Find the acute angle between the pair of lines 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 8 = 0 and 𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 5 = 0.

h) Parallel and Perpendicular lines

- Two lines are parallel if they can never meet. If 𝑙 : 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑙 : 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 are parallel, then they have
the same gradient. i.e. 𝑚 = 𝑚 .

- Two lines are perpendicular if they meet at right angle. If 𝑙 : 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑙 : 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐 are perpendicular,
then 𝑚 𝑚 = −1.

Example

1) Given that 𝑙 : 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 7 = 0 and 𝑙 : 𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5 = 0 are parallel, find the value of a

2) Find the equation of the straight line that passes through (2,3) and is perpendicular to 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 5 = 0.

i) Perpendicular distance from a point to a line

The perpendicular distance from the point (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) to the line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is the shortest distance from the point
to the line and it is given by 𝑑 = .
√

Exercise: Find the perpendicular distance of the point (5, −3) from the line 6𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 11 = 0.

- A line that passes through the point of intersection of 𝑙 and 𝑙 has equation 𝑙 + 𝑘𝑙 = 0.

B) Reduction to Linear form

There are some functions which do not show direct relationship between variables. The process of transforming such
functions into linear form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 is called linearization.

Generally, to reduce a nonlinear relationship to linear form:

- Try to express it in a form containing three terms only (using log or In where necessary).

- Make one of the terms constant.

Linearization of some nonlinear functions

Case 1: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 where 𝑎 and 𝑛 are real constants.

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎𝑥 ⟹ ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎 + 𝑛 ln 𝑥 ⟹ ln 𝑦 = 𝑛 ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑎

Comparing this with 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑋 + 𝑐, we see that if ln 𝑦 is plotted against ln 𝑥, the gradient will be 𝑛 and the intercept
on the vertical axis will be ln 𝑎. From ln 𝑎, the value of 𝑎 can be obtained.

Case 2: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real constants.

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 ⟹ ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎 + 𝑥 ln 𝑏. Here, ln 𝑦 is plotted against 𝑥.

Case 3: + = where 𝑎 is a real constant

+ = ⟹ = (−1) + . Here, we plot against .

Case 4: + = 1 , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real constant

 + =1⟹ =− +1⟹ = − + . Here, we plot against .

Case 5: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real constant

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 ⟹ = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏. Here, we plot against 𝑥.

Case 6: 𝑦 = log(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real constant

𝑦 = log(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) ⟹ 10 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏. Here, we plot 10 against 𝑥.

Note: If for example a graph of ln 𝑦 is to be plotted against ln 𝑥, then the straight line must pass through ln 𝑥 , ln 𝑦 .
Hence it is important to always find the mean point and locate it on the graph before the straight line is drawn.

Exercise

1) A relationship of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 is known to exist between 𝑥 and 𝑦 as given in the table below.

𝑥 10 20 25 40 50
𝑦 63.2 89.4 100 127 141

By making suitable transformation on 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 and drawing a straight line graph, estimate the values of 𝑎 and 𝑛 to 1
d.p. Estimate, using your graph, the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 50 and the value of 𝑥 when 𝑦 = 54.2.

2)

𝑥 1 2 3 4 5
𝑦 3 21 59 110 178

The table above shows approximate values of a variable 𝑦 corresponding to certain values of another variable 𝑥. The
equation relating 𝑥 and 𝑦 is given by 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants. Estimate the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.

3) The variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related by a relation of the form = log(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real constants.
Approximate values of 𝑦 corresponding to given values of 𝑥 are given in the table below.

𝑥 1 2 3 4 5
𝑦 0.857 0.924 0.982 1.033 1.079

By drawing a suitable linear graph, estimate to 1d.p.

a) the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.

b) the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 1.5.

C) Circle Geometry

a) Definition

- A circle is a path that is traced out by the movement of a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) such that it is always equidistant from a fixed
point.

- The outer limit of the circle is called the circumference and the fixed point is called the centre.

- The distance from the centre to a fixed point on the circumference is called the radius of the circle.
 b) Equation of a circle

- The equation of a circle of centre (𝑎, 𝑏) and radius 𝑟 is given by (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑦 − 𝑏) = 𝑟 .

- (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑦 − 𝑏) = 𝑟 ⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 where 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑟 .

- 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is the standard form of the equation of a circle.

Remark: In the equation of a circle, the coefficients of 𝑥 and 𝑦 are equal.

Example: Write down the equation of a circle of centre (−2,3) and radius 2.

Equation of a circle with centre and one point on the circumference given

Here, the radius can be obtained by looking for the distance between the centre and a point on the circumference.

Example: Given the centre of a circle as (−4,1) and one point on the circumference as (0,2). Find the equation of the
circle.

Equation of a circle with ends of the diameter given

The centre is the midpoint of the endpoints of the diameter and the radius can be obtained using the center and one of
these endpoints.

Example: Find the equation of a circle given that the endpoints of one of its diameters have coordinates (2, −2) and
(−6, −4).

Equation of a circle passing given three points on the circumference

This is obtained using the general equation of a circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0. We put each of these points in
the general equation to get three simultaneous equations in three unknowns.

Example: Find the equation of a circle passing through the points (−2,2), (2,2) and (−2, −4).

Finding the centre and radius of a circle given its equation in general form

Example: Find the centre and radius of the circles represented by the following equations

a) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 11 b) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 22𝑥 + 12𝑦 + 27 = 0

c) 5𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 𝑥 + 21𝑦 = 0 d) 3𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑥 = 3𝑦 + 2

c) Tangents to circles

Tangent to a circle

- A tangent to a circle is a line that that touches a circle at one point only.

- If the tangent has equation 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 and the circle has equation (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑦 − 𝑏) = 𝑟 , then to find the
coordinates of the point of contact, we solve the two equations simultaneously.
- A quadratic equation would be obtained whose discriminant is zero.

Note: The tangent to a circle at a point meets the radius at that point at angle of 90° i.e. the radius and the tangent are
perpendicular at that point.

Exercise

1) Find the value(s) of 𝑐 if the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑐 is tangent to the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1. Hence, state the equation of the
two tangents to the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1.

2) Prove that the line 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1 neither cuts nor touches the circle (𝑥 − 4) + (𝑦 − 1) = 9.

3) Prove that the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3 is tangent to the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 10𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 24 = 0.

4) Prove that part of the straight line 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 5 forms a chord to the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 5 = 0 and find the
length of this chord.

Length of the tangent to a circle from a given external point

Only two tangents can be drawn from a point outside the circle to the circle.

𝑆𝑃 = 𝑅𝑃
𝑅 Triangle 𝐶𝑆𝑃 and 𝐶𝑅𝑃 are right angled
triangles.
𝑟 l
From Pythagoras theorem,

.
𝐶(𝑎, 𝑏) . 𝑃(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) 𝑆𝑃 + 𝐶𝑆 = 𝐶𝑃 ⟹ 𝑙 = 𝐶𝑃 − 𝑟

⟹ 𝑙 = √𝐶𝑃 − 𝑟
𝑟
l Therefore, 𝑙 = (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑦 − 𝑏) − 𝑟
𝑆

Exercise

1) Determine the coordinates of the centre C and the length of the radius of the circle with equation 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4𝑥 −
10𝑦 + 13 = 0. Find the distance from the point 𝑃(2,3) to the centre of the circle. Hence, find the length of the
tangents from P to the circle.

Equation of the tangents to a circle

If a tangent meets a circle at a point 𝑃(𝑥 , 𝑦 ), then its gradient 𝑚 is obtained from the gradient of the radius. If
𝐶(𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑚 = and 𝑚 = − .

The equation of the tangent is obtained from 𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑥 ).

Exercise

1) Find the equation of the tangent passing through the point (4, −6) on the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 8𝑥 − 84 = 0.
2) Find the equation of the tangent at the origin to the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 0.

Equation of tangents from the origin to a circle

y - All straight lines passing through the origin have

Equations 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥.

𝑟
- Since the origin is a point outside the circle, two
(𝑎, 𝑏)
Possible tangents can be drawn to the circle.
𝑟

- The perpendicular distance from the centre of

O x
the circle to these tangents is equal to the radius.

- The equations of these tangents can be expressed as 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0.

= 𝑟.
( )

Exercise

1) Find the equation of the tangents from the origin to the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 10𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 25 = 0.

2) Find the values of 𝑚 such that 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 is a tangent from the origin (0,0) to the circle whose equation is (𝑥 −
3) + (𝑦 − 4) = 1. Find the cosine of the acute angle between the two tangents.

3) Find the tangents to the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 7 = 0 which are parallel to the line 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3 = 0.

4) Find the value of 𝑎 for which the line 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 − 1 is a diameter of the circle 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 10 = 0.

d) Condition for two circles to touch

Condition for two circles to touch externally

- Two circles touch each other externally when the

Distance between their centres is equal to the sum of

Their radii i.e. 𝐶 𝐶 = 𝑟 + 𝑟

. 𝑟 𝑟
.
𝐶 (𝑎 , 𝑏 ) - The point of contact of these two circles divides 𝐶 𝐶 in
𝐶 (𝑎 , 𝑏 )

The ratio 𝑟 : 𝑟 . Hence, the coordinates of the point of

Contact can be obtained.

Exercise

1) Show that the circles 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 8 = 0 and 𝐶 : (𝑥 − 3) + (𝑦 − 4) = 13 touch each other

externally. Find the coordinates of the point of contact of these two circles.

2) The circles 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 1 = 0 and 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 25 = 0 touch each other externally.

Find the value of 𝑐 and hence, find the coordinates of the point of contact 𝐴 of these two circles.
(ii) Condition for two circles to touch internally

- Two circles touch each other internally if 𝐶 𝐶 = |𝑟 − 𝑟 | = |𝑟 − 𝑟 |.

𝑐 (𝑎 , 𝑏 ) 𝑟
. . - The coordinates of the point of contact divides 𝐶 𝐶 externally in the
𝑐 (𝑎 , 𝑏 )
𝑟
ratio |𝑟 − 𝑟 |: −𝑟 .

Exercise

1) Show that the circles 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 6𝑥 = 0 and 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 12 = 0 touch internally. Find the

coordinates of the point of contact.

(iii) Condition for two circles to touch orthogonally

- Two circles touch orthogonally if (𝐶 𝐶 ) = 𝑟 +𝑟

Exercise: Show that the circles 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 and 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6𝑥 + 3 cut orthogonally.

(iv) Radial axis of two circles

𝐴
𝐶 - 𝐴𝐵 is the common chord (radial axis) of the two circles.

- The equation of the common chord is obtained by

𝐶 Solving the equation 𝐶 = 𝐶 .

𝐵

Exercise

1) Find the equation of the common chord to the circles 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 1 = 0 and 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 8𝑥 −

8𝑦 + 31 = 0.

(v) Equation of a circle through the point of intersection of two given circles

Let 𝐶 and 𝐶 be two circles. The equation of another circle passing through the point of intersection of 𝐶 and 𝐶 is
given by 𝐶 = 𝜆𝐶 where 𝜆 ∈ ℝ. 𝐶 = 𝜆𝐶 is a family of circles. With one point of the circle known, the value of 𝜆 can
be obtained.
Exercise

1) Find the equation of the circle which passes through the point of intersection of 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 3 = 0
and 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 1 = 0 and also passes through the point (2, 3).

2) Given the circles 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 9 = 0 and 𝐶 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 0. Find the equation of the

circle 𝐶 which passes through the centre of 𝐶 and through the point of intersection of 𝐶 and 𝐶 .

(vi) Equation of a circle passing through the points of intersection of a given straight line and a given circle

Given the straight line 𝑙 = 0 and the circle 𝐶 = 0. Given that 𝐿 and 𝐶 intersect, the equation of the circle passing
through the point of intersection of 𝐶 and 𝑙 is given by 𝐶 = 𝜆𝑙.

Exercise

1) Find the equation of the circle passing through the point of intersection of the circle

𝐶: 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 23 = 0 and the line 𝐿: 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4 = 0 and also passes through the point (0,0).

2) Given the circle 𝑆 : 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 10𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 45 = 0.

a) Find the point T of contact where the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 touches the circle.

b) Find also the equation of the line segment 𝑇𝐶 where 𝐶 is the centre of 𝑆 .

c) Determine the coordinates of the point where 𝑇𝐶 meets the circle again.

d) 𝑇𝐶 is the diameter of the circle 𝑆 . Find in the form 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, the equation of 𝑆 .

 14. LIMITS AND DIFFERENTIATION

Subtopics

 Limits
- Properties of limits
- Limits of trigonometric functions
 The general gradient rule
 Techniques in differentiation
- Product rule
- Quotient rule
- Chain rule
 Higher derivatives
 Differentiation of parametric equations
 Differentiation of implicit functions
 Differentiation of exponential functions
 Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions
 L’hopitals rule.
 Applications of differentiation
- Equations of tangents and normal
- Small changes and approximations
- Rates of change
- Curve sketching
- Rolle’s theorem
- Mean value theorem

a) Limits

The limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is given by lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎). We say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)
⟶
exists at 𝑎 iff lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥).
⟶ ⟶

- If 𝑥 is a positive integer, as 𝑥 ⟶ ∞, ⟶ 0. Also, if 𝑚 is a positive integer, then lim = 0.

⟶

Example: Evaluate the following limits

√
a) lim 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 3 b) lim c) lim
⟶ ⟶ ⟶

d) lim e) lim f) lim

⟶ ⟶ ⟶

Properties of limits

1) lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
⟶

2) lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)

⟶ ⟶ ⟶

3) lim [𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)

⟶ ⟶ ⟶

( ) ( )
4) lim ( )
= ⟶
( )
if lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
⟶ ⟶
⟶

5) lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 lim [𝑓(𝑥)]

⟶ ⟶
6) lim [𝑓(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
⟶ ⟶

7) If 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial, then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

⟶

Example: Evaluate the following limits

1) lim 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 3) 2) lim

⟶ ⟶

Limits of trigonometric functions

1) lim =0 2) lim =0
⟶ ⟶

3) lim =1 4) lim =1
⟶ ⟶

5) lim =1 6) lim =1
⟶ ⟶

Example: Evaluate the following limits

1) lim 2) lim 3) lim

⟶ ⟶ ⟶

4) lim 5) lim 6) lim

⟶ ⟶ ⟶

b) The general gradient rule

𝐵 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥)

𝐴 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)

O 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥 𝑥

( ) ( )
The gradient of AB: =

( ) ( )
As B approaches A, 𝛿𝑥 ⟶ 0 and the gradient of the curve at A is lim = lim
⟶ ⟶

𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)

= lim = 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 ⟶ 𝛿𝑥

By letting 𝛿𝑥 = ℎ, we obtain
 𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 ⟶ ℎ

This is differentiation from first principle. 𝑓 (𝑥) is the derived function (derivative) of 𝑓(𝑥). The process of finding
the derivative (gradient function) of a function is called differentiation.

Example

1) Differentiate the following functions from first principle

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ

d) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 e) 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 3𝑥 f) 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥

h) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥

1, 𝑥>0
2) Show that if 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|, then 𝑓 (𝑥) =
−1, 𝑥<0

Note

- If 𝑓(𝑥) is a constant function, that is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0.

- If 𝑓(𝑥) is a monomial of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 , then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 .

- If 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial, then differentiation is done term by term.

- If 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 and if 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑎𝑥, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑥.

- If 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 and if 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑎𝑥, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = −𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑥.

- If 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = sec 𝑥 and if 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑎𝑥, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑎 sec 𝑎𝑥.

- If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 , then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑒 and If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 , then 𝑓′(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑒

( )
- If 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥, then 𝑓′(𝑥) = and if 𝑔(𝑥) = ln 𝑓(𝑥) , then 𝑔′(𝑥) = ( )

C) Techniques in differentiation

1) Product rule: If 𝑦 is a product of the form 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥, then =𝑢 +𝑣 .

2) Quotient rule: If 𝑦 is a quotient of the form 𝑦 = where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥, then = .

3) Chain rule (function of function): If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) where 𝑢 is a function of 𝑥, then = × . Also,

if 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)] , then = 𝑛 𝑓′(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) . This is the condensed form of the chain rule.

Exercise

1) Differentiate the following with respect to 𝑥

a) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 b) 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 4𝑥)(𝑥 − 9) c) 𝑦 =

d) 𝑦 = (1 + 3𝑥 ) e) 𝑦 = 𝑒 f) 𝑦 = sin(6𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 8)

2) If 𝑦 = ln , show that = .

3) Differentiate with respect to 𝑥 the following

( )
a) 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)] b) 𝑦 = ln[𝑓(𝑥)] c) 𝑦 = 𝑒

4) Given that 𝑦 = , find when 𝑥 = .

d) Higher derivatives

If a function is differentiated for the first time, we talk about first derivative and if more than once, we talk about
higher derivatives. The second derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is given by

𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑓′′(𝑥) = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Note: ≠

Example: Find if 𝑦 = ln 𝑥

e) Differentiation of parametric equations

The cartesian equation of curves can sometimes be expressed in terms of other variables 𝑡 or 𝜃. In such situations, the
curve is defined by two equations: 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝜃) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝜃).

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example

1) Given that 𝑥 = 𝑡 + 2 and 𝑦 = (2𝑡 + 1) , find the value of when 𝑡 = 2.

2) Given that 𝑥 = sin 𝑡 and 𝑦 = cos 𝑡, find .

f) Differentiation of implicit functions

When it is difficult to express 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥, we say that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is implicit. E.g. 𝑦 − 3𝑥 𝑦 = 6𝑥.
Exercise

1) Given that sin 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, find .

2) Show that if 𝑦 = ln 𝑥, then = .

3) Given that 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 = 0, find the gradient of the curve at the point (1,1).

4) If 𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 = 7, find and show that (3𝑥 + 2𝑦) +2 +6 + 2 = 0.

5) Differentiate 𝑦 = log(3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1) with respect to 𝑥.

6) Given that 𝑥 = 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 and 𝑦 = cos 𝜃, show that = 1 + 3 sec 𝑦.

g) Differentiation of exponential functions

If 𝑦 = 𝑎 , then = 𝑎 ln 𝑎

Exercise: Differentiate the following functions with respect to 𝑥

1) 𝑦 = 2 2) 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥 ) 3) 𝑦 = 3 ln 3

h) Differentiation of inverse trigonometric functions

- If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑥, then = ,− ≤ 𝑦 ≤ .

√

- If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑥, then =− , 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋.

√

- If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑥, then = ,− ≤𝑦 ≤ .

Exercise: Differentiate the following functions with respect to 𝑥

1) 𝑦 = cos 2) 𝑦 = tan

i) Using L’hopitals rule to find limits

If the limit of a function is indeterminate at a point by substitution (the forms , , 0 ), differentiate the numerator
and the denominator independently until the limit of the function becomes determinate at that point.

Exercise: Evaluate the following limits

1) lim 2) lim 3𝑥 ln 𝑥 3) lim

⟶ ⟶ ⟶
 /
4) lim 1 + 5) lim (1 + 𝑛𝑥)
⟶ ⟶

J) Applications of differentiation

(i) Equations of tangent and normal

A Tangent to a curve is a line that touches the curve at only one point say P. The normal to the curve at P is a straight
line perpendicular to the tangent at P.

O 𝑥

Generally, if a curve has equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and meets the tangent at (𝑥 , 𝑦 ), then the gradient of the tangent at
(𝑥 , 𝑦 ) is 𝑓′(𝑥 ). The equation of the tangent is 𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑓′(𝑥 )(𝑥 − 𝑥 ). The equation of the normal is given by
𝑦−𝑦 = ( )
(𝑥 − 𝑥 ).

Exercise

Find an equation of the tangent and of the normal to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1 at the point (1,3).

(ii) Small changes and approximations

If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then a small change in 𝑥 say 𝛿𝑥 causes a change in 𝑦 say 𝛿𝑦.

= lim . If 𝛿𝑥 is very small, = . This implies that 𝛿𝑦 = 𝛿𝑥 ⟹ 𝛿𝑦 = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝛿𝑥.

→

- If 𝑥 changes from 𝑥 to 𝑥 , then 𝛿𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 and 𝑓′(𝑥) is calculated at 𝑥 .

- If the change in 𝑥 is given as a percentage, we say that 𝑥 increases by 𝑝%. Here, 𝛿𝑥 = × 𝑥. This implies that

𝑓′(𝑥) × 𝑝 × 𝑥
𝛿𝑦 =
100

- Approximate % change in 𝑦 = × 100%.

Exercise

1) If the radius of a sphere is increased from 2𝑐𝑚 to 2.01𝑐𝑚. Find the approximate increase in the volume of the
sphere.

2) If 𝑃 = and 𝑥 decreases from 3 to 2.98. What is the approximate % change in the value of 𝑃.

3) The surface area of a sphere is given by 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 where 𝑟 is the radius of the sphere is decreased by 2% where 𝑟 =
5 𝑐𝑚, find the approximate % change in the surface area.

4) Find the approximate value for the increase in the radius of a sphere given that this increase causes the surface area
of the sphere to increase from 100𝜋𝑐𝑚 to 100.4𝜋𝑐𝑚 .

(iii) Rates of change

Here, the main idea is to compute the rate of change of one quantity in terms of the rate of change of another quantity
(which may easily be measured); The procedure is to find an equation which relates the two quantities and then use
chain rule to differentiate both sides with respect to time.

Exercise

1) The sides of a square are increasing at a rate of 20 𝑐𝑚𝑠 . Find the rate at which the area of the square is increasing
when the sides of the square are of length 3 𝑚.

2) Suppose the radius, r, of a circle is 3 𝑐𝑚 at a certain instant and it is increasing at a rate of 0.5 𝑐𝑚𝑠 . At what rate
will the area be increasing at that instant.

3) Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume increases at a rate of 1000 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 . How fast is the
radius of the sphere increasing when the diameter is 50 𝑐𝑚.

4) A spherical balloon when inflated increases at a rate of 20 𝑐𝑚 /𝑠, when its radius is 4 𝑐𝑚. Find the rate at which
the surface area increases.

5) A ladder 10 𝑚 long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall at a rate of
1 𝑚/𝑠, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the wall when the foot of the ladder is 6 𝑚 from the wall?

6) Water flows from a tap into a cylindrical vessel and the water level in the vessel rises at the constant rate of
10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠. Given that the radius of the vessel is 5 𝑐𝑚, calculate the rate at which the vessel is being filled. Given also
that the volume of the vessel is 1000 𝜋𝑐𝑚 , determine the time it will take for the vessel to be full.

7) A conical vessel of semi vertical angle 45° is held with its vertex downward and axis vertical. Water runs into the
vessel at a constant rate of 2𝜋 𝑐𝑚 /𝑠. Find the rate at which the depth of water in the vessel is increasing when water
has been running for 36𝑠.

(iv) Curve Sketching

To sketch the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we need the following

- Domain of definition of 𝑓(𝑥)

-Intercepts, that is the points at which the curve cuts the coordinate axes.
- All the asymptotes of the function

- Limit at the bounds of the domain of definition, that is the behavior of the curve near the vertical asymptotes

- Turning points

- Monotony and sense of variation, variation table

Domain of definition

This is the set of values of 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) is defined.

Example: Find the domain of definition of 𝑓(𝑥) =

Intercepts

These are the points where the curve cuts the coordinate axes.

Example: Find the intercepts of 𝑓(𝑥) =

Asymptotes

An asymptote that a line approaches but never touches. There are two types of asymptotes: vertical and horizontal
asymptote.

a) Vertical asymptote

The vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote of 𝑓(𝑥) if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞.
⟶ ⟶

( )
- In general, if 𝑓(𝑥) = ( )
, then the V.A are given by the values of 𝑥 for which 𝑄(𝑥) = 0.

Example: Find the vertical asymptotes of 𝑓(𝑥) =

b) Horizontal asymptote

The horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a horizontal asymptote to 𝑓(𝑥) if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏. For rational
⟶ ⟶
functions, the horizontal asymptote exists only when the degree of the numerator is less than or equal to the degree of
the denominator.

Example: Find the horizontal asymptotes of 𝑓(𝑥) =

Turning points (stationary points)

The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has turning points where 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0. The values of 𝑥 satisfying the equation 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 are
called critical values.

- If 𝑓′′(𝑐) > 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) has a local minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

- If 𝑓′′(𝑐) < 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) has a local maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

Example: Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = , find the turning points of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and distinguish between them.

- The point at which 𝑓′′(𝑥) = 0 is called the point of inflexion.

Monotonicity

Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on an interval 𝐼, then

- If 𝑓 (𝑥) > 0, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐼, then 𝑓(𝑥) is monotone increasing on 𝐼.

- If 𝑓 (𝑥) < 0, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐼, then 𝑓(𝑥) is monotone decreasing on 𝐼.

Variation table

This is a table that shows the sign of the function, the vertical asymptotes and the region over which the function is
increasing or decreasing. This table helps us to sketch the curve on the coordinate axes.

Exercise

1) Sketch the curve of 𝑦 = , showing clearly the intercepts and the behavior of the curve near the asymptotes.

2) Sketch the curve of 𝑦 = , showing clearly the asymptotes and the turning points. Hence on th same graph
sketch the graph of 𝑦 = .

3) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) where 𝑓(𝑥) = (

.
)

4) The graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = has a stationary value at the point (−1, −1). Find the values of the
constants 𝑎 and 𝑏. Show that this stationary value is minimum and find the value of 𝑥 for which the function has a
maximum value. Sketch the curve of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

(v) Rolle’s theorem

If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏) with 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), then there exist a number 𝑐 such that
𝑓 (𝑐) = 0.

(vi) Mean value theorem

( ) ( )
If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏), then there exist 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓′(𝑐) =

Example

1) Suppose 𝑓(0) = −3 and 𝑓′(𝑥) ≤ 5 for all values of 𝑥. How large can 𝑓(2) possibly be?
( ) ( )
2) Find the value of 𝑐 that satisfy the equation 𝑓′(𝑥) = for 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 − 1) in the interval 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4.
 15. NUMERICAL METHODS

Subtopics

 Introduction
 Location of roots of an equation
 Number of real roots of an equation
 Numerical method (Newton- Raphson Method)

a) Introduction

The value(s) of 𝑥 for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 are called the roots of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. The roots may be real or complex.
Some roots may be obtained analytically whereas others can only be obtained with the use of numerical methods. E.g.
𝑥 = 𝑒 . Numerical methods give only approximate values of roots.

b) Location of roots of an equation

A root is a value of 𝑥 for which the curve cuts the 𝑥 − axis.

Intermediate value theorem: Suppose that 𝑓 is cntinious over the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑎) < 𝑘 < 𝑓(𝑏) where
𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏), then there exist a number 𝑐 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑘 where 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏.

𝑎
O 𝑐 𝑏 𝑥

It follows from this that

If 𝑓 is continuous over [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑎) < 0 < 𝑓(𝑏) i.e. 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏) < 0, then there exist a number 𝑐 such that 𝑓(𝑐) = 0
where 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏.

- To proof that the root of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 lies in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) it suffices to show that 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏) < 0 i.e.
negative.

Example

1) Show that the equation 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 1 = 0 has a root between 0 and 1.

2) Show that the equation 2 sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 has a root between 1 and 2 where 𝑥 is in radians.

c) Number of real roots of an equation

The number of real roots of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is known by observing the coefficients of the terms in 𝑓(𝑥). The
real roots can either be positive or negative. Two steps are involved.

- In 𝑓(𝑥), count the number of times consecutive coefficients of terms in 𝑓(𝑥) change sign. If this happens 𝑛 times,
then 𝑓(𝑥) has not more than 𝑛 positive real roots.
- Replace 𝑥 by −𝑥. In 𝑓(−𝑥), count the number of times consecutive coefficients of terms in 𝑓(−𝑥) change sign. If
this happens 𝑚 times, then 𝑓(𝑥) has not more than 𝑚 negative real roots.

Note: If there is no change in sign in consecutive terms of 𝑓(𝑥), then there are no positive real roots. If also, no sign
changes in sign in consecutive terms of 𝑓(−𝑥), then there are no negative real roots.

Exercise: How many real roots does the following equations have

1) 𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 1 = 0 2) 12𝑥 + 16𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 3) 𝑥 = 4𝑥 − 1

d) Newton- Raphson Method

Newton- Raphson method also known as Newton’s method is a way to quickly find a good approximation for a root
of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0. It uses the idea that a continuous and differentiable function can be approximated by a
straight line tangent to it. The geometry behind Newton’s method is shown in the figure below, where the root we are
to find is labelled 𝑟.

We start with a first approximation 𝑥 which is obtained by guessing. Consider the tangent line 𝐿 to the curve 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) at the point 𝑥 , 𝑓(𝑥 ) and look for the 𝑥 − intercept of 𝐿, labelled 𝑥 . The gradient of the tangent to the curve
at 𝑥 , 𝑓(𝑥 ) is 𝑓′(𝑥 ). The equation of 𝐿 is given by;

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓′(𝑥 )(𝑥 − 𝑥 )

The line passes through the point (𝑥 , 0). This implies that 0 − 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓′(𝑥 )(𝑥 − 𝑥 ). This implies that

𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑥 =𝑥 −
𝑓′(𝑥 )

𝑥 can now be taken as a second approximation to 𝑟 and the process repeated again and again until the desired
accuracy is reached.

( )
Generally, 𝑥 =𝑥 − ( )
and this is called the Newton – Raphson formula.

Exercise
1) Starting with 𝑥 = 2, find the third approximation, 𝑥 to the root of the equation 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 5 = 0.

2) Show that the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, where 𝑓(𝑥) = 12𝑥 + 16𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 4 has a root in the interval −2 < 𝑥 < −1.
Use Newton -Raphson method with initial value −1.5 to find two further approximations to the root in the interval
−2 < 𝑥 < −1 giving your answer to two decimal places.

3) Use Newton – Raphson to find √2 correct to 8 d.p.

 16. INTEGRATION

Subtopics

 Introduction
 Definite integral
 Integral of particular functions
 Application of integration
- Area under a curve and between two curves
-Volume of solid of revolution
- Trapezium rule

a) Introduction

Integration is the process by which we obtain the equation of a curve from its derivative or derived function.
Integration is the reverse of differentiation and the symbol for integration is the elongated s and it is called the
integrand.

Generally, if 𝑦 = 𝑥 , then ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑘 where 𝑘 is the constant of integration.

𝑎𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

b) Definite integral

If ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺(𝑥) + 𝑘, then ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺(𝑏) − 𝐺(𝑎) and it is called a definite integral because limits have been
attached to the integral sign.

Example: Solve the following integrals

a) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√

c) Integral of particular functions

(i) Integration of (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒏 where 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒏 are constants

( )
If ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = ( )
+𝑘

Example

1) Find the following integrals

a) ∫(3𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ √4𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥

( )
2) Show that ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = ( )
+𝑘

(ii) Integration of trigonometric functions

∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑘 ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cos 𝑥 + 𝑘 ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑘

∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑘 ∫ cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = cosec 𝑥 + 𝑘

∫ cos(𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛) 𝑑𝑥 = sin(𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛) + 𝑘 ∫ sin(𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛) 𝑑𝑥 = − cos(𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛) + 𝑘

 1
sec (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛) 𝑑𝑥 = tan(𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛) + 𝑘
𝑚

Example

1) Find the following integrals

a) ∫ sin 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ cos 8𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(iii) Integration of exponential functions

(𝑒 ) = 𝑒 ⟹ ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝑘 (𝑎 ) = 𝑎 ln 𝑎 ⟹ ∫ 𝑎 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑘

⟹ ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐

Where 𝑐 =

1
𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 +𝑘
𝑝

𝟏
(iv) Integration of 𝒙

(ln 𝑥) = ⟹ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝑘, this is valid for 𝑥 > 0.

(ln(−𝑥)) = = ⟹ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln(−𝑥) + 𝑘, this is valid for 𝑥 < 0.

ln 𝑥 + 𝑘, 𝑥 > 0
This implies that ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) =
ln(−𝑥) + 𝑘, 𝑥 < 0

Therefore, ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝑘.

Also, ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞| + 𝑘

( )
Generally, ∫ ( )
𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑘.

Example

1) Find the following integrals

a) ∫ ( )( )
𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

d) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 e) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 f) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√

2) Show that ∫ ( )( )
= ln .

𝟏 𝟏
(v) Integration of and 𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝑑 1 1
(sin 𝑥) = ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥+𝑘
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥
𝑑 1 1
(tan 𝑥) = ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥+𝑘
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 1+𝑥

Alternatively, to ∫ 𝑑𝑥, we let 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 and to ∫ 𝑑𝑥 we let 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃.

√

Common substitutions

- If √𝑎 − 𝑥 occurs, then try 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 or 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃

- If √𝑎 + 𝑥 occurs, then try 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃

- If √𝑥 − 𝑎 occurs, then try 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃

Exercise

1) Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√

2) Using the substitution 𝑡 = 𝑥 + 3, find ∫ 𝑑𝑥

√

3) Using the substitution 2𝑥 = tan 𝑡, find ∫ 𝑑𝑥

4) Evaluate the following

a) ∫ b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√

5) Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) ( )

, express 𝑓(𝑥) in partial fractions and hence show that ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = + ln .

6) (i) Show that ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 √2 − 1

√

(ii) Using the substitution 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, show that ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln 3.

(iii) Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥 using the substitution 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

𝟏 𝟏
(vi) Integration of 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
or 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

Here, we use the substitution 𝑡 = tan 𝑥 2

Exercise

1) Find ∫ 𝑑𝜃

2) Using the substitution 𝑡 = tan 𝑥 2 , show that

a) ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝑘

b) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln 1 + tan 𝑥 2 + 𝑘

3) Evaluate
a) ∫ 𝑥 √16 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 using 𝑥 = 4 sin 𝜃 b) ∫ 𝑥 √4 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 using 𝑥 = 2 tan 𝜃.

4) Show that = . Hence or otherwise, evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥.

5) Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥

6) Express ( )( )
in partial fractions. Using the substitution 𝑡 = tan 𝑥, show that ∫ =

∫ ( )( )
𝑑𝑡. Hence show that ∫ = ln 3.

(vii) Integration of absolute value functions

𝑥, if 𝑥 ≥ 0
Here, we make use of the definition of the absolute value function |𝑥| = .
−𝑥, if 𝑥 < 0

Example: Evaluate the following integrals

a) ∫ |𝑥 − 2| 𝑑𝑥 b)∫ |3𝑥 − 12| 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ |2𝑥 + 3| 𝑑𝑥

(viii) Integration of products

- By substitution (change of variables)

Here, we recognize the derivative of functions

Example: Find the following integrals

a) ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- By parts

Not all products can be integrated using change of variables

𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 +𝑣 ⟹𝑢 = (𝑢𝑣) − 𝑣
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

⟹ ∫𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣

𝑢 is the function to be integrated with respect to 𝑥. The choice of 𝑢 and depends on whether 𝑢 can easily be
differentiated and easily integrated.

- To select 𝑢, use the mnemonic LIAET (logarithmic- Inverse trigonometric- Algebraic- Exponential-
Trigonometric) in order of decreasing priority.

Example: Find the following integrals

a) ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 d) ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥

e) ∫ ln(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 f) ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 g) ∫ log 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(ix) Integration of powers of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 or 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

- Odd powers of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Express it as an even power of sin 𝑥 and then use the identity sin 𝑥 = 1 − cos 𝑥 and the substitution 𝑢 = cos 𝑥.

- Odd powers of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

Express it as an even power of cos 𝑥 and then use the identity cos 𝑥 = 1 − sin 𝑥 and the substitution 𝑢 = sin 𝑥.

Example: Find the following integrals

a) ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

- Even powers of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Use sin 𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑥)

- Even powers of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

Use cos 𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑥)

Example: Find the following integrals

a) ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(x) Integration of powers of 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙

To do this, we make an extensive use of the identity 1 + tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥.

Example: Find the following integrals

a) ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example: Find the following integrals

a) ∫ sin 5𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ cos 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 c)cos 6𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(x) Integration of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒎 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒏 𝒙

Example: Find the following integrals

a) ∫ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

a) ∫ cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(x) Integration of 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝒎 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒏 𝒙

Example: Find the following integrals

a) ∫ tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 b) ∫ tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 c) ∫ tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

d) Application of integration

(i) Area under a curve and between wo curves

The area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥 axis and the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by

𝐴= 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

O 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥

Example

1) Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 , the 𝑥- axis and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2.

2) Find the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2, the 𝑥- axis and the lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2.

- In case the area bounded by the curve and the lines is below the 𝑥- axis, we use the formula 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑦

O 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥

- In case the shaded portion is above and below the 𝑥- axis,

𝐴= 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
 𝑦

O𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑥

- Area between two curves

𝑦

𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑎 O 𝑏 𝑥

𝐴= 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

In case the shaded portion between the curves is below the 𝑥- axis, 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Exercise

1) Find the area enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) and the 𝑥 -axis.

2) Find the area enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 6𝑥 − 𝑥 , the 𝑥- axis and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 9.

3) Find the area of the finite region enclosed between

a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 10 and 𝑦 = 10 − 𝑥

b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 .

4) Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 4𝑥| and 𝑦 = 3 and hence, find the area bounded by the two curves in the interval
1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.

- Area between the curve, the 𝑦- axis and the lines 𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑑

The function used here is 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦).

 𝑦

𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑑

𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦

O 𝑥

𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑑

𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑦

O 𝑥

𝐴= 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦

𝑥
𝑐

Exercise

1) Find the area enclosed between the curve 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 and the 𝑦 – axis.
2) Find the area of the finite region enclosed by the curve 𝑥𝑦 = 1 and the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4, leaving your answer in
terms of natural logarithms.

(ii) Volume of solid of revolution

Consider the diagram below

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

O 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥

If the portion between the curves 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝑥- axis and the ordinates at 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is rotated completely
about the 𝑥- axis, a solid is generated.

The solid formed is 3- dimensional, it’s symmetrical about the axis of rotation and all cross sections taken
perpendicular to the 𝑥 − axis are circular.
𝑦

O 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥

Volume of solid of revolution, 𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 where rotation is about the 𝑥- axis and 𝑦 is in terms of 𝑥.

Example: Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating about the 𝑥- axis, the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 =
𝑥 + 1 and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1.

- Volume of solid of revolution about the line 𝑦 = 𝑘 is given by 𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘] 𝑑𝑥.

- Volume of solid of revolution about the 𝑦- axis is given by 𝑉 = ∫ 𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑦
 - If the portion between two curves is rotated completely about the 𝑦- axis, then
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑓(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦 − ∫ [𝑔(𝑦)] 𝑑𝑦
- If the portion between two curves is rotated completely about the line 𝑥 = 𝑘, then
- 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ [𝑓(𝑦) − 𝑘] 𝑑𝑦 − ∫ [𝑔(𝑦) − 𝑘] 𝑑𝑦

Exercise

1) Find the volume of the solid generated when the area enclosed by 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 1 is rotated about the line
𝑦 = 1.

2) Find the volume of the solid generated when the area enclosed by 𝑦 = 𝑒 , 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 4 is rotated about the
line 𝑦 = 3.

3) Find the volume of the solids generated when each region bounded by the following curves is rotated completely
about the 𝑥- axis.

a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 b) 𝑦 = 𝑥(2𝑎 − 𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥.

4) Find the volume of the solid generated when the region bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 4𝑥 and 𝑥 = 4𝑦 is rotated
completely about the line 𝑦 = 4.

(iii) Approximations using trapezium rule

Not all integrals can be performed using the analytic method, numerical methods can be used to perform such
integrals. The trapezium rule is a numerical method. This rule provides another method of getting approximate value
of the area under the curve of a continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦
𝑦
𝑦
𝑦
𝑦
𝑦
𝑦
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
O 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥

According to the trapezium rule, this portion is divided into strips and each strip is approximately a trapezium. A
strip is a portion between two vertical lines. The vertical lines are called ordinates.

(𝑦 + 𝑦 )ℎ (𝑦 + 𝑦 )ℎ (𝑦 + 𝑦 )ℎ
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = + + ⋯+
2 2 2

ℎ
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑦 + 𝑦 + 2(𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 )]
2

𝑦 is the value of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥 .

𝑦 is the value of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥 + ℎ.

𝑦 is the value of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2ℎ.

Generally, if there are 𝑛 ordinates, then there are (𝑛 − 1) strips or intervals and the trapezium rule is given by

ℎ
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑦 + 𝑦 + 2(𝑦 + 𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝑦 )]
2

Where ℎ =

Exercise

1) Evaluate ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 from the data given below using the trapezium rule

𝑥 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

𝑓(𝑥) 1.7321 1.8708 2.0000 2.1213 2.2361

2) Find an approximation to ∫ 𝑑𝑥 using the trapezium rule with 4 strips, giving your answer to 2d.p.

3) Find an approximation to ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 using the trapezium rule with 6 ordinates, giving your answer to 3d.p.
 17. ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Subtopics

 Definition
 First order differential equations

a) Definition

A differential equation is an equation that involves one or more derivatives of an unknown function. If a differential
equation involves the derivative of an unknown function in one variable with respect to only one other variable, then
the differential equation is called an ordinary differential equation.

E.g. + 𝑦 = 0, +6 + 9 = 3.

The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative of the function in the equation.

+ 𝑦 = 0 is a first order differential equation.

+6 + 9 = 3 is a second order differential equation.

Here, we are going to deal with first order differential equations.

b) First order differential equations

These are equations of the form = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)

- First order separable differential equations

These are differential equations that can be expressed in the form = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦)

Exercise

1) Find the general solution of the differential equations below

a) = 2𝑥 b) = c) 𝑦 = 𝑥(1 + 𝑦 )

2) Solve the differential equation − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 = 0 given that 𝑦 = 0 when 𝑥 = 0.

3) Find in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) the general solution of the differential equation (1 + 𝑥 ) − 2𝑥(1 − 𝑦) = 0. Given

that 𝑦 = 0 when 𝑥 = 1, show that 𝑓(𝑥) =

( )
4) The gradient at any point on a curve is = . Given that the curve passes through the point (0,1), find its
equation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
 18. COMPLEX NUMBERS
Subtopics

 Introduction
 Complex conjugates
 Realizing the denominator of a complex number
 Complex roots of an equation
 The square root of a complex number
 The argand diagram
- Modulus and argument of a complex number
- Trigonometric form of a complex number
- Exponential form of a complex number
- De Moivre’s theorem
- Loci in an argand diagram

a) Introduction

A complex number is any number that can be expressed in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and 𝑖 is the
imaginary number such that 𝑖 = −1. E.g. 2 + 3𝑖, 5 − 4𝑖, 3𝑖, −2 etc

√−4 = 2𝑖

All real numbers are complex numbers. The set of complex numbers is denoted by ℂ.

ℕ⊆ℤ⊆ℚ⊆ℝ⊆ℂ

Example: Solv the following equations

a) 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 13 = 0 b) 𝑥 − 8 = 0

- If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, then 𝑎 is the real part of 𝑧 and 𝑏 is the imaginary part of 𝑧. i.e. 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 𝑎 and 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑏.

- A complex number 𝑧 is said to be purely real if 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = 0 and purely imaginary if 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 0.

- To add(subtract) complex numbers, real parts are added together and the imaginary parts are added together.

- Complex numbers are multiplied in a similar way as algebraic expressions.

b) Complex conjugates

The conjugate of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is the complex number 𝑧̅ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖. E.g. the conjugate of 2 + 3𝑖 is 2 −
3𝑖.

Properties of complex conjugates

1) 𝑧𝑧̅ ∈ ℝ e.g. If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑧̅ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖, then 𝑧𝑧̅ = 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

2) 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ = 2𝑅𝑒(𝑧) e.g. If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑧̅ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖, then 𝑧 + 𝑧̅ = 2𝑎.

3) 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ = 2𝑖𝐼𝑚(𝑧) e.g. If 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑧̅ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖, then 𝑧 − 𝑧̅ = 2𝑏𝑖.

4) 𝑧̅̅ = 𝑧, (𝑧 + 𝑧 ) = 𝑧 + 𝑧 , (𝑧 𝑧 ) = 𝑧 𝑧

c) Realizing the denominator of a complex number

(i) If 𝑧 = , where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, we multiply the numerator and the denominator by 𝑖.

(ii) If 𝑧 = , where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ, we multiply the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of the
denominator.

Example

1)Express the following complex numbers in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ

a) 𝑧 = b) 𝑧 = c) 𝑧 = ( )

- Two complex numbers are equal iff their real and imaginary parts are equal.

Exercise

1) Given that = 𝑖, find 𝑧 in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ

2) Find the complex numbers 𝑧 and 𝑧 that satisfy the simultaneous equations 𝑧 + 𝑧 = 𝑖, 𝑧 − 𝑧 = −2 + 5𝑖

d) Complex roots of an equation

If a polynomial equation with real coefficients has complex roots, then they occur in conjugate pairs. Thus if 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is
a root of the polynomial equation 𝑓(𝑧) = 0, then 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 is also a root of the polynomial equation 𝑓(𝑧) = 0.

Exercise

1) Write down the quadratic equation with roots 1 − 2𝑖.

2) Find the cubic equation having roots 2, 1 − 𝑖.

3) Given that (2 − 𝑖) is a root of the equation 𝑧 − 2𝑧 − 3𝑧 + 10 = 0, find the other roots of the equation.

e) The square root of a complex number

The square root of the complex number 𝑧 is the complex number such that 𝑤 = 𝑧

Exercise

1) Find in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ the square root of each of the following complex numbers

a) 3 + 4𝑖 b)

2) Given that 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑖, show that 𝑧 = 3 − 4𝑖. Hence or otherwise, find the roots of the equation (𝑧 + 𝑖) = 3 − 4𝑖

f) The argand diagram

It is a plane on which complex numbers are represented. The plane has two axes. The horizontal plane is the real
while the vertical plane is the imaginary axis. The complex number 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is identified by the ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏).
𝐼𝑚(𝑧)

𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏)
𝑏
𝑧

𝜃
O 𝑎 𝑅𝑒(𝑧)
Let 𝑧 be the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.

- The modulus of 𝑧 is the length of the line segment representing 𝑧. It is denoted |𝑧| and is given by |𝑧| = √𝑎 + 𝑏 .

- The argument of 𝑧 is the angle 𝑂𝑃 makes with the positive real axis. The argument of 𝑧 is denoted arg 𝑧. In the case
above, tan 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝜃 = tan . Since the complex number is in the first quadrant, arg 𝑧 = tan .

Note: It is always important to locate a complex number on an argand diagram before obtaining its argument.

Generally, −𝜋 < arg 𝑧 ≤ 𝜋 where 𝜋 is in radians.

𝐼𝑚(𝑧) 𝐼𝑚(𝑧)
𝑃
𝑃

arg 𝑧
arg 𝑧
𝑅𝑒(𝑧) 𝑅𝑒(𝑧)

𝐼𝑚(𝑧) 𝐼𝑚(𝑧)

𝑅𝑒(𝑧)
𝑅𝑒(𝑧) arg 𝑧
arg 𝑧

𝑃 𝑃

Angles measured in the anticlockwise direction are negative while angles measured in the clockwise direction are
positive.

Exercise

1) Find the modulus and argument of the following complex numbers

a) 𝑧 = 4 + 3𝑖 b) 𝑧 = −1 + √3𝑖 c) 𝑧 = −3 − 4𝑖 d) 𝑧 = −3

2) The complex numbers 𝑧 and 𝑧 are given by 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖√3 and 𝑧 = 𝑖.

a) State the modulus and arguments of 𝑧 and 𝑧 .

b) Represent the complex numbers 𝑧 𝑧 and 𝑧 + 𝑧 on the argand diagram.

c) Using your diagram, show that 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 + 𝑧 ) = and tan = 2 + √3.

(Hint: Isosceles triangles)

Note

1) |𝑧 𝑧 | = |𝑧 ||𝑧 |, generally, |𝑧 | = |𝑧|

2) 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 𝑧 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 ) + 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 ), generally, 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 ) = 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧)

 | |
3) =| |
and 𝑎𝑟𝑔 = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 ) − 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 )

Exercise

1) Find the modulus and the argument of the complex number given that 𝑧 = −1 + √3𝑖 and 𝑧 = 1 + √3𝑖

2) Given that 𝑖𝑧 = −4 + 2𝑖, find |𝑧|.

3) Given that 𝑧 = −1 − √3𝑖, find |𝑧 | and 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 ).

√
4) Find the modulus and argument of 𝑧 =

Trigonometric form of a complex number

𝐼𝑚(𝑧)
(𝑎, 𝑏)

𝑟
𝑟 sin 𝜃

𝜃
𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑅𝑒(𝑧)

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 ⟹ 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) where 𝑟 is the modulus and 𝜃 is the principal argument.

Exponential form of a complex number

Any complex number can be written in the form 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 where 𝑒 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

Exercise

1) Write down the following complex numbers in exponential form

a) 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 b) 𝑧 = 1 + √3𝑖 c) 𝑧 = 2√3 − 2𝑖

2) Express the complex number 𝑧 = 4𝑒 in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

3) Find in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, the following complex numbers

a) |𝑧| = 4 and arg 𝑧 =

b) |𝑧| = 5 and arg 𝑧 = −

c) |𝑧| = and arg 𝑧 = 𝜋

De Moivre’s theorem

If 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), then 𝑧 = 𝑟 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃),

Exercise

1) Given that 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃. Using de Moivre’s theorem, find the value of 𝑧 −

2) Find the value of √3 + 𝑖 + √3 − 𝑖

Loci in an argand diagram

If 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is a point on an argand diagram, then the complex number representing 𝑃 is given by 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. If given
some conditions that 𝑧 must obey, then the corresponding set of all possible points 𝑃 form the locus of 𝑃.

Exercise

1) If the point 𝑃 in the complex plane corresponds to the complex number 𝑧. Find the locus of 𝑃 in each of the
following situations and sketch.

a) |𝑧| = 2 b) |𝑧 − 2| = 3 c) |𝑧 − 4| = |𝑧| d) arg(𝑧 − 2 + 3𝑖) =

2) Find the complex number 𝑧 such that |𝑧| + 𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖.

3) Given that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, find the locus of the point 𝑧 for which the imaginary part of 𝑧 + is 0.
 19. VECTORS

Subtopics

 Position vectors
 Equation of a straight line in two dimensions
 Scalar product or dot product
 Intersecting lines
 Vector product or cross product
 Perpendicular distance from a point to a line
 Planes

a) Position vectors

If 𝐴(𝑎, 𝑏) is any point in two- dimensional space, then the position vector of 𝐴 is given by 𝑂𝐴⃗ = 𝑎𝚤⃗ + 𝑏𝚥⃗
where 𝚤⃗ and 𝚥⃗ are perpendicular unit vectors parallel to the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes respectively.

- If 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) is any point in three dimensions, then the position vector of 𝑃 is given by 𝑂𝑃⃗ = 𝑎𝚤⃗ + 𝑏𝚥⃗ + 𝑐𝑘⃗ where 𝚤⃗, 𝚥⃗
and 𝑘⃗ are unit vectors mutually perpendicular and along the 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌 and 𝑂𝑍 respectively.
𝑦

𝚥⃗

⃗𝑖
𝑥
𝑘⃗
𝑧

- The magnitude of 𝑂𝑃⃗ is denoted 𝑂𝑃⃗ or 𝑂𝑃 and given by 𝑂𝑃⃗ = √𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 . Furthermore, if 𝑂𝑃⃗ = 𝑎𝚤⃗ + 𝑏𝚥⃗ +
𝑐𝑘⃗, then the direction ratio of 𝑂𝑃⃗ is given by 𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐.

- Let 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 be the angles which 𝑂𝑃⃗ makes with the 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌 and 𝑂𝑍 respectively, then cos 𝛼 = , cos 𝛽 = and
cos 𝛾 = where 𝑟 = √𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 . The ratios cos 𝛼 , cos 𝛽 and cos 𝛾 are called the direction cosines of the vector
𝑂𝑃⃗.

Exercise

1) A triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 has vertices at the points 𝐴(2, −1, 4), 𝐵(3, −2, 5) and 𝐶(−1,6, 2). Find the vectors 𝐴𝐵⃗ , 𝐵𝐶⃗ and 𝐶𝐴⃗
and hence find the lengths of the sides of the triangle.

2) Find the direction cosines of the following vectors

a) 𝑟⃗ = 3𝚤⃗ − 2𝚥⃗ + 5𝑘⃗ b) 𝑟⃗ = 2𝚤⃗ + 𝚥⃗ + 2𝑘⃗ c) 𝑟⃗ = −3𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥⃗ − 𝑘⃗

3) Find the inclination to the axes of 𝑂𝑃⃗ if the coordinates of 𝑃 are (1,0,1).

4) Given that 𝑃 is the point (1, 𝑎, 𝑏), 𝑂𝑃⃗ = 5 and 𝑂𝑃⃗ is inclined at 45° to 𝑂𝑍, find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
 ⃗
- The unit vector 𝑎 in the direction of vector 𝑎⃗ is given by 𝑎 = | ⃗|.

- A vector 𝑝⃗ of magnitude 𝑘 and in the same direction as 𝑎⃗ is given by 𝑝⃗ = 𝑘𝑎⃗.

Example: Given that 𝑂𝑄⃗ = 21 and that 𝑂𝑄⃗ is in the direction of 𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥⃗ − 2𝑘⃗. Find the coordinates of 𝑄.

b) Equation of a straight line in three dimensions

𝑦
𝑑⃗
𝐴
𝐵(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑎⃗

𝑟⃗
𝑥

- If a line passes through a point 𝐴 with position vector 𝑎⃗ and is parallel to the vector 𝑑⃗, then its equation is of the
form 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝜆𝑑⃗ where 𝜆 is a scalar parameter.

- If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑥 𝚤⃗ + 𝑦 𝚥⃗ + 𝑧 𝑘⃗ and 𝑑⃗ = 𝑎𝚤⃗ + 𝑏𝚥⃗ + 𝑐𝑘⃗, then

𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝜆𝑎, 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝜆𝑏 and 𝑧 = 𝑧 + 𝜆𝑐 (parametric equations of a straight line)

= = is the cartesian equation of the line and 𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐 is the direction ratio of the line.

- If a line passes through two points 𝐴 and 𝐵 with position vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ respectively, then the equation of the line
𝐴𝐵⃗ is given by 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝜆 𝑏⃗ − 𝑎⃗ and the equation of the line 𝐵𝐴⃗ is given by 𝑟⃗ = 𝑏⃗ + 𝜆 𝑏⃗ − 𝑎⃗ .

Exercise

1) Find the equation of the straight line which is parallel to the vector 2𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘⃗ and which passes through the
point (5, −2, 4) in vector, parametric and cartesian forms.

2) Find the vector equation of the line which passes through 𝑃(5, 2, 3) and 𝑄(−1, 3, 2).

3) Write down the equation of the lie which

a) has direction ratio 1: 2: 3 and passes through the point (2, 1, 4)

b) passes through the point (4, −2, 1) and is parallel to the line = =

4) Write the equations = = = 𝜆 in parametric form. Hence find the coordinate of the point where the
line cuts the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane.

c) Scalar or dot product

The scalar product of two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ is defined as 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏| cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗.

- If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ are perpendicular, then 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = 0.

- If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ are parallel and in the same direction, then 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏|.

- If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ are parallel and in opposite directions, then 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗ = −|𝑎||𝑏|.

- If 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ are parallel, then 𝑎⃗ = 𝑘𝑏⃗, where 𝑘 is a constant.

- Two lines are said to be parallel if the direction vector of one is a scalar multiple of the direction vector of the other.
In other words, if two lines are parallel, then they have the same direction ratio.

Exercise

1) Given that 𝑎⃗ = −2𝚤⃗ + 4𝑘⃗ and 𝑏⃗ = −3𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥⃗ − 𝑘⃗ , find the cosine of the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗.

2) The points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 have coordinates (4, 1, −5), (8, 0, 6) and (5, −3, 3) respectively. Find the cosine of angle
𝐴𝐶𝐵.

3) Find the value of 𝜆 for which the vectors 6𝚤⃗ + 4𝚥⃗ and 4𝚤⃗ + 𝜆𝚥⃗ are parallel.

4) Verify whether the point (7, −5, −1) is a point on the line 𝑟⃗ = 3𝚤⃗ − 4𝚥⃗ − 2𝑘⃗ + 𝜆 4𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ + 𝑘⃗ .

d) Intersecting lines

Given two lines 𝑙 and 𝑙 with equations 𝑟⃗ and 𝑟⃗ respectively. If 𝑙 and 𝑙 intersect, then at the point of intersection
𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗.

Exercise

1) Show that the lines: 𝑟⃗ = 𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘⃗ + 𝛼 𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ + 𝑘⃗ and 𝑟⃗ = 2𝚤⃗ + 4𝚥⃗ + 6𝑘⃗ + 𝛽 2𝚤⃗ + 𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘⃗ intersect and find the
position vector of the point of intersection.

2) Given that 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 3𝚤⃗ + 𝚥⃗ + 2𝑘⃗ + 𝑚 𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘⃗ and 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 2𝚤⃗ + 𝛼𝚥⃗ + 2𝑘⃗ + 𝑛 −𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥⃗ − 6𝑘⃗ where 𝑚, 𝑛, 𝛼 are
scalars, intersect. Find the value of 𝛼.

- Skew lines are lines which are not parallel and which do not intersect.

Exercise

1) Show that the following lines 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 2𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ + 𝑘⃗ + 𝜆 𝚤⃗ − 2𝚥⃗ + 2𝑘⃗ and 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 𝚤⃗ − 3𝚥⃗ + 4𝑘⃗ + 𝜇 2𝚤⃗ + 3𝚥⃗ − 6𝑘⃗ are
skew.

- If 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎 ⃗ + 𝜆𝑑 ⃗ and 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎 ⃗ + 𝜆𝑑 ⃗ are two lines, then the angle between them is the angle between their
direction vectors 𝑑 ⃗ and 𝑑 ⃗.
 𝑑⃗ ∙ 𝑑⃗
cos 𝜃 =
𝑑⃗ 𝑑⃗

Exercise

1) Find the angle between the lines 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 3𝚤⃗ − 5𝚥⃗ − 4𝑘⃗ + 𝜆 3𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ + 2𝑘⃗ and 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = −5𝚤⃗ + 𝚥⃗ − 4𝑘⃗ + 𝜇 2𝚤⃗ + 4𝚥⃗ −
𝑘⃗

Note: If two lines are perpendicular, then their direction vectors are perpendicular.

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = |𝑎⃗||𝑎⃗| cos 0° ⟹ 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = |𝑎⃗|

Now, 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ⟹ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ + 2𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ⋅ 𝑏⃗

⟹ 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎⃗| + 𝑏⃗ + 2|𝑎⃗| 𝑏⃗ cos 𝜃

Exercise

1) Given that |𝑎⃗| = 6, 𝑏⃗ = 10 and 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗ = 14, find the angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗.

2) The angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ is . Given that |𝑎⃗| = 3, 𝑏⃗ = 4, find

a) 2𝑎⃗ + 3𝑏⃗ b) 2𝑎⃗ − 3𝑏⃗

e) Vector or cross product

If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎 𝚤⃗ + 𝑎 𝚥⃗ + 𝑎 𝑘⃗ and 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏 𝚤⃗ + 𝑏 𝚥⃗ + 𝑏 𝑘⃗, then the cross product of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ is given by

𝚤⃗ 𝚥⃗ 𝑘⃗
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 = (𝑎 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑏 )𝚤⃗ − (𝑎 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑏 )𝚥⃗ + (𝑎 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑏 )𝚤⃗
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

- The vector 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ is perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗.

- 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎⃗| 𝑏⃗ sin 𝜃 𝑛 where 𝑛 is the unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗ in the right hand sense and 𝜃 is the
angle between 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗.

From the definition above, 𝚤⃗ × 𝚥⃗ = 𝑘⃗ , 𝚥⃗ × 𝑘⃗ = 𝚤⃗, 𝑘⃗ × 𝚤⃗ = 𝚥⃗.

Note: 𝑎⃗ × 𝑎⃗ = 0⃗ and 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ = − 𝑏⃗ × 𝑎⃗

Exercise: Find the vector product 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗ given that 𝑎⃗ = 𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ and 𝑏⃗ = 𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥⃗ − 3𝑘⃗.

f) Perpendicular distance from a point to a line

⃗× ⃗
The perpendicular distance from 𝐶 to the line passing through 𝐴 and 𝐵 is given by ⃗
.

Exercise: Find the perpendicular distance from the point 𝐴(3, 2, 1) to the line 𝑟⃗ = 𝚤⃗ + 𝚥⃗ + 𝜆 𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥⃗ + 2𝑘⃗ .
g) Planes

Equation of a plane

A plane is a 2- dimensional flat surface embedded in the 3- dimensional Euclidean space. The symbol 𝜋 is often used
to describe a plane.

Consider the plane 𝜋 shown below

𝑦
𝜋
𝑃 𝑟⃗ − 𝑎⃗
𝐴
𝑟⃗
𝑎⃗

𝑂 𝑥

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on the pane 𝜋 with position vector 𝑟⃗, and let 𝐴(𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ) be a point on the plane with
position vector 𝑎⃗ such that 𝑟⃗ − 𝑎⃗ lies on the plane.

- Let 𝑛⃗ be the perpendicular to the plane.

In particular, (𝑟⃗ − 𝑎⃗) ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 0 ⟹ 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗

- 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗ is called the vector equation of the plane (scalar product form).

- If three non- collinear points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are given on the plane, then the vector normal to the plane is the vector
perpendicular to both 𝐴𝐵⃗ and 𝐴𝐶⃗ . 𝑛⃗ = 𝐴𝐵⃗ × 𝐴𝐶⃗ .

- The cartesian equation of a plane is of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝐷 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝐷 are real numbers.

- Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be three non- collinear points on a plane with position vectors 𝑂𝐴⃗, 𝑂𝐵⃗ and 𝑂𝐶⃗ respectively. The
parametric equation of the plane is given by 𝑟⃗ = 𝑂𝐴⃗ + 𝜆𝐴𝐵⃗ + 𝜇𝐴𝐶⃗ .

Exercise: Find the equation of the plane containing three points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 in vector parametric, cartesian and scalar
product forms where 𝐴(1, 2, −1), 𝐵(1, 3, 2) and 𝐶(0, 2, 1).

Plane containing two lines

The vector equation of a plane containing two lines 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎 ⃗ + 𝜆𝑑 ⃗ and 𝑙 : 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎 ⃗ + 𝜆𝑑 ⃗ is given by 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑝⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗

where 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑 ⃗ × 𝑑 ⃗ and 𝑝⃗ is the position vector of the point of intersection of the two lines.

Exercise
1) Show that the lines with vector equations 𝑟⃗ = 𝚤⃗ + 𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘⃗ + 𝛼 3𝚤⃗ + 𝚥⃗ + 2𝑘⃗ and 𝑟⃗ = 2𝚤⃗ + 4𝚥⃗ + 𝑘⃗ + 𝛽 −𝚤⃗ + 𝚥⃗ −
2𝑘⃗ intersect and find the position vector of their point of intersection. Find a cartesian equation of the plane
containing both lines.

2) The lines 𝑙 and 𝑙 have vector equations 𝑟⃗ = (2𝑠 − 3)𝚤⃗ + 𝑠𝚥⃗ + (1 − 𝑠)𝑘⃗ and 𝑟⃗ = (2 + 5𝑡)𝚤⃗ + (1 + 𝑡)𝚥⃗ +
(3 + 2𝑡)𝑘⃗ respectively where 𝑠 and 𝑡 are parameters.

a) Show that 𝑙 and 𝑙 intersect, stating the position vector of the point of intersection.

b) The vector 𝚤⃗ + 𝑎𝚥⃗ + 𝑏𝑘⃗ is perpendicular to both lines. Determine the values of the constants 𝑎 and 𝑏.

c) Find the cartesian equation of the plane which contains the lines 𝑙 and 𝑙 .

Perpendicular distance from a point to a line

Consider the plane 𝜋 with equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 and let 𝑃 be a point with coordinates (𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ). The
perpendicular distance from 𝑃 to 𝜋 is given by 𝐷 =
√

Example: Find the perpendicular distance from the point 𝑄(3, 2, 1) to the plane 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 22.
| |
- Generally, the perpendicular distance between parallel planes 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑 and 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑 is 𝐷 =

Intersection of a line and a plane

In space, a line can meet a plane at an angle. Suppose the line 𝑙: 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝜆𝑑⃗ meets the plane 𝜋: 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑 . At the point
of intersection, 𝑎⃗ + 𝜆𝑑⃗ ⋅ 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑 .

To obtain the point of intersection, we insert the value of 𝜆 in the equation of the line.

⃗∙ ⃗
- The angle between the line and the plane can be obtained using sin 𝜃 = | .
⃗| ⃗

Exercise

1) Find the sine of the angle between the plane 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5 and the line 𝑥 − 1 = = .

2) Find the point of intersection of the plane 𝑟⃗ ∙ (3𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗) = 5 and the line 𝑟⃗ = 3𝚤⃗ + 𝑘⃗ + 𝜇 2𝚤⃗ + 2𝚥⃗ + 5𝑘⃗ .

3) Show that the line whose equation is 𝑟⃗ = 2𝚤⃗ − 2𝚥⃗ + 3𝑘⃗ + 𝜆 𝚤⃗ − 𝚥⃗ + 4𝑘⃗ is parallel to the plane with vector
equation 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝚤⃗ + 5𝚥⃗ + 𝑘⃗ = 5.

Intersection of two planes

When two planes intersect, they do so on a common line. Given two planes 𝜋 : 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛 ⃗ = 𝑑 and 𝜋 : 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑛 ⃗ = 𝑑 .

- The common line of contact of both planes is in the direction of the perpendicular to both planes.
- The direction of the line is given by 𝑛⃗ = 𝑑 ⃗ × 𝑑 ⃗.

- To obtain a point on the line, we set one of the variables to 0 on both planes and solve the resulting equation.

⃗∙ ⃗
- If 𝜃 is the angle between the planes, then cos 𝜃 = | ⃗|| ⃗|
.

- Two planes are parallel (perpendicular) if their normal vectors are parallel (perpendicular).

- If two planes are perpendicular, then 𝑛 ⃗ ∙ 𝑛 ⃗ = 0.

Exercise: Find the vector equation of the line of intersection of the planes 𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 11 and −3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 =
−7. Find the cosine of the angle between the planes.
 20. MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS

Subtopics

 Introduction
 Determinants
 Inverse of a matrix
 Solving systems of linear equations in three unknowns
 Matrix transformations

a) Introduction

A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of quantities. Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters of the
alphabet. A matrix with 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns has order 𝑚 × 𝑛.

- A square matrix is one which has an equal number of rows and columns.

b) Determinants
𝑎 𝑎
Given any matrix in the form 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑎 , the determinant of 𝐴 denoted by det 𝐴 or |𝐴| is given by

|𝐴| = 𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑎 𝑎 .
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
For any 3 × 3 matrix of the form 𝐴 = 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 , the determinant of 𝐴 is given by
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
|𝐴| = 𝑎 −𝑎 +𝑎
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

|𝐴| = 𝑎 (𝑏 𝑐 − 𝑏 𝑐 ) − 𝑎 (𝑏 𝑐 − 𝑏 𝑐 ) + 𝑎 (𝑏 𝑐 − 𝑏 𝑐 )

A matrix whose determinant is 0 is called a singular matrix.

c) Inverse of a matrix

The inverse of a matrix 𝐴 is the matrix denoted 𝐴 such that 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐼 where 𝐼 is the identity matrix.

1
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
|𝐴|

Where 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 is the adjugate of 𝐴.

- To obtain the inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix, we proceed as follows

(i) Find the cofactor of each element of 𝐴.

(ii) Form the matrix of cofactors

(iii) Find the transpose of the matrix of cofactors. This will be the adjugate of 𝐴.

We then use the formula

1
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴
|𝐴|
 3 2 −3
Example: Find the inverse of 4 −1 4 .
−2 5 1
- Singular matrices are not invertible.

Note: If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two matrices, then

- (𝐴 ) = 𝐴
- 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼 ⟹ 𝐴 = 𝐵 and 𝐵 = 𝐴 .
- (𝐴𝐵) = 𝐵 𝐴

Exercise

1 0 1 −2 1 0
1) Given the matrices 𝐴 = −1 0 2 and 𝐵 = 3 0 −3 , find the product 𝐴𝐵 and hence deduce 𝐴 and
1 1 1 −1 −1 0
𝐵

2 1 4 1 0 0
2) Matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are such that 𝐴 = 3 5 1 and 𝐵 𝐴 = −1 1 0 .
1 2 0 3 2 1

a) Find the matrix 𝐵

1
b) Find the matrix 𝑋 sch that (𝐴𝐵)𝑋 = 1 .
0

d) Solving a system of linear equations in three unknowns

For a system of equations of the form

𝑎 𝑥+𝑏 𝑦+𝑐 𝑧=𝑑

𝑎 𝑥+𝑏 𝑦+𝑐 𝑧=𝑑
𝑎 𝑥+𝑏 𝑦+𝑐 𝑧=𝑑

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑥 𝑑
We express it as 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑦 = 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑧 𝑑

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑥 𝑑
Let 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 , 𝑋 = 𝑦 and 𝐶 = 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑧 𝑑

The system of equations can be summarized as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐶.

Method 1: Inverse method

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐶 ⟹ 𝑋 = 𝐴 𝐶

Method 2: Crammer’s rule

𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝑥= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
Where 𝐷 = 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ,𝐷 = 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 ,𝐷 = 𝑎 𝑑 𝑐 ,𝐷 = 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑑 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

Exercise

1 −1 2
1) Find the inverse of 4 3 0 and hence solve the system of equations
0 −2 2
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −1
4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = −5
−2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0

2) Solve by Cramer’s rule, the system of equations: 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6, 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 11, 4𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 13.

F) Matrix Transformation

Any change that an object or plane figure receives is a transformation. Examples of transformations: translation,
rotation, reflection, enlargement, shear etc.

(i) Transformation of points

Let 𝑋 be a point and 𝑀 the matrix of transformation. The image of 𝑋 denoted 𝑋′ is given by 𝑋 = 𝑀𝑋 ⟹ 𝑋 = 𝑀 𝑋′.

2 −1
Example: A linear transformation 𝑇 has matrix 𝑀 = . Find
1 1

a) The image of the point (2, 3) under 𝑀.

b) The point whose image is (7, 2) under 𝑀.

(ii) Transformation of lines

To find the image of a line, we obtain the general point of the line and find its image.

Example

0 −1 𝑥 𝑋
1) Find the image of the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2 = 0 under the transformation 𝑦 = 𝑌 .
−1 0
2 3
2) Under the transformation , the points (𝑥, 𝑦) are mapped onto (𝑋, 𝑌). Find the image of the line 𝑦 = 5𝑥 +
−1 5
3.

(iii) Finding the matrix of transformation

Example

1) A linear transformation 𝑇 is defined from ℝ to ℝ by 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧, 2𝑦 − 𝑧, 𝑥 + 𝑦). Find the matrix of

transformation and the image of the point (1, 2, −1) under 𝑇.
(iv) Finding the image of a plane under a transformation

To find the image of a plane, we obtain the general point of the plane and find its image

Example

2 −3 3
1) Given that 𝐴 = 2 −1 1 , show that the image of the plane 3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 under the transformation matrix
1 1 1
defined by 𝐴 is 𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 40 = 0.

1 2 3
2) Show that the transformation represented by 𝑀 = 2 0 −2 maps the entire space onto the plane 𝑥 − 2𝑦 +
3 −2 −7
𝑧 = 0.

2 1 −1
3) Given the matrix 𝐴 and the line 𝐿 where 𝐴 = −1 0 2 and 𝐿 is = = . Find the image of 𝐿 under
1 2 −2
the transformation with matrix 𝐴.