The Science of Learning - 2nd Edition

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The Science of Learning
Second Edition

Joseph J. Pear
Second edition published 2016
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2016 Taylor & Francis
The right of Joseph J. Pear to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by
him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
First edition published by Psychology Press 2001
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pear, Joseph, 1938–
The science of learning / by Joseph J. Pear. — Second Edition.
pages cm
Revised edition of the author’s The science of learning, 2001.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Learning, Psychology of. I. Title.
BF318.P43 2016
153.1'5—dc23
2015034341
ISBN: 978-1-84872-472-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-84872-473-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-63938-3 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
To Fran
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Contents

Preface to the Second Editionix

PART I
Basic Terms and Concepts1

1 Introduction 3
2 Nonassociative Learning 15
3 Associative Learning 26
4 Basic Respondent and Operant Processes 54
5 Derivatives of Respondent and Operant Conditioning 83

PART II
Basic Stimulus-Stimulus and Response-Stimulus Contingencies97

6 Stimulus Pairings Across Response Systems 99

7 Basic Operant Behavior 121

PART III
Complex Contingencies139

8 Stimulus Control: Discrimination and Generalization 141

9 Conditional Discriminations and Stimulus Equivalence Classes 165
10 Memory: Stimulus Discrimination Across Time 184
viii Contents
11 Contingencies of Conditioned Reinforcement 205
12 Concurrent Schedules, Choice, and Preference 223

PART IV
Motivation and Emotion245

13 Motivation 247
14 Punishment 276
15 Adjunctive Behavior 286

PART V
Extensions to Natural Settings305

16 Animals in Their Natural Environments 307

17 Humans in Social Environments 342

Glossary361
Appendices387
Appendix A: The Rescorla-Wagner Model 390
Appendix B: The Matching Law 399
Appendix C: Herrnstein’s Extension of the Matching Law 406
Appendix D: Melioration 411
Appendix E: Further Extensions of the Matching Law 419
References425
Author Index475
Subject Index489
Preface to the Second Edition

Over roughly the past 125 years, the science of learning has developed an extensive system-
atic body of knowledge. Like the first edition of this book, the second edition is designed
to provide a comprehensive introduction to and an overview of that body of knowledge.
It was written with the following readers in mind: (1) specialists in the science of learning
wishing to read a systematic survey of the knowledge in their field, (2) advanced under-
graduate and graduate students taking courses on the science of learning, and (3) scientists
and practitioners in various fields (e.g., biology, education, clinical psychology) who wish
to acquire a deep understanding of the fundamental knowledge in this science. Because
the science of learning is foundational to behavior analysis in the same way that physics is
foundational to engineering and biology is foundational to medicine, this book will also be
useful to behavior analysts and individuals studying for certification as behavior analysts.
The solid body of basic concepts and facts that has grown as the science of learning has
matured demands a comprehensive, systematic introduction. In fact, it is hard to think of
anything more important in the information age than making the fundamental knowledge
gleaned through the science of learning readily accessible to students and professionals.
Emphasizing well-established factually based concepts rather than theory, this book pro-
vides such an introduction. Because its focus is on what is known rather than what is
speculated, this book differs from many other texts on learning because it does not dwell
on which learning theories are in vogue and which are not. The focus is squarely on the
science and the body of knowledge it has generated.
The comprehensive review of the research in this book is illuminated by practical appli-
cations. Although not the focus, practical applications receive frequent mention as illustra-
tions of the knowledge with which this book deals. Reference to the widespread application
of learning concepts also drives home the power of the science, for an effective technology
implies the existence of a well-developed science on which it is based. Furthermore, the
application examples will be helpful to workers in applied areas.
Although in most colleges and universities the study of learning is an area within the
discipline of psychology, the approach in this book is based more on the typical natural
science textbook than on that of the typical psychology textbook. The typical biology,
chemistry, or physics textbook, for example, devotes little space to the relative merits and
demerits of unconfirmed theories. Instead, the typical natural science textbook concen-
trates almost exclusively on expounding in a highly systematic manner the basic knowl-
edge in its field. Perhaps because so little systematic knowledge exists in most areas of
x Preface to the Second Edition
psychology, most psychology textbooks are replete with theories pointing the way to what
we have yet to learn. The science of learning is an exception to this lack of systematic
knowledge.
As was the case with the first edition, the plan of the second edition proceeds from
the general to the specific. Part I gives an overview of basic terms and concepts of non-
associative and associative learning. Part II deals in more detail with respondent and
operant conditioning, using the concept of contingency as the unifying theme. The first
chapter of this two-chapter part presents a classification of the various effects of stimulus-
stimulus contingencies, while the second chapter describes the effects on response rate of
the response-reinforcer contingencies in simple schedules of reinforcement. Part III delves
into the ramifications of complicating the contingencies discussed in Part II; for example,
by adding discriminative stimuli to produce successive and simultaneous discriminations,
by adding further antecedent stimuli to produce conditional discriminations, by sequenc-
ing stimuli and responses to produce complex chains of behavior, and by operating several
contingencies simultaneously to produce concurrent performances. This part also treats
in some detail how these complex contingencies generate complex behavior such as con-
cept formation, language, and choice. Part IV covers material that is often placed in the
areas of motivation or emotion. The focus of this part is on the effects of deprivation and
aversive stimulation and how aversive segments of reinforcement schedules can instigate
the release of phylogenetic behavior patterns. Finally, Part V deals with how the princi-
ples described in Parts I to IV apply to animals in their natural habitats and to humans
in social settings. This part highlights some of the broader implications of the material in
the book.
Although this book focuses on well-established, factually based concepts rather than
on speculative theories, this edition, like the first edition, includes appendices on current
mathematical theories of learning. These mathematical theories are still in their develop-
mental stages and are in need of modification or replacement, but they continue to make
surprisingly accurate and remarkable predictions and continue to be heavily referenced
in the learning literature. The mathematical theories presented in the appendices are rela-
tively simple compared to other mathematical theories of learning that are available or
being developed. Specifically, the theories are the Rescorla-Wagner theory and the match-
ing law. Studying these theories and their relationships to each other can provide, to the
mathematically inclined, a good understanding of how mathematics may contribute to
learning theory. Since many readers may not be mathematically inclined, and because these
mathematical theories are speculative, it seemed appropriate to put this material in appen-
dices rather than integrate it into the main body of the text.
Two reviewers made excellent comments on the first edition. They both indicated that
although the book is written at an advanced undergraduate level, they very much liked
the content and coverage. Both reviewers indicated that they could use the book for a
second-year course if they selected assigned material from the book. As one reviewer put
it, “I would much rather the textbook be more comprehensive than necessary so I can
choose to assign less reading than if it was missing parts.” In a similar vein, the other
reviewer stated, “Many of my undergraduate students find this text challenging at first
because the material is dense and because it’s not like the showy textbooks that they
 Preface to the Second Edition xi
are accustomed to in their other psychology courses; however, by the end of the semester
they mostly came to appreciate its impact on their knowledge about learning and behavior.
Overall, I’d hope to see the current level of sophistication maintained in future editions.”
Both reviewers correctly pointed out, however, that over a period of 15 years without a
new edition, the book needed extensive updating. They strongly recommended though
that the emphasis and approach not be changed. Thus my efforts have been directed at
updating the book throughout. This work was greatly facilitated by a number of encyclo-
pedias and handbooks on learning and related areas that have been published recently,
and by the wide availability of books and journal articles on the Internet. I have taken
full advantage of these resources in making the second edition completely up-to-date. In
numerous instances I was able to replace old references with recent ones that covered the
same material but with updated modifications or additions. In a few cases this was not
possible because little change had occurred in those areas, and so high-quality older refer-
ences were retained.
In addition to updating, the reviewers suggested providing study aides to help students
in their understanding of the material. One such study aide is the references mentioned
above. Specifically, I have attempted to provide the most up-to-date references available on
every topic covered in this text. Most of these references are available on the Internet or
readily available in most university libraries. I therefore strongly recommend that students
use those recent references to enhance their understanding of specific topics. Speaking of
the Internet, material on virtually all of the topics covered in the text can be found on the
Internet in any format, including images and video, as well as print. Another study aide
provided in the current edition is a glossary in which there are definitions for all of the key
terms. I recommend that readers use the glossary to look up terms they come across that
they don’t know the meaning of. Key terms are bolded the first time they are mentioned in
the text.
Both editions of this book have benefited immensely from the comments and suggestions
of so many people that it would be impossible to acknowledge them all here. With regard
to the first edition, I would again like to thank Mark V. Abrahams, Anna E. Bergen, Wayne
S. Chan, Thomas S. Critchfield, Darlene E. Crone-Todd, Frances M. Falzarano, Bruce E.
Hesse, M. Jackson Marr, Frances K. McSweeney, Jack Michael, James B. Nickels, David
W. Schaal, Francisco J. Silva, and Ben A. Williams. With regard to the second edition,
I thank the two anonymous reviewers mentioned above, the beta readers and members of
my 2015 seminar in basic operant research—Deborah L. Hatton, Morena Miljkovic, and
Christine G. Sousa—and especially Frances M. Falzarano, who as my alpha reader made
major improvements in the writing style and clarity of the exposition. Without her dedica-
tion and devotion, this second edition could not have been nearly as good as it is. As with
the first edition, this edition is lovingly dedicated to her. Finally, these acknowledgments
would be incomplete without special mention of the tremendous debt owed to the efforts
of the book’s conscientious project manager, Jennifer Bonnar, who cheerfully accommo-
dated my changes even when the book was already in production and worked tirelessly to
ensure the book’s strong positive impact.
Although the aforementioned deserve much credit for the merits of this book, as author
I bear sole responsibility for whatever its faults may be.
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Part I

Basic Terms and Concepts

Every science has a set of basic terms and concepts that are used in all discourse concerning
the principles and phenomena of that science. The science of learning is no exception. As
with other sciences, the basic terms and concepts form the building blocks of this science,
and, proper terminology is crucial to understanding its principles and phenomena.
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1 Introduction

The word science has a number of definitions. One definition—the one emphasized in this
book—is that a science is a systematic body of factual knowledge derived through obser-
vation and experimentation showing the operation of general scientific laws. A scientific
law is a statement of a relation that is invariable under the same conditions. There are
also many definitions of learning. However, the term learning generally refers to the effect
on behavior of certain types of interactions between the individual and the environment,
which includes all sources of stimulation impinging on the individual’s sense receptors
within a given period. Thus, this book is concerned with scientific laws that describe how
specific types of interactions with the environment affect behavior.
Obviously, some laws are more general than others; that is, some laws apply to more
types of situations than others do. One goal of a science is to develop laws that are as gen-
eral as possible. Another is to organize these laws into theories, which are used to make
predictions; in fact, the supreme test of any theory is its ability to accurately predict new
observations.
The first part of this chapter provides an overview of the position of this book, with
reference to the theoretical approaches taken by scientists who study learning. The chap-
ter then discusses the theory of evolution, which is a powerful organizing theory that has
unified all of the life sciences. Finally, the chapter presents a more detailed discussion of
the definition of learning than the one given above and considers how learning evolved.

1.1 Theoretical Approaches to Learning

The science of learning is relatively young, and many of its more general theories are
speculative. While there is extensive literature on these theories, this book makes lit-
tle direct reference to that literature. The history of science repeatedly shows that what
research seemed to indicate was correct at one point in time, later turns out to need revi-
sion or is even false. An essential aspect of a science is that it is self-corrective. Through
research, ideas that are consistent with data (i.e., factual information) are retained. Those
that are not consistent are replaced by those that are. In most sciences, a core of factual
information is generally agreed upon by scientists in the field. The science of learning is no
exception. This book focuses on that core of information about learning that scientists in
the field would agree is accurate. Thus, this book presents material that is well documented
4 Basic Terms and Concepts
and appears likely to survive the test of time. Occasionally, completeness requires address-
ing controversal topics. When this is done, it will be pointed out.
The following summarizes the approach of this book with regard to four types of learn-
ing theories: folk, cognitive-and-brain, behavioral, and mathematical.

1.1.1 Folk Theories

A folk theory is a theory that members of a culture have about a particular set of phenom-
ena, and they use it to predict and control those phenomena (Geary, 2012; Strauss, 2012).
Three areas or domains of science in which folk theories have been studied are physics,
biology, and psychology. An example of a tenet of a folk theory in physics is that moving
objects have an internal impetus or force someone or something has put into them, and
that this force must be used up or spent before the objects will stop moving. An example
of a tenet of a folk theory in biology is that living things contain a vitalistic principle, or
internal energy, that enables them to move or grow independently and this distinguishes
them from nonliving things. An example of a tenet of a folk theory in psychology is that
we have an internal entity called a “mind” that enables us to think and learn. Theories that
refer to the mind and the processes that occur in the mind are called “mentalistic” theories.
When scientists start developing theories in a new area, they often borrow terms from
folk theories. Many learning theories postulate inner processes that have names, such as
the word “mind,” that are derived from folk theories of learning. A major argument for
this approach is that our ancestors who gave us our folk theories were keen observers of
behavior and had been observing and dealing with it for thousands of years. It is therefore
likely that folk theorists were correct about many things. While this is a valid point, we
should recognize that they were also wrong about many things because they did not have
the scientific methodology that is available to us today. Moreover, the language of folk
theories is often imprecise and misleading, and it often makes distinctions that turn out
not to be scientifically important while failing to make distinctions that do turn out to be
scientifically important (cf. Andrews, 2012).

1.1.2 Cognitive-and-Brain Theories

Cognitive-and-brain theories—sometimes called “cognitive neuroscience”—are primarily
directed toward understanding how the brain is involved in behavior. Toward this goal,
these theories conceptualize the brain as a computer or information processing system.
These theories use terms and concepts that are borrowed from both folk theory and com-
puter science. Examples of folk theory terms that are used in cognitive-and-brain theories
are “belief,” “desire,” “emotion,” “memory,” “mental image,” “motivation,” “mind,”
and “thinking.” Examples of computer terms that are used in cognitive-and-brain theo-
ries are “buffer,” “circuitry,” “data,” “encoding,” “hardware,” “hardwiring,” “input,”
“information,” “interface,” “memory” (note that this is also a folk theory term), “out-
put,” “processing” (in the sense of processing information), “program,” “retrieval” (in
the sense of retrieving stored information), “software,” “storage” (in the sense of storing
information), and “wetware” (analogous to “hardware” but applied to the brain, which
is mostly water).