By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)

LGS, BSS, CBS

ATP Notes
Important topics that you need to revise before preparing ATP paper,
 Molar calculations
 Chemical Energetics
 Rate of reaction
 Electrolysis
 Acid & base
 Salts (hydrous & anhydrous)
 Experimental Chemistry (Name & use of important apparatus)
 Separating techniques (most importantly distillation & chromatography)
 Colors of important elements and compounds

Greater chances of the following type of questions,

Identification of ions, gases

Flame test

Titration

Planning an experiment for a situation

Data handling & graph making

Methods of collection of gases

Colors of important substances

(Before exams or solving past paper ques ons, memorize these colors)

Substance Color
Salts, oxides and hydroxides of Group I, II, Aluminium & Zn White
Salts of Cu (Sulphate, nitrate & chloride) Blue
Copper carbonate Green
Copper oxide Black
Salts of Fe(II) Green
Salts of Fe(III) Reddish brown
Cu metal (pure) Pinkish or red-brown
Zn, Fe metal (pure) Silvery Grey
Pb (pure) Shiny Grey
Fluorine gas (pure) pale Yellow
Chlorine gas (pure) Greenish Yellow (pure)
Bromine (pure) and Bromine (aq) Orange Brown (pure), orange (aq)
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
Iodine (pure) Blue Grey (pure), brown (aq), purple (gas)
Asta ne (pure) Blackish
AgCl White
AgBr Off white
AgI Yellow
aq. KCl, aq. KBr and aq. KI Colorless
Gases H2, O2, CO2 & CH4 Colorless

Important apparatus
Apparatus Purpose Diagram
Clamp stand To hold the test tube,
boiling tube, bure e

Test tube or boiling tube To carry out reac ons or

tests or collect gas in water
displacement method

Mineral wool (it is a fibrous used to soak up and hold

material made up of silica and the liquid (alkane or
stone) paraffin) in cracking
Condenser on a flask for Condenser condenses the
reac on of an organic vapors of vola le organic
compound compound into liquid and
(Reflux) send to flask, so it prevents
vapor escaping.

Cracking larger alkane into smaller alkane & alkene

In cracking, when hea ng is stopped then delivery tube is immediately removed. This is done to prevent suck
back of water.
Large alkane → Smaller alkane + Smaller alkene
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS

Flame test [3 marks]

1- Dip a clean wire loop into the solid sample so that some compound (contains a metal ion) s cks to the wire.
2- Put the wire into the hot blue flame of Bunsen burner.
3- Observe and record the color of flame.

Chromatography or Paper chromatography

“To separate color substances or dyes or amino acids.”
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
Procedure:
1- Take a chromatography paper, draw a baseline with pencil near the bo om of the paper
2- Apply a drop of sample mixture by a dropper and known samples on the baseline.
3- Place the paper in a solvent in beaker with solvent level below the baseline
4- Allow the solvent to travel up the paper, when solvent has travelled almost 80% distance, take out the
paper from the beaker and mark the solvent front. In this way we get spots of mixture and reference
samples at different posi ons on paper and this pa ern is called a chromatogram.
5- If the spots of mixture are invisible (colorless) then they are sprayed with a loca ng agent that makes
them visible e.g. Spot of amino acids are colorless which become colored or visible when sprayed by a
loca ng agent.

Formula to calculate Rf (retarda on factor) value of a spot:

Rf =

Precau ons:
 Base line should not touch the solvent level otherwise, sample spot and reference sample spots
dissolve in the solvent (before rising on the paper).
 Don’t let the solvent approach the upper edge of paper otherwise it will not be possible to calculate Rf
value of any spot.
Note: Rf value range is 0.1 - 0.9 and it has no units as it is a ra o between two distances.

Iden fica on of compounds of a mixture

Compare Rf values of spots of a mixture with Rf values of reference samples and find the iden ty of unknown
spot or compound.

Thermal decomposi on or hea ng of a substance

Take a solid in test tube (made up of glass), heat gently at first because if it is heated too strongly, the tube
might crack.
e.g.

CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

If a substance is needed to heat at high temperature, then crucible (made up of porcelain) is a be er op on
because it can tolerate high temperatures while glass may break or melt at high temperature. Moreover, the
crucible is a good conductor of heat (than glass). A loosely fi ed lid should be used to stop the solid coming
out the crucible during hea ng and to allow the gas escaping from the crucible.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
Hydrous & anhydrous salts

Hydrous salt: Some mes a few molcules of water are enclosed within the crystal of a salt, forming a hydrous
salt. Water molecules that are present in hydrated crystal of salt are called water of crystalliza on.

e.g. CuSO4.5H2O

Anhydrous salts: These are salts that do not have water of crystalliza on.

e.g. CuSO4

Finding number of water molecules “x” in a hydrous salt

If we want to find no. of water molecules (x) present in a hydrous salt, then we need to heat for a long me to
ensure that all the water molecules have been evaporated or driven off. But if there are s ll some water
molecules present in the salt then we may get an inaccurate value or anomalous point in the graph. Mass of
hydrous salts will decrease with me. Heat the salt un l we get a constant mass.

To find number of water molecules “x” there are two methods,

Method 1
Use the following formula,

Mr of hydrated salt = Mr of anhydrous salt + x (Mr of water)

e.g.
Mr of CuSO4.xH2O = Mr of CuSO4 + x (Mr of water)

Here
Mr of CuSO4.xH2O will be given in ques on.
Mr of CuSO4 is 64+32+64 = 160
Mr of HO2 is 2+16 = 18
Put the values in the formula and solve for “x”.
Method 2
When the hydrous salt is heated then water of crystalliza on is evaporated or driven off as,
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS

Here moles of anhydrous salt CuSO4 and H2O can be calculated from the given data in the ques on. Put the
values in the formula and solve for “x”.
Use the following formula,
x=

Titra ons
Acid-alkali tra on
A neutraliza on reac on between acid and alkali in the presence of an indicator using bure e, pipe e and
conical flask is known as acid-alkali tra on.

Equipment list
 Burette
 Pipette with pipette filler
 Conical flask
 Beaker
 Funnel
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
 White tile
 Burette clamp and stand
Chemicals required
 Methyl orange or Thymolphthalein indicator
 Hydrochloric acid of known concentration
 Sodium hydroxide solution (unknown concentration)
 Deionized or distilled water

Procedure
1. Add exactly 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide to a conical flask using a pipe e and pipe e filler. Add a few drops
of phenolphthalein indicator to the conical flask then place the conical flask on a white le.
2. Setup the bure e in the clamp and stand. Close the tap and use a funnel to pour about 10 cm 3 of
hydrochloric acid into the bure e.
3. Rinse the bure e with this hydrochloric acid solu on. Open the tap to release this hydrochloric acid
solu on.
4. Use a funnel to fill the bure e with hydrochloric acid again up to the mark zero .
5. Start adding hydrochloric acid solu on from the bure e un l indicator changes its color, its known as the
end point. The point at which the reac on is complete is called endpoint and it is usually detected using an
indicator. Indicator changes its color (endpoint) when reac on is just complete. Find volume of trant by
subtrac ng ini al reading from the final reading of bure e.
6. Empty the flask and rinse with dis lled water.
7. Repeat step 5 again and take two more readings of volume of hydrochloric acid. Now, we have a total of
three readings of volume of hydrochloric acid.
8. Tick the best readings of volume of hydrochloric acid which differ by 0.2 or less.
9. Find mean or average of the volume of hydrochloric acid.

Calcula ons
To determine the concentra on of the sodium hydroxide used:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
From the equa on above it is easy to iden fy that hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide react in a 1:1 ra o.
Therefore, to find the concentra on of alkali:
1. Find the moles of HCl used by mul plying the volume of HCl (in dm3 ) by the concentra on of HCl.
2. Now find the mole of NaOH solu on by using ra o 1:1 (HCl : NaOH)
3. Divide the moles of NaOH by the volume of NaOH (dm 3) that has been taken ini ally. This is the value of
concentra on of NaOH. Round it to 3 significant figures.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
Key points
 The white tile is used to make the colour change of the indicator easier to see so the end point can be
identified.
 The conical flask is swirled to ensure all the reactants are mixed throughout the experiment. This
ensures an accurate end point is obtained.
 When reading the volume of acid in the burette, it should be read at eye level from the bottom of the
meniscus (the curve of the liquid).
 The end point is the point at which the indicator first changes colour.

Safety precau ons

 Safety goggles must always be worn.
 Sodium hydroxide is an irritant so avoid contact with the skin. If the skin comes into contact, wash
immediately.
 Hydrochloric acid is corrosive. Although a low concentration is being used in this experiment, treat with
the same precautions as sodium hydroxide.
Types of tra ons
Acid-base tra on: this type of tra on involves the neutraliza on of an acid with a base or vice versa.
Examples of acids: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4, Organic acids etc.
Examples of bases: Metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates or alkalis
Redox tra on: this type of tra on involves the redox reac on of a compound of Fe with aq. KMnO4.
End point is development of persistent purple color of aq. KMnO4.

Measurement of change in temperature (Exothermic or endothermic reac ons)

 Acid base reactions are called neutralization reactions, and these reactions are exothermic.
 Remember if the concentration of limiting reactant is doubled so temperature rise will also be
doubled.

Temperature change α concentration

 Measurement of a temperature change can be less than the expected value because often some heat
is lost during experiment. Remember heat can be lost through the walls of glass beaker. This heat
loss can be prevented by anyone of the following method,
 using a polystyrene beaker
 using a plastic beaker
 Using a lid
 Insulating the beaker
 Covering by wool
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
General safety precau ons in chemistry experiments:
1- Acid is corrosive so wear goggles for eye safety.
2- Organic substances are vola le and inflammable (can catch fire easily) so we should not use flame
instead we should use electric heater or water bath.
3- For hazardous gases, use fuming cupboard or wear gas mask
4- To fill up the pipe e, use pipe e filler or safety bulb

Finding rate of reac on by measuring change in mass of conical flask

 The rate of a reaction always decreases with time, so steepness of curve always decreases with time
while amount of product always increases.
 Use loosely fitting cotton wool plug so that gas escapes easily. Mass of flask decreases by time as gas
escapes. Rate is measured by measuring the change in mass of flask with time. Alternatively, the rate
can also be measured by measuring change in volume of gas with time. Gas can be collected in the gas
syringe.

 To collect gas in the syringe, if reactants are put into the flask first
and bung is placed later then some of the gas can be lost or escaped.
Observa on in the flask can be,

 Solid (Copper carbonate) disappears.

 Bubbles of gas (carbon dioxide).
 Change in color of reaction mixture.
Depending on the given situa on, Variables that should be kept
constant during rate measurement can be,

 Temperature
 Mass of reactant
 Particle size of reactant
 Volume of solution
 Concentration of solution
Remember that to keep the temperature of reac on constant, we use a thermosta cally controlled water
bath or heater.

Facts about the test of two important gases

Test of CO2: Pass the carbon dioxide gas through clear limewater, Ca(OH)2, white ppt of calcium carbonate,
CaCO3 forms.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
Test of chlorine: It bleaches both blue as well as red litmus paper.

Electrolysis
Measurement of change in mass of a reac ve electrode
If the mass of cathode (or anode) is changing then each me remove cathode, wash with dis lled water, dry it
and then place it again at its original posi on.

Separa on of an insoluble solid from a soluble solid (Planning ques on)

 Add water to the mixture. (1)
 Stir well. Soluble solid dissolves while insoluble solid remains insoluble. (1)
 Filter the insoluble solid using filter paper & funnel. (1)
 Wash the residue (insoluble solid) with distilled water. (1)
 Heat the filtrate (1) to dryness so that we get crystals of sodium chloride (1).
Data handling & graph making
 Plot the graph carefully.
 Independent variable will be on x-axis while dependent variable will be on y-axis.
 Your graph can be a straight line or two intersecting straight lines or a curve of best fit. Draw straight
line with a ruler while curve will be drawn free hand. Sometimes, we need to extend or extrapolate
our lines or curves to get some more values as stated in the question.
 Anomalous point in a graph is a point that differs significantly from the general trend of straight line
or curve. Reasons of an anomalous point can be an experimental error, measurement error or
something is lost (like heat or a gas) from the experiment. Drag the anomalous point to the curve to
get correct value or to estimate the reason for error.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
Extending the lines of a graph

Anomalous point in a graph

By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS
Collec on of gases

If a gas is insoluble in water and it is colorless too then the water displacement method is a be er choice, so
we can easily know when the test tube or boiling tube is full.