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First published 2020
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© 2020 selection and editorial matter, Carol A. Ireland, Michael Lewis, Anthony C.
Lopez, Jane L. Ireland; individual chapters, the contributors
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identified as the authors of the editorial matter, and of the authors for their individual
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‘This book is dedicated to Dr Peter Banister. A kind, caring, generous mentor and colleague
who always found the time. We are forever grateful for him shaping our careers and his
continual encouraging words.’
Carol A. Ireland and Jane L. Ireland

‘To my parents, David and Deidre, for their kindness and support. I am forever grateful.’
Michael Lewis

‘To my son, Nikolai, who always reminds me to play.’

Anthony C. Lopez
 Contents

Contributors xi
Foreword biography xxi
Foreword xxi
Azar Gat

PART I
Understanding war 1

1 The evolution of warfare 3

Anthony C. Lopez

2 When social identity-­defining groups become violent:

collective responses to identity uncertainty, status erosion,
and resource threat  17
Sucharita Belavadi, Mark J. Rinella and Michael A. Hogg

3 Emotional underpinnings of war: an evolutionary analysis

of anger and hatred  31
Aaron Sell and Anthony C. Lopez

4 Women, god and war: analysing an odd triangle  47

Fernanda Buril

5 Ethnic cleansing: reversing the effects  58

Neophytos Loizides and Djordje Stefanovic

6 How modern is the holocaust?  69

Amos Goldberg

vii
 Contents

PART II
Terrorism 83

7 The evolution of terrorism: historical underpinnings and the development

of group terrorism  85
Randall D. Law

8 Psychological and criminological understanding of terrorism:

theories and models  100
Zoe Marchment and Paul Gill

9 Legal and security frameworks for responding to online violent extremism:

a comparison of far-­right and jihadist contexts  112
Imogen Richards and Mark Wood

10 Continuities and discontinuities in radicalization trends:

the case of Kenya 125
John Mwangi Githigaro

11 Responses to terror: policing and countering terrorism in the

modern age  137
Mathieu Deflem

12 Holy terror: how scriptures legitimized group violence

in the Middle East  149
Mark Tomass and Clarissa Luttmann

13 Rehabilitation of jihadi terrorists: current understanding

and perspectives  162
Kurt Braddock

PART III
Public order and organized violent crime 173

14 How crowd violence arises and how it spreads: a critical review of theory
and evidence  175
John Drury, Roger Ball, Fergus Neville, Stephen Reicher and Clifford Stott

15 Managing collective violence: policing public order and public

safety events  188
David Marshall

16 Gangs, violence and county lines  198

Paul Andell

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 Contents

17 Criminal gangs in global perspective: motivations, transformations

and functions  209
Moritz Schuberth

18 Exploring the currency of violence in serious organized crime  220

Stuart Kirby, Rebecca Phythian and Laura Boulton

19 The use of violence and the evolution of organized crime:

evidence from Mexico  232
Laura H. Atuesta

20 Organized violence: the mafia  246

Gianmarco Daniele and Marco Le Moglie

21 Disrupting organized crime in the UK: tackling violence,

intimidation and coercion  258
Michael Lewis, Daniel T. Beaumont and Rob Ewin

PART IV
Gang and multiple offender groups 271

22 Distinguishing between aggression in groups and in gangs:

are gangs always violent?  273
Matthew Valasik and Shannon E. Reid

23 Current understanding of multiple perpetrator sexual offending 291

Teresa Ferraz-da-Silva

24 Collective violence online: when street gangs use social media  305
James Densley

25 Biker gangs: evolution, motivation and applying function to management  317

Carol A. Ireland, Jane L. Ireland and Sören Henrich

26 Outlaw biker clubs: a case study exploration of collective violence 329

Mohammed Rahman

27 Prison gangs: re-­examining their existence, reframing their function  340

Jane L. Ireland, Philip Birch, Sören Henrich, Michael Lewis and
Carol A. Ireland

Index 351

ix
 Contributors

Dr Paul Andell has more than 25 years of experience of working in the criminal justice field.
He has worked in the statutory, voluntary and private sectors undertaking criminal justice related
work in practice, policy and research. He is a current advisor to the All Political Party Group on
Alcohol, Drugs and Crime. His former practice was in Probation and Youth Justice in East
London, he later worked as a Consultancy Manager for NACRO and Matrix Knowledge. He
has worked as a Performance Advisor for the Ministry of Justice, Community Safety Manager
for the Greater London Assembly and was Director of Communities for a Youth Leadership
Charity, Brathay. For 14 years, he was Vice Chair of the Lambeth Community Police Con-
sultative Committee, which was set up after Lord Scarman’s Report following the Brixton
Riots. His current research interests are focused towards youth gangs and illicit economies. He
is the author of Thinking Seriously About Gangs (2019).

Laura H. Atuesta is an Assistant Professor and Coordinator of the Drug Policy Program at the
Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas (CIDE – Center for Economic Research and
Teaching) in Aguascalientes, Mexico. She holds a Masters in Economics and a PhD in Agricul-
tural and Applied Economics from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her research
interests are related to the economics of illegal drugs, the evolution of organized crime and the
estimation of the social costs associated to the war on drugs in prohibitionist countries. She has
published her work in Global Crime, the Journal of Conflict Resolution, the International Journal of
Drug Policy and Trends in Organized Crime, among others. She teaches impact evaluation courses
at the undergraduate and graduate levels and offers public policy evaluation training to public
officers in Latin America. As coordinator of the Drug Policy Program at CIDE, she has pub-
lished relevant data to study the effects of the war on drugs in Mexico and has co-edited a book
about the consequences and the different types of violence caused by prohibition and repressive
policies in Mexico.

Roger Ball was a founding member of the Bristol Radical History Group (BRHG) and subse-
quently received a PhD in History from the University of the West of England with a thesis
entitled Violent Urban Disturbance in England 1980–81. From 2016–2019, he collaborated with
social psychologists in researching the anatomy and dynamics of the urban riots of 2011 in
England as part of the Beyond Contagion project. He is currently employed as a Research Fellow

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 Contributors

in the School of Law, Politics and Sociology at Sussex University working on British law and
policy on the global death penalty. He has been involved in a number of research projects and
written several books focused on local history in Bristol. These include labour history, the
Victorian workhouse, the 1831 Reform “riots” and strikes in the British armed forces after the
First World War. He is currently co-authoring a book on slavery and abolition in Bristol.

Daniel T. Beaumont is a Forensic Psychologist-in-Training working with Child Coastal and

Adult Therapeutic Services (CCATS), and a PhD candidate at the University of Central Lanca-
shire, Preston. His clinical practice focuses on the assessment and intervention of adult sexual
offenders, some of whom likely operate within organized networks. He also works closely with
police forces on various research projects, including his own PhD, which focuses on police
officer mental health. He is a member of the British Psychological Society and Division of For-
ensic Psychology.

Sucharita Belavadi is an honorary Postdoctoral Fellow in the social identity lab at Claremont
Graduate University. Her research has focused on the ways in which communication that flows
within and between groups serves to clarify ingroup norms and shape social identity, especially
when identity-uncertainty is experienced by group members. Specifically, she has examined
collective victimhood rhetoric in the context of troubled intergroup relations and the implica-
tions an identity of victimhood has for intergroup relations. She recently defended her doctoral
dissertation which examines the conditions that are ripe for ingroup leaders to exploit height-
ened identity-uncertainty and threat to ingroup high-status by employing collective victimhood
rhetoric to fashion divisive, tight-knit identities.

Dr Philip Birch, B.Soc.Sci. (Hons); P.G. Cert. (HEP); P.G. Cert. (SSRM); P.G. Dip. (Soc.
Sci.); MSc.; PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in Criminology in the Centre for Law and Justice at
Charles Sturt University, Australia. He has previously held posts at the University of Western
Sydney, the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia and the University of Hudders-
field, in United Kingdom. Prior to entering academia he worked as a criminologist in the field
holding posts in the UK prison service as well as in the crime and disorder field, which involved
managing a specialist crime unit. He has published internationally, including books, book chap-
ters, peer reviewed articles and Government reports in his main areas of research – offender
management and rehabilitation; police, prisons and probation practices; gender symmetry viol-
ence with a particular focus on domestic family violence and sex work. He has secured over
$830,000 in research funding and support grants, which has addressed a variety of themes within
his areas of expertise. He holds an honorary research fellowship in the School of Psychology,
University of Central Lancashire, UK, as well as a Senior Research Associate in the Ashworth
Research Centre, Mersey Health Care, National Health Services, UK. He is also a Fellow of the
Higher Education Academy. He was the co-founder and inaugural Editor-in-Chief of the
Journal of Criminological Research, Policy and Practice (JCRPP, 2014–2017) and currently the Edi-
tor-in-Chief of Salus: An International Journal for Law Enforcement and Public Safety (2018–Present),
he also sits on the editorial board of the Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research.

Laura Boulton, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in Policing and is actively engaged in multidiscipli-
nary research related to policing and criminal investigation. Her teaching topics include research
methods using both quantitative and qualitative methods, as well as decision-making in the
context of threat, risk and harm. She is the module lead in charge of policing related MSc
research dissertations and she supervises doctoral students in research projects examining policing,

xii
 Contributors

violence and multi-agency working. Her research specialism surrounds police decision-making
in various critical decision-making roles (i.e. armed policing and senior investigative roles), but
she has also conducted research in other policing related fields such as organized crime, children
who go missing from home, child sexual exploitation and police-public engagement. She works
in collaboration with the Lancashire Constabulary’s Evidence-Based Policing team, and is a
member of RUSI’s Strategic Hub for Organised Crime Research.

Dr Kurt Braddock (PhD, Penn State University) is an Assistant Teaching Professor of Com-
munication Arts and Sciences and Homeland Security at Penn State University. His research
focuses on the strategic communication employed by terrorist organizations for the purposes of
recruitment and radicalization, as well as communicative strategies that can be employed to
counter terrorist propaganda. His work has been published in several communication and
security journals, including Terrorism and Political Violence, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism,
Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, and Communication Monographs. He has also authored a book on
persuasion in the context of terrorism and counter-terrorism titled Weaponized Words: The Stra-
tegic Role of Persuasion in Violent Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization (Cambridge University
Press, 2020).

Fernanda Buril has a PhD in Political Science from Washington State University, where she
specialized in Political Psychology and International Relations. Her research focuses on the links
between gender, religious beliefs and extremism, and communication strategies used to motivate
people into participating in violence. Currently, she works in the field of democracy and gov-
ernance, designing and implementing projects to strengthen democratic institutions, combat
disinformation and hate speech, and prevent and mitigate election-related violence.

Gianmarco Daniele is an applied economist with interest in political, public and development
economics. His current research agenda focuses on political accountability and distortions of,
and within, the political process. A central topic of his research concerns organized crime, and
specifically its effects on the political arena. He works as postdoctoral researcher at Bocconi
University (Milan, Italy). He previously worked at the Institut d’Economia Barcelona and at the
University of Barcelona. He completed a PhD in 2015 at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Brussels,
Belgium). He has been a visiting scholar at Universidad Autonoma de Barcelona, BI Norwegian
Business School and Stanford University.

Mathieu Deflem is Professor of Sociology at the University of South Carolina. His research
and teaching interests concern a variety of aspects of social control, including counter-terrorism,
international police cooperation and law. His work also concerns the study of popular culture
and sociological theory. He is the author of dozens of articles in journals and anthologies and
has, to date, authored four books, including The Policing of Terrorism (Routledge, 2010), Sociology
of Law (Cambridge, 2008) and Policing World Society (Oxford, 2002). He is the editor of The
Handbook of Social Control (Wiley Blackwell, 2019).

James Densley, D.Phil (Oxford), is a Professor of Criminal Justice at Metropolitan State

University, part of the Minnesota State system (USA). He has received global media attention
for his research on street gangs, criminal networks, violence and policing. He is the author of
two books, including the award-winning, How Gangs Work (Palgrave, 2013), and more than 50
peer-reviewed articles and book chapters. His writing has also featured for CNN, The Conversa-
tion, the Guardian, HuffPost, USA Today, and the Wall Street Journal.

xiii
 Contributors

John Drury is Professor of Social Psychology at the University of Sussex. He has published
over 80 peer-reviewed journal articles on crowd behaviour. Some of the crowd events and
campaigns he has researched include No M11 anti-roads campaign, the 2011 English riots, the
London bombings of 7 July 2005, the Hillsborough disaster and the 2010 Chile earthquake. He
teaches crowd psychology to the UK Fire and Rescue Service, and to crowd safety managers
around the world. His research on mass emergencies has informed the training of over 2000
crowd safety managers and stewards across the UK and European football clubs. He heads the
Crowds & Identities group at the University of Sussex, and is currently the editor of the British
Journal of Social Psychology.

Rob Ewin is a Detective Sergeant and PhD candidate exploring the legislative and psycho-
logical effects of vulnerability in law enforcement responses. He has been involved with a
number of successful prosecutions for serious sexual offences, supervised responses to county
lines drug use and led a number of investigations for serious violence offences. He is involved
with national working groups concerning witnesses and risk assessment, and is an advocate of
evidence-based policing and research often operating as a practitioner-academic to seek under-
standings to key policing challenges.

Teresa Ferraz-da-Silva is a Forensic Psychologist and Assistant Professor in Forensic Psych-

ology at Coventry University, UK. She worked for more than 12 years in the Portuguese prison
system with young offenders. She completed a PhD in Forensic Psychology on multiple perpet-
rator rape (MPR). Her research in this area is ongoing and she has published papers in peer-
reviewed international journals and contributed with a chapter in the first book on MPR. Her
research interests include juvenile offenders and group offending.

Azar Gat is Ezer Weitzman Professor of National Security at Tel Aviv University. He is the
author of nine books, including, most recently: A History of Military Thought: From the Enlighten-
ment to the Cold War (Oxford, 2001); War in Human Civilization (Oxford, 2006), named one of
the best books of the year by the Times Literary Supplement (TLS); Victorious and Vulnerable:
Why Democracy Won in the 20th Century and How it is still Imperiled (Hoover, 2010); Nations: The
Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism (Cambridge, 2013); The Causes
of War and the Spread of Peace: But Will War Rebound? (Oxford, 2017); and War and Strategy in the
Modern World: From Blitzkrieg to Unconventional Terrorism (Routledge, 2018). His books have
been translated into Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Greek, Turkish and Hebrew. He is the
recipient of the EMET Prize for 2019, Israel’s premier scholarly distinction.

Paul Gill is Professor of Security and Crime Science at University College London. He has
conducted research funded by the Office for Naval Research, the Department of Homeland
Security, DSTL, the European Union, the National Institute of Justice, CREST, Public Safety
Canada and MINERVA. He currently manages European Research Council Starter Grant
project entitled GRIEVANCE. These projects focused upon various aspects of terrorist
behaviour including IED development, creativity, terrorist network structures, risk assessment
and management, and lone-actor terrorism. His doctoral research focused on the underlying
individual and organizational motivations behind suicide bombing. He has published in leading
psychology, criminology and political science journals.

Amos Goldberg is an Associate Professor of Holocaust History at the Department of Jewish

History and Contemporary Jewry at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He served as the

xiv
 Contributors

2018/19 J.B. and Maurice C. Shapiro Senior Scholar-in-Residence Fellow, at the Jack, Joseph and
Morton Mandel Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies at the USHMM. He is a cultural historian
whose work is interdisciplinary in nature. Part of it focuses on the history of the Jews in the Holo-
caust while other parts focus on Holocaust memory and historiography. Among his publications
are: Trauma in First Person: Diary Writing during the Holocaust (Indiana University press, 2017) which
was listed as an outstanding academic title for 2018 by “Choice” magazine of the Association of
College and Research Libraries; and his co-edited volume, together with Bashir Bashir, The Holo-
caust and the Nakba: A new Grammar of Trauma and History (Columbia University Press, 2018).

Sören Henrich is currently working at the University of Central Lancashire (UK) as a Lecturer
in Forensic Psychology. His research focuses on individuals on the fringes of prison culture: in
the scope of his PhD, he is exploring the radicalization of vulnerable individuals in secure for-
ensic settings. In his additional work at the High Security Hospital Ashworth Liverpool, he is
supporting the service in the research about the assessment of transgender patients. Furthermore,
he is specialized in the risk assessment and anti-aggression therapy of high-risk offenders, as well
as a trained and enlisted crisis and hostage negotiator under the NHS. Previously, he has worked
for several years in medium secure psychiatric settings in Germany and studied “Forensic Psych-
ology” at the Maastricht University (NL).

Michael A. Hogg is Professor and Chair of Social Psychology at Claremont Graduate Univer-
sity, an Honorary Professor at the University of Kent, a former Australian Research Council
Professorial Fellow and past President of the Society of Experimental Social Psychology. He
received his PhD from Bristol University and is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological
Science, the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, the Society of Experimental Social
Psychology, the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, and the Academy of the
Social Sciences in Australia. His research on group processes, intergroup relations, influence and
leadership, and self and identity is closely associated with the development of social identity
theory. He has published extensively on these topics, and is the recipient of the Australian
Psychological Society’s 1989 Early Career award and the Society for Personality and Social
Psychology’s 2010 Carol and Ed Diener Mid-Career Award. He is Editor-in-Chief of the
journal Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, an Associate Editor of The Leadership Quarterly
and a former Associate Editor of the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. Current research
focuses on leadership and influence, uncertainty and extremism, and group fragmentation.

Dr Carol A. Ireland is a Consultant Chartered Psychologist, Forensic Psychologist and Char-

tered Scientist. She is a Reader in Aggression at the University of Central Lancashire and Senior
Research Lead at the Ashworth Research Centre. She is also the Director of Studies for the MSc
in Forensic Psychology. She holds a visiting/honorary professorship at Charles Sturt University.
She currently works at the Coastal Child and Adult Therapeutic Services, working with chil-
dren and adults who present with offence concerns and/or are victims. Her research interests are
around aggression, including critical incident management, harmful sexual behaviour, trauma
and sexual exploitation.

Professor Jane L. Ireland is a Chartered Forensic Psychologist and Chartered Scientist, holds
a Professorial Chair at the University of Central Lancashire and is Violence Treatment Lead
within High Secure Services, Ashworth Hospital. She holds three further (visiting/honorary)
professorships at Abo Akademi University, Charles Sturt University and Cardiff Metropolitan
University. She is currently academic lead for the Ashworth Research Centre.

xv
 Contributors

Stuart Kirby, PhD, C. Psychol. is a Professor of Policing and Criminal Investigation at the
University of Central Lancashire (UK). His academic interests surround crime reduction, inves-
tigation and organized crime, and acts as academic advisor to Her Majesties Inspector of Con-
stabulary and National Police Chiefs Council (Crime). He has advised and presented to police
agencies in the North America, China, India, UAE and Europe. Prior to academia he served
with the Lancashire Constabulary, retiring as Detective Chief Superintendent in command of
the HQ Crime & Operations Division. During his police career he commanded many overt and
covert policing operations in relation to organized crime. He continues to act as a UK Behavi-
oural Investigative Advisor (Offender Profiler).

Randall D. Law is Professor of History at Birmingham-Southern College in Birmingham,

Alabama, where he teaches courses on modern Russian and European history and the history of
terrorism. He is the author of Terrorism: A History (2nd ed., Polity Press, 2016) and the editor of
The Routledge History of Terrorism (2015). His current projects are the history of white suprema-
cist terrorism in the United States as well as terrorism, political violence and criminality in the
city of Odessa in the Russian Empire in the early twentieth century. In 2009 he spent four
months in Odessa as a Fulbright Research Scholar. He is frequently interviewed by national and
international reporters on matters related to terrorism and Russian politics and history. He
earned his PhD in Russian and European history from Georgetown University.

Dr Michael Lewis is a Chartered Psychologist, Chartered Scientist, Associate Fellow of the

British Psychological Society and Lecturer in Forensic Psychology at the University of Central
Lancashire, Preston. He is the Research Lead for Policing and Security at the Ashworth Research
Centre, Mersey Care NHS Trust, and as part of this role collaborates with numerous police
forces across the UK. His research interests include organized crime, aggression, child sexual
exploitation and police wellbeing. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Criminological
Research, Policy and Practice, and he also sits on the editorial board for the Journal of Aggression,
Conflict and Peace Research. He has a background in operational policing.

Neophytos Loizides is Chair in International Conflict Analysis at the University of Kent. He

is the author of The Politics of Majority Nationalism: Framing Peace, Stalemates, and Crises (Stanford
Press, 2015), Designing Peace: Cyprus and Institutional Innovations in Divided Societies (University of
Pennsylvania Press, 2016) and Mediating Power-Sharing (Routledge, 2018, with Feargal Cochrane
and Thibaud Bodson). He has authored more than forty academic articles and book chapters in
the areas of forced displacement, nationalism and conflict regulation in deeply divided societies
including most recently work published in the European Journal of Political Research, The Inter-
national Journal of Constitutional Law, Political Psychology, Ethnic and Racial Studies, and International
Migration.

Dr Anthony C. Lopez is Associate Professor of Political Psychology in the School of Politics,

Philosophy and Public Affairs at Washington State University. He received his PhD from Brown
University, and also received training as a research affiliate at the Center for Evolutionary Psych-
ology, University of California, Santa Barbara. His research explores the evolutionary origins of
warfare, as well as its constituent psychological dynamics, such as: revenge, the nature of deter-
rence, collective action problems of warfare, extremist violence, and distinctions between offen-
sive and defensive aggression. He serves as Associate Editor of Politics with the Evolution
Institute and blogs regularly at Psychology Today.

xvi
 Contributors

Clarissa Luttmann is an Honours student at Leiden University College, The Hague, where
she pursues her studies in Governance, Economics and Development, and participates in Leiden
University’s Honours Academy Tackling Global Challenges. In 2018, she served as Research
Assistant to Mark Tomass, Harvard University Extension School.

Zoe Marchment is a Post-doctoral Research Associate on the European Research Council-

funded project GRIEVANCE, in the Department of Security and Crime Science, UCL. Her
doctoral research examined the spatial decision-making of terrorist target selection, with a focus
on lone actors and violent Dissident Republican activity. She holds a BSc in Psychology and
MSc in Countering Organised Crime and Terrorism. She has worked on projects for the UK
Defence Science and Technology Laboratory; Centre for Research and Evidence on Security
Threats (CREST); FP7 Preventing, Interdicting and Mitigating Extremism (PRIME),
MINERVA and the VOX-Pol Network of Excellence.

David Marshall is a serving UK Senior Police Officer. He has performed a number of uni-
formed and specialist roles as a Constable and Sergeant, operating in various geographic areas of
the UK both in frontline operations and within the Crime Management Department. Promo-
tion to Inspector saw him head up force operations in Edinburgh, Scotland during which time
he was heavily involved in the policing of the G8 summit in 2005. As an inspector he also served
as staff officer to the Assistant Chief Constable.
Promotion to Chief Inspector saw David assume responsibility for territorial operations and
in that rank held command roles within Operational Support and Protective Services. He also
served as the lead for Professional Standards. As Superintendent, he is head of divisional opera-
tions with overall responsibility for territorial policing, operational support, and crime and intel-
ligence. He is an experienced senior leader, is a member of the Chartered Management Institute,
and is an accredited College of Policing Gold and Silver Public Order Commander. He has a
strong background in the planning and delivery of large scale events, as well as leading the
response to spontaneous operations including terrorism incidents.
David holds a Foundation Degree in Arts in Policing, a Bachelor of Science in Crime and
Criminology, and a Masters in Criminology and Criminal Psychology. He is an occasional guest
lecturer in Criminology, and part-time Associate Tutor with the University of Essex Online
where he teaches on the Criminology and Criminal Psychology course.

Marco Le Moglie is an applied economist primarily interested in organized crime, political

economy and more in general policy evaluation. His current research focuses on mafia invest-
ments in the legal economy, the effect of organized criminal violence on society, as well as
corruption and its impact on people’s attitudes and beliefs. He received his PhD in Economics
at the University of Turin in 2016 and works as a postdoctoral researcher at Bocconi University
(Milan, Italy).

John Mwangi Githigaro is a Lecturer in Peace and Conflict Studies at the St Paul’s Univer-
sity, Limuru (Kenya). He holds a PhD in International Relations from the United States Inter-
national University Africa (USIU-A) Nairobi, Kenya. His research interests revolve around
peace and security studies, refugee studies, and media portrayals of terrorism with a specific
focus on the Horn of Africa. He was a Nextgen Social Science Research Council New York
(SSRC) Fellow (2016–2019). He is currently a Co-investigator on a project titled “Examining
Interpretations of Civic National Values: Advancing Shared Communications Through the
Voices and Actions of Children in Post-Conflict Settings”, which is an intercontinental

xvii
 Contributors

comparative project involving researchers from the UK, Kenya and Nepal (March–September
2019).

Fergus Neville is a Lecturer in Organisational Studies at the University of St Andrews. His

research is broadly focused on group processes and their pro-social and anti-social consequences.
His research covers a range of phenomena which are central to understandings of groups and
organizations, including leadership and influence, normative processes, social support and toxic
behaviour in groups. Much of this research has been conducted within crowd contexts which
represent a uniquely rich site in which to study processes of identity, organization, leadership
and conflict.

Rebecca Phythian, PhD, is a Lecturer in Policing and Criminal Investigation at the University
of Central Lancashire, teaching on research methods (quantitative and qualitative) and Criminal
Justice to postgraduate students. She supervises MSc, PhD and Professional Doctorate students
on topics including vulnerability, multi-agency working and female offenders, and is deputy
chair for the School’s Research and Innovation committee. She is a member of the Royal
United Services Institute’s (RUSI) Strategic Hub for Organised Crime Research, holds “Accred-
ited Researcher” status with the Office for National Statistics and is actively involved in UCLan’s
Institute of Citizenship, Society and Change, and Criminal Justice Partnership. She continues to
work in collaboration with many UK police forces and organizations. Her research interests
include violent offenders, criminal exploitation and organized crime.

Dr Mohammed Rahman is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Social Sciences, Nottingham

Trent University. His academic work concerns serious crimes, especially organized crime and
gangs. His doctoral research required him to ethnographically investigate the nature, extent and
meaning of fatal violence within various West Midlands, England, based organized crime groups.
As a criminologist, he has used his teaching and research experiences to inform the public and
international press about crime, harm and crime control. His book entitled: Homicide and Organ-
ised Crime: Ethnographic Narratives of Violence in the Criminal Underworld, is due to be published in
2019 with Palgrave Macmillan.

Stephen Reicher is Wardlaw Professor of Psychology at the University of St Andrews. He is

a Fellow of the British Academy, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and a Fellow of
the Academy of Social Sciences. His work is broadly in the area of social identity and group
processes. He has written some 300 books, book chapters and journal articles covering such
topics as crowd behaviour, collective action, collective solidarity and helping, leadership and
political rhetoric, nationalism, intergroup hatred, the psychology of tyranny and obedience.
Two constant themes that run through this work are (a) the way that groups provide power to
powerless that allows them to achieve social change, and hence (b) the need to challenge the
pervasive anti-collectivism in psychology.

Dr Shannon E. Reid is an Associate Professor in the Department of Criminal Justice and

Criminology at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. She received her PhD in Crimin-
ology, Law, and Society from the University of California, Irvine in 2013. Her research interests
are focused on street gangs, youth and adults in the correctional system, and the integration of
technology into policing. She is currently the Principal Investigator grant funded by the Office
of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) evaluating trauma-informed care for
youth in community corrections. She is also a Co-PI on a National Science Foundation funded

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 Contributors

grant that is developing AI based video analytics to alert for suspicious parking lot behaviour for
police deployment. Her work has been published in Criminology, the Journal of Interpersonal Viol-
ence, Homicide Studies, Journal of Youth Studies, Legal and Criminal Psychology, and Deviant Behavior.
Her research has also received coverage in mainstream media outlets such as National Public
Radio, The Conversation, The Washington Post’s The Monkey Cage and The Crime Report.

Dr Imogen Richards is a Lecturer in Criminology and a member of the Alfred Deakin Insti-
tute at Deakin University. She specializes in the areas of surveillance, social media and counter/
terrorism, and has published on issues related to online extremism, with a focus on comparative
and cross-disciplinary approaches to online criminological research. Her work has appeared in
the International Journal of Cyber Criminology, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Critical Studies on
Terrorism, among others. Her wider research interests include the performance of security, the-
ories of violence, and drugs and crime.

Mark J. Rinella is a doctoral student in the Basic and Applied Social Psychology program at
Claremont Graduate University, where he previously received his MA. He is a current member
and former manager of the Social Identity Research Lab at CGU. His research has included
topics such as intergroup negotiation, shared realities and group fragmentation. His current
research focuses on the derogation versus acceptance of group deviants. He has worked as a
Lecturer at California State University, Dominguez Hills, and he is currently a Lecturer at Cali-
fornia State University, Los Angeles.

Moritz Schuberth, for the past two years, has been working as Monitoring, Evaluation and
Research Manager for the global humanitarian agency Mercy Corps in the eastern Democratic
Republic of the Congo. Prior to this he has worked at the European Commission, the German
Federal Foreign Office and the German Federal Office for Migration and Refugees. He com-
pleted his PhD in Peace Studies at the University of Bradford and consults the US Institute of
Peace on the engagement of community-based armed groups. His research focuses on peace-
keeping, non-state armed groups, security governance and urban violence. He is the author of
recent articles in Africa Spectrum; the Journal of Eastern African Studies, Conflict, Security & Develop-
ment; the Journal of Peacebuilding and Development; Contemporary Security Policy; Stability: International
Journal of Security and Development; International Peacekeeping; and Environment and Urbanization.

Aaron Sell received his PhD in developmental and evolutionary psychology from the prestig-
ious Center for Evolutionary Psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara. His
dissertation introduced the “recalibrational theory of anger”, an evolutionary-computational
model informed by models of animal conflict, game theory, criminology and anthropological
cross-cultural reports of human conflict. His research focuses on human conflict including anger,
aggressive facial expressions, formidability assessment, anger-based arguments and the import-
ance of upper body strength as a psychological predictor in males. He uses multiple methodolo-
gies including classical psychological experiments, correlational studies, cross-cultural surveys,
voice analyses, FACS coding and vignette studies. He is currently an Assistant Professor at Hei-
delberg University in the Department of Psychology and Criminal Justice, and an Adjunct
Research Fellow in the School of Criminology at Griffith University.

Dr Djordje (George) Stefanovic is a Senior Lecturer at Department of Sociology, Crimin-

ology and Gender Studies, the University of Adelaide, Australia. He is a political sociologist
who uses quantitative and historical methods to study ethnic conflict. His current research

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