PERSON-CENTERED

THERAPY
Thynk Unlimited
Presentations are communication tools
that can be used as demonstrations.
 IN THIS CHAPTER

01
INTRODUCTION
• Four Periods of Development of the Approach
• Existentialism and Humanism
• Abraham Maslow’s Contributions to Humanistic Psychology

02 KEY CONCEPTS
• View of Human Nature

THE THERAPEUTIC PROCESS

03
• Therapeutic Goals
• Therapist’s Function and Role
• Client’s Experience in Therapy
• Relationship Between Therapist and Client
 IN THIS CHAPTER
APPLICATION: THERAPEUTIC
TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES

04
• Early Emphasis on Reflection of Feelings
• Evolution of Person-Centered Methods
• The Role of Assessment
• Application of the Philosophy of the Person-Centered Approach
• Application to Crisis Intervention
• Application to Group Counseling

PERSON-CENTERED EXPRESSIVE

05
ARTS THERAPY
• Principles of Expressive Arts Therapy
• Creativity and Offering Stimulating Experiences
• Contributions of Natalie Rogers
 IN THIS CHAPTER
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING

06 • The MI Spirit
• The Basic Principles of Motivational Interviewing
• The Stages of Change

07
PERSON-CENTERED THERAPY FROM
A MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
• Strengths From a Diversity Perspective
• Shortcomings From a Diversity Perspective

08 PERSON-CENTERED THERAPY APPLIED

TO THE CASE OF STAN
CARL ROGERS (1902–1987)
INTRODUCTION
a major spokesperson for humanistic psychology,
led a life that reflected the ideas he developed for
half a century. He showed a questioning stance, a
deep openness to change, and the courage to
forge into unknown territory both as a person and
as a professional. In writing about his early years,
Rogers (1961) recalled his family atmosphere as
characterized by close and warm relationships but
also by strict religious standards.

LETS GET STARTED

CARL ROGERS (1902–1987)
INTRODUCTION

Play was discouraged, and the virtues of the

Protestant ethic were extolled. His boyhood was
somewhat lonely, and he pursued scholarly
interests instead of social ones. Rogers was an
introverted person, and he spent a lot of time
reading and engaging in imaginative activity and
reflection.

During his college years his interests and

academic major changed from agriculture to
history, then to religion, and finally to clinical
psychology.
CARL ROGERS (1902–1987)
INTRODUCTION

Rogers held academic positions in various fields,

including education, social work, counseling,
psychotherapy, group therapy, peace, and
interpersonal relations, and he earned recognition
around the world for originating and developing
the humanistic movement in psychotherapy. His
foundational ideas, especially the central role of
the client–therapist relationship as a means to
growth and change, have been incorporated by
many other theoretical approaches.
CARL ROGERS (1902–1987)
INTRODUCTION

Rogers was a pioneer whose groundbreaking

discoveries continue to have far-reaching effects
on the field of psychotherapy (Cain, 2010). It is
difficult to overestimate the significance of
Rogers’s contributions to clinical and counseling
psychology. He was a courageous pioneer who
“was about 50 years ahead of his time and has
been waiting for us to catch up” (Elkins, 2009,
p. 20).
CARL ROGERS (1902–1987)
INTRODUCTION

Often called the “father of psychotherapy

research,” Rogers was the first to study the
counseling process in depth by analyzing the
transcripts of actual therapy sessions; he was the
first clinician to conduct major studies on
psychotherapy using quantitative methods; he was
the first to formulate a comprehensive theory of
personality and psychotherapy grounded in
empirical research; and he contributed to
developing a theory of psychotherapy that de-
emphasized pathology and focused on the
strengths and resources of individuals.
CARL ROGERS (1902–1987)
INTRODUCTION

He was not afraid to take a strong position and

challenged the status quo throughout his
professional career. During the last 15 years of his
life, Rogers applied the person-centered approach
to world peace by training policymakers, leaders,
and groups in conflict. Perhaps his greatest
passion was directed toward the reduction of
interracial tensions and the effort to achieve world
peace, for which he was nominated for the Nobel
Peace Prize.
INTRODUCTION
Rogers has become known as a “quiet
revolutionary” who both contributed to theory
development and whose influence continues to
shape counseling practice today (see Cain, 2010;
Kirschenbaum, 2009; Rogers &
Russell, 2002).

The person-centered approach shares

many concepts and values with the
existential perspective
INTRODUCTION
Rogers’s basic assumptions are that people are
essentially trustworthy, that they have a vast
potential for understanding themselves and
resolving their own problems without direct
intervention on the therapist’s part, and that they
are capable of self-directed growth if they are
involved in a specific kind of therapeutic
relationship.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
In tracing the major turning points in Rogers’s
approach, Zimring and Raskin (1992) and
Bozarth, Zimring, and Tausch (2002) have
identified four periods of development.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
In tracing the major turning points in Rogers’s
approach, Zimring and Raskin (1992) and
Bozarth, Zimring, and Tausch (2002) have
identified four periods of development.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
In the first period, during the 1940s, Rogers
developed what was known as nondirective
counseling, which provided a powerful and
revolutionary alternative to the directive and
interpretive approaches to therapy then being
practiced.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
Rogers also challenged the validity of
commonly accepted therapeutic procedures
such as advice, suggestion, direction,
persuasion, teaching, diagnosis, and
interpretation. Based on his conviction that
diagnostic concepts and procedures were
inadequate, prejudicial, and often misused,
Rogers omitted them from his approach.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
In the second period, during the 1950s, Rogers
(1951) wrote Client-Centered Therapy and
renamed his approach client-centered therapy,
to reflect its emphasis on the client rather than
on nondirective methods.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
Rogers assumed that the best vantage point for
understanding how people behave was from
their own internal frame of reference. He
focused more explicitly on the actualizing
tendency as the basic motivational force that
leads to client change.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
The third period, which began in the late 1950s
and extended into the 1970s, addressed the
necessary and sufficient conditions of therapy.
Rogers (1957) set forth a hypothesis that
resulted in three decades of research.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
The fourth phase, during the 1980s and the
1990s, was marked by considerable expansion
to education, couples and families, industry,
groups, conflict resolution, politics, and the
search for world peace.
FOUR PERIODS OF
DEVELOPMENT OF
THE APPROACH
Because of Rogers’s ever-widening scope of
influence, including his interest in how people
obtain, possess, share, or surrender power and
control over others and themselves, his theory
became known as the person-centered
approach.
EXISTENTIALISM
AND HUMANISM
In the 1960s and 1970s there was a growing interest
among counselors in a “third
force” in therapy as an alternative to the
psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches.

Under this heading fall existential therapy (Chapter

6), person-centered therapy (Chapter 7), Gestalt
therapy (Chapter 8), and certain other experiential
and relationship-oriented approaches.
EXISTENTIALISM
AND HUMANISM
In the 1960s and 1970s there was a growing interest
among counselors in a “third force” in therapy as an
alternative to the psychoanalytic and behavioral
approaches.

Under this heading fall existential therapy (Chapter

6), person-centered therapy (Chapter 7), Gestalt
therapy (Chapter 8), and certain other experiential
and relationship-oriented approaches.
ABRAHAM MASLOW’S
CONTRIBUTIONS
TO HUMANISTIC
PSYCHOLOGY
Abraham Maslow (1970) was a pioneer in the
development of humanistic psychology and was
infl uential in furthering the understanding of
self-actualizing individuals. Many of Carl
Rogers’s ideas, especially on the positive aspects
of being human and the fully functioning
person, are built on Maslow’s basic philosophy.
ABRAHAM MASLOW’S
CONTRIBUTIONS
TO HUMANISTIC
PSYCHOLOGY
Abraham Maslow (1970) was a pioneer in the
development of humanistic psychology and was
infl uential in furthering the understanding of
self-actualizing individuals. Many of Carl
Rogers’s ideas, especially on the positive aspects
of being human and the fully functioning
person, are built on Maslow’s basic philosophy.
KEY CONCEPTS
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
A common theme originating in Rogers’s early Rogers maintained that three therapist
writing and continuing to permeate all of his attributes create a growth-promoting climate in
works is a basic sense of trust in the client’s which individuals can move forward and become
ability to move forward in a constructive manner what they are capable of becoming:
if conditions fostering growth are present.
KEY CONCEPTS
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE

ACCURATE EMPATHIC UNDERSTANDING

CONGRUENCE an ability to deeply grasp the subjective world of
genuineness, or realness another person.

UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD

acceptance and caring
Brodley (1999) writes about the actualizing tendency, a
directional process of striving toward realization, fulfillment,
autonomy, and self-determination. This natural inclination
of humans is based on Maslow’s (1970) studies of self-
actualizing people.

The person-centered approach rejects the role of the

therapist as the authority who knows best and of the passive
client who merely follows the beliefs of the therapist.
Therapy is rooted in the client’s capacity for awareness and
self-directed change in attitudes and behavior.
THE THERAPEUTIC
PROCESS
The person-centered approach aims toward the
client achieving a greater degree of
independence and integration. Its focus is on the
person, not on the person’s presenting problem.
Rogers did not believe the goal of therapy was
merely to solve problems. Rather, the goal is to
assist clients in their growth process so clients
can better cope with problems as they identify
them.
THE THERAPEUTIC
PROCESS
The underlying aim of therapy is to provide a
climate conducive to helping the individual
strive toward self-actualization. Before clients
are able to work toward that goal, they must first
get behind the masks they wear, which they
develop through the process of socialization.
WHEN THE FACADES ARE PUT ASIDE DURING THE
THERAPEUTIC PROCESS, WHAT KIND OF PERSON
EMERGES FROM BEHIND THE PRETENSES?
ROGERS (1961) DESCRIBED PEOPLE WHO ARE
BECOMING INCREASINGLY ACTUALIZED AS
HAVING

an openness to experience, an internal source of evaluation,

a trust in themselves, a willingness to continue growing.

These four characteristics provide a general framework for
understanding the direction of therapeutic movement. The
therapist does not choose specific goals for the client. The
cornerstone of person-centered theory is the view that
clients in a relationship with a facilitating therapist have the
capacity to defi ne and clarify their own goals.

Person-centered therapists are in agreement on the matter

of not setting goals for what clients need to change, yet
they differ on the matter of how to best help clients achieve
their own goals and to fi nd their own answers (Bohart &
Watson, 2011).
CLIENT’S EXPERIENCE IN
THERAPY
THERAPEUTIC GOALS
Therapeutic change depends on clients’ Clients come to the counselor in a state of incongruence;
perceptions both of their own experience in that is, a discrepancy exists between their self-
therapy and of the counselor’s basic attitudes. perception and their experience in reality.
EXAMPLE
Leon, a college student, may see himself as a
future physician, yet his below-average grades
could exclude him from medical school. The
discrepancy between how Leon sees himself (self-
concept) or how he would like to view himself
(ideal self-concept) and the reality of his poor
academic performance may result in anxiety and
personal vulnerability, which can provide the
necessary motivation to enter therapy.
CLIENT’S EXPERIENCE IN
THERAPY
THERAPEUTIC GOALS
One reason clients seek therapy is a feeling of Person-centered therapy is grounded on the assumption
basic helplessness, powerlessness, and an that it is clients who heal themselves, who create their
inability to make decisions or effectively direct own self-growth, and who are active self-healers
their own lives. (Bohart & Tallman, 1999, 2010; Bohart & Watson, 2011).
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THERAPIST AND CLIENT
Rogers (1957) based his hypothesis of the
“necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic
personality change” on the quality of the
relationship: “If I can provide a certain type of
relationship, the other person will discover within
himself or herself the capacity to use that
relationship for growth and change, and personal
development will occur” (Rogers, 1961, p. 33).
ROGERS’S HYPOTHESIS WAS FORMULATED ON THE BASIS OF MANY YEARS OF
HIS PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE, AND IT REMAINS BASICALLY UNCHANGED TO
THIS DAY. THIS HYPOTHESIS (CITED IN CAIN 2002A, P. 20) IS STATED THUSLY:

The second person, whom we term

Two persons are in psychological
the therapist, is congruent (real or
contact.
genuine) in the relationship.

The first, whom we shall term the The therapist experiences

client, is in a state of incongruence, unconditional positive regard for
being vulnerable or anxious. the client.
ROGERS’S HYPOTHESIS WAS FORMULATED ON THE BASIS OF MANY YEARS OF
HIS PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE, AND IT REMAINS BASICALLY UNCHANGED TO
THIS DAY. THIS HYPOTHESIS (CITED IN CAIN 2002A, P. 20) IS STATED THUSLY:

The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of the

client’s internal frame of reference and endeavors to
communicate this experience to the client.

The communication to the client of the therapist’s empathic

understanding and unconditional positive regard is to a
minimal degree achieved.
Rogers hypothesized that no other conditions were
necessary. If the therapeutic core conditions exist over some
period of time, constructive personality change will occur.
The core conditions do not vary according to client type.
Further, they are both necessary and sufficient for
therapeutic change to occur.

From Rogers’s perspective the client–therapist relationship

is characterized by equality. Therapists do not keep their
knowledge a secret or attempt to mystify the therapeutic
process. The process of change in the client depends to a
large degree on the quality of this equal relationship.
As they experience the realness of the therapist, clients drop many of
their pretenses and are real with both themselves and the therapist. This
humanistic approach is perhaps best characterized as a way of being and
as a shared journey in which therapist and client reveal their humanness
and participate in a growth experience.

The core therapist conditions of congruence, unconditional

positive regard, and accurate empathic understanding
subsequently have been embraced by many therapeutic
schools as essential in facilitating therapeutic change.
CONGRUENCE, OR
GENUINENESS
implies that therapists are real; that
is, they are genuine, integrated, and
authentic during the therapy hour.

This communication is done with

careful reflection and considered
judgment on the therapist’s part
(Kolden, Klein, Wang, & Austin,
2011).
CONGRUENCE, OR
GENUINENESS
Person-centered therapy stresses
that counseling will be inhibited if
the counselor feels one way about
the client but acts in a different way.

For example, if the practitioner

dislikes or disapproves of the client
but feigns acceptance, therapy will
be impaired.
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE
REGARD AND ACCEPTANCE
The secondcattitude therapists need to communicate is
deep and genuine caring for the client as a person, or a
condition of unconditional positive regard, which can
best be achieved through empathic identifi cation with
the client (Farber & Doolin, 2011).
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE
REGARD AND ACCEPTANCE
Therapists value and warmly accept clients without
placing stipulations on their acceptance. It is not an
attitude of “I’ll accept you when . . .”; rather, it is one of
“I’ll accept you as you are.”
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE
REGARD AND ACCEPTANCE
According to Rogers’s (1977) research, the greater the
degree of caring, prizing, accepting, and valuing of the
client in a non-possessive way, the greater the chance
that therapy will be successful.
ACCURATE EMPATHIC
UNDERSTANDING

One of the main tasks of the therapist is to

understand clients’ experience and feelings
sensitively and accurately as they are revealed
in the moment-to-moment interaction during
the therapy session.
ACCURATE EMPATHIC
UNDERSTANDING
Empathy is a deep and subjective understanding
of the client with the client. Empathy is not
sympathy or feeling sorry for a client. Therapists
are able to share the client’s subjective world by
drawing from their own experiences that may be
similar to the client’s feelings.
EMPATHY, PARTICULARLY EMOTIONALLY FOCUSED EMPATHY,
HELPS CLIENTS

pay attention to and value their experiencing, view prior experiences in new ways, and

process their experience both cognitively increase their confidence in making choices
and bodily, and in pursuing a course of action (Cain, 2010).
CLARK (2010) DESCRIBES AN INTEGRAL MODEL OF EMPATHY IN THE COUNSELING
PROCESS THAT IS BASED ON THREE WAYS OF KNOWING:

subjective empathy enables practitioners to objective empathy relies on knowledge sources

experience what it is like to be the client; outside of a client’s frame of reference.

interpersonal empathy pertains to

understanding a client’s internal frame of
reference and conveying a sense of the
private meanings to the person; and
Accurate empathy is the cornerstone of the person-centered approach,
and it is a necessary ingredient of any effective therapy (Cain, 2010).

Accurate empathic understanding implies that the therapist

will sense clients’ feelings as if they were his or her own
without becoming lost in those feelings.
APPLICATION:
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES
AND PROCEDURES
EARLY EMPHASIS ON REFLECTION OF FEELINGS

Rogers’s original emphasis was on grasping the

world of the client and reflecting this
understanding.

As his view of psychotherapy developed,

however, his focus shifted away from a
nondirective stance and emphasized the
therapist’s relationship with the client.
APPLICATION:
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES
AND PROCEDURES
EVOLUTION OF PERSON-CENTERED METHODS

Contemporary person-centered therapy is the result of an

evolutionary process of more than 70 years, and it
continues to remain open to change and refinement. One
of Rogers’s main contributions to the counseling fi eld is
the notion that the quality of the therapeutic
relationship, as opposed to administering techniques, is
the primary agent of growth in the client.
APPLICATION:
THERAPEUTIC TECHNIQUES
AND PROCEDURES
EVOLUTION OF PERSON-CENTERED METHODS

Immediacy, or addressing what is going on between the

client and therapist, is highly valued in this approach.
This development encourages the use of a wider variety
of methods and allows for considerable diversity in
personal style among person-centered therapists.
THE ROLE OF
ASSESSMENT
Assessment is frequently viewed as a prerequisite
to the treatment process. Many mental health
agencies use a variety of assessment procedures,
including diagnostic screening, identification of
clients’ strengths and liabilities, and various tests.
Person-centered therapists generally do not fi nd
traditional assessment and diagnosis to be useful
because these procedures encourage an external
and expert perspective on the client (Bohart &
Watson, 2011).
APPLICATION OF THE
PHILOSOPHY OF THE
PERSON-CENTERED
APPROACH
Bozrath, Zimring, and Tausch (2002) cite studies
done through the 1990s that revealed the
effectiveness of person-centered therapy with a
wide range of client problems including anxiety
disorders, alcoholism, psychosomatic problems,
agoraphobia, interpersonal difficulties, depression,
cancer, and personality disorders.
APPLICATION TO
CRISIS INTERVENTION
The person-centered approach is especially
applicable in crisis intervention such as an
unwanted pregnancy, an illness, a disastrous event,
or the loss of a loved one. People in the helping
professions (nursing, medicine, education, the
ministry) are often first on the scene in a variety of
crises, and they can do much if the basic attitudes
described in this chapter are present.
APPLICATION TO
GROUP COUNSELING
The person-centered approach emphasizes the
unique role of the group counselor as a facilitator
rather than a leader. The primary function of the
facilitator is to create a safe and healing climate—a
place where the group members can interact in
honest and meaningful ways.
PERSON-CENTERED
EXPRESSIVE ARTS THERAPY*
Natalie Rogers (1993, 2011) expanded on her father, Carl Rogers’s
(1961), theory of creativity using the expressive arts to enhance
personal growth for individuals and groups.

Rogers’s approach, known as expressive arts therapy, extends the

person-centered approach to spontaneous creative expression,
which symbolizes deep and sometimes inaccessible feelings and
emotional states.
PERSON-CENTERED
EXPRESSIVE ARTS THERAPY*
PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS THERAPY

Expressive arts therapy uses various artistic forms—movement,

drawing, painting, sculpting, music, writing, and improvisation—
toward the end of growth, healing, and self-discovery.

This is a multimodal approach integrating mind, body, emo-

tions, and inner spiritual resources.
METHODS OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS THERAPY ARE BASED ON
HUMANISTIC PRINCIPLES BUT GIVING FULLER FORM TO CARL
ROGERS’S NOTIONS OF CREATIVITY. THESE PRINCIPLES
INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING (N. ROGERS, 1993):

All people have an innate ability to be creative.

The creative process is transformative and healing. The healing aspects

involve activities such as meditation, movement, art, music, and journal
writing.
METHODS OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS THERAPY ARE BASED ON
HUMANISTIC PRINCIPLES BUT GIVING FULLER FORM TO CARL
ROGERS’S NOTIONS OF CREATIVITY. THESE PRINCIPLES
INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING (N. ROGERS, 1993):

Self-awareness, understanding, and insight are achieved by delving into our feelings of grief,
anger, pain, fear, joy, and ecstasy.

Our feelings and emotions are an energy source that can be channeled into the expressive arts
to be released and transformed.

Personal growth and higher states of consciousness are achieved through self-awareness, self-
understanding, and insight.
METHODS OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS THERAPY ARE BASED ON
HUMANISTIC PRINCIPLES BUT GIVING FULLER FORM TO CARL
ROGERS’S NOTIONS OF CREATIVITY. THESE PRINCIPLES
INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING (N. ROGERS, 1993):

The expressive arts lead us into the unconscious, thereby enabling us to express previously
unknown facets of ourselves and bring to light new information and awareness.

One art form stimulates and nurtures the other, bringing us to an inner core or essence that is
our life energy.
METHODS OF EXPRESSIVE ARTS THERAPY ARE BASED ON
HUMANISTIC PRINCIPLES BUT GIVING FULLER FORM TO CARL
ROGERS’S NOTIONS OF CREATIVITY. THESE PRINCIPLES
INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING (N. ROGERS, 1993):

A connection exists between our life force—our inner core, or soul—and the
essence of all beings.

As we journey inward to discover our essence or wholeness, we discover our

relatedness to the outer world, and the inner and outer become one.
MOTIVATIONAL Motivational interviewing was initially designed as a brief
intervention for problem drinking, but more recently this
INTERVIEWING approach has been applied to a wide range of clinical
problems including substance abuse, compulsive
Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a gambling, eating disorders, anxiety disorders, depression,
humanistic, client-centered, psychosocial, suicidality, chronic disease management, and health
directive counseling approach that was behavior change practices (Arkowitz & Miller, 2008;
developed by William R. Miller and Arkowitz & Westra, 2009).
Stephen Rollnick in the early 1980s.ns are
communication tools that can be used as
demonstrations.
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING
MILLER AND ROLLNICK (2002) FORMULATED FIVE BASIC
PRINCIPLES OF MI, WHICH ARE SUMMARIZED BELOW:

Therapists practicing motivational interviewing strive to experience the world from the client’s
perspective without judgment or criticism. MI emphasizes reflective listening, which is a way
for practitioners to better understand the subjective world of clients.

MI is designed to evoke and explore both discrepancies and ambivalence. Counselors using MI
reflect discrepancies between the behaviors and values of clients to increase the motivation to
change.
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING
MILLER AND ROLLNICK (2002) FORMULATED FIVE BASIC
PRINCIPLES OF MI, WHICH ARE SUMMARIZED BELOW:

Reluctance to change is viewed as a normal and expected part of the therapeutic process.
Although individuals may see advantages to making life changes, they also may have many
concerns and fears about changing.

Practitioners operating from an MI orientation support clients’ self-efficacy, mainly by

encouraging them to use their own resources to take necessary actions that can lead to success
in changing.
THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING
MILLER AND ROLLNICK (2002) FORMULATED FIVE BASIC
PRINCIPLES OF MI, WHICH ARE SUMMARIZED BELOW:

When clients show signs of readiness to change through decreased resistance

to change and increased talk about change, a critical phase of MI begins.
SHORTCOMINGS
FROM A DIVERSITY
PERSPECTIVE
Many clients who come to community mental health
clinics or who are involved in outpatient treatment
want more structure than this approach provides.

They often expect a directive counselor and can be

put off by a professional who does not provide
sufficient structure.

A second shortcoming of the person-centered approach

is that it is difficult to translate the core therapeutic
conditions into actual practice in certain cultures.
SHORTCOMINGS
FROM A DIVERSITY
PERSPECTIVE
A second shortcoming of the person-centered
approach is that it is difficult to translate the core
therapeutic conditions into actual practice in certain
cultures.

The focus on development of individual autonomy

and personal growth may be viewed as being selfi sh
in a culture that stresses the common good.
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