By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)

LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

Tips and shortcuts for MCQs (IGCSE)

(These ps & shortcuts are very helpful for those students who have completed the revision of whole syllabus)

Covalent bonding
 To find the number of covalent bonds and number of shared/unshared of electrons in a simple
molecule,
 first draw dot-cross diagram
 Each shared pair of electrons (between two atoms) will be counted as one covalent bond and
so on. One single covalent bond has one shared pair of electrons or there are 2 electrons in one
single covalent bond. Double covalent bond has two single bonds or 4 shared electrons.
 Shared electrons = number of covalent bonds
 Unshared electrons = sum of proton numbers of all atoms – shared electrons
 Total electrons = sum of proton numbers of all atoms
 To find the number of covalent bonds in an organic molecule, draw the full structure showing all the
covalent bonds according to the structure and bonding present the functional group.

Kine c par cle theory

 Pure substances (element or compound) have a fixed melting or boiling points but an impure
substance or a mixture does not have a fixed melting or boiling point, so it melts or boils over a range
of temperature. The purity of a substance is checked by its melting point or boiling point.
 Remember when an impurity is added to a pure substance, its melting point decreases while its boiling
point increases.
 Different compounds have different boiling points. If we lower the temperature of mixture of
substances that are in the gaseous form, the compound with the higher boiling point will convert to a
liquid first and so on.
 The melting point of a substance is always lesser than its boiling point.
Separa ng techniques
 In chromatography, pure substance gives only one spot.
 In chromatography, Rf value of a spot is always lesser than 1 or Rf value is a decimal value.
 Rf value range is 0.1 - 0.9 and it has no units as it is a ratio between two distances.
 If a spot covers half of the total distance, then it Rf value will be 0.5. If it travels more than half of the
distance, then its Rf value will be greater than 0.5 and vice versa.
 In chromatography, if a solvent cannot separate the two compounds, then change the solvent.
 Oil and water are immiscible. Oil has less density than water therefore oil floats on the surface of
water.
 From mixtures, pure solids are obtained by crystallization while pure liquids are obtained by distillation
and pure gases are obtained by fractional distillation.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

Collec on & drying of gases

 A gas is dried out by passing through sulfuric acid. Remember that the entry tube should be dipped
into sulfuric acid while exit tube should be above the sulfuric acid.

Acids & bases

 In neutral solutions, H+ and OH- both ions are present but in equal amounts or moles (Acids & bases)

Salts
What is a salt?
 A salt is formed when H of an acid is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion. A salt is formed when
an acid reacts with a metal or alkali or base. Base can be metal oxides or metal hydroxide or metal
carbonate. So, a salt is an ionic compound and solid at room temperature.
 Salt always contains two ions, one is positive and other is negative.
 Memorize solubility rules
 Selection of type of method of preparation of a salt
 If salt is soluble and positive ion is group I metal ion or ammonium ion then to prepare such a salt,
titration method is used. e.g. KCl, LiNO3, NH4Cl etc.
 If salt is soluble and positive ion is a group II metal ion or transition metal ion then to prepare such
a salt, excess method is used. e.g. MgCl2, CuSO4, ZnCl2 etc.
 If salt is insoluble in water then there is only one method of its preparation that is precipitation
method. e.g. AgCl, BaSO4, PbSO4 etc.
 An alkali reacts with only those salts that contain ammonium ion, NH4+1 in their formula to produce
another salt, H2O and NH3 gas. Common alkalis are like NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH) 2, CaO, Ba(OH)2 etc.
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3 (g)
2NH4Cl + CaO → CaCl2 + H2O + 2NH3 (g)
Actually, CaO converts into Ca(OH)2 when reacts with water (already present in soil). Remember that
the oxides of group I and II metals convert into hydroxides when combined with water.

 An alkali reacts with only those salts that contain ammonium ion (NH4+) in their formula to
produce another salt, H2O and NH3 gas. Common alkalis are like NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, CaO, Ba(OH)2
etc.
e.g.
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3 (g)
2NH4Cl + CaO → CaCl2 + H2O + 2NH3 (g)
 An acid reacts with only those salts that contain carbonate ion, CO3- in their formula to produce
another salt, H2O and CO2 gas.

 Ammonium carbonate, (NH4)2CO3, is an important salt that can react with both acid and alkali.
Ammonium ion (NH4+) reacts with alkali to produce ammonia (NH3) gas while carbonate ion, CO3-2,
reacts with acid to produce CO2 gas.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

 Evaporation is used in the preparation of a soluble salt (Titration method & Excess method) while
filtration is used in precipitation method of an insoluble salt.
 In neutralization reaction, acid and base reacts to form salt or salt + water or salt + water + CO2.
 Only those aq. salts react which can give a precipitate of an insoluble salt.
 If an acid reacts with a substance to form an insoluble salt, then the reaction immediately stops due to
the formation of a layer of insoluble salt around the substance. So, such a reaction does not go to
completion, or the reaction occurs only at the surface of the substance.
 The essential lab equipment for titration is burette, pipette, and conical flask.

Oxides
“When oxygen combines with an element then such a compound is known as an oxide”.

Oxides of metals are ionic compounds & their physical state is always solid at room temperature, but
oxides of non-metals are covalent compounds & their physical state could be either solid, liquid or gas at room
temperature.

Oxides of metals are basic in nature, they react with acids or acidic substances to form salts while oxides
of non-metals are acidic in nature, they react with bases or basic substances to form salts.

When metal oxides are dissolved in water, they forms bases while non-metal oxides form acids when
they are dissolved in water.

Amphoteric oxides are those oxides which can react with acids as well as bases to form salts. Two
amphoteric oxides which normally come in exams are Al2O3 and ZnO.

Neutral oxides are those oxides that don’t react with either acid or base. Two neutral oxides which
normally come in exams are CO and H2O.

Test of ions & gases

 Chlorine gas changes the color of both damp blue litmus paper and the damp red litmus paper by
bleaching effect.

Chemical energe cs
 Combustion reaction of all hydrocarbons is always exothermic (releases energy).
 In photosynthesis, chlorophyll acts as a catalyst.
 In photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical energy.
 In combustion, chemical energy is converted into heat energy.
 Increase in temperature shifts the reaction in endothermic direction and decrease in temperature
shifts the reaction in exothermic direction.
 Increase in pressure shifts the reaction to the lesser moles and decrease in pressure shifts the
reaction to the higher moles.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

Rate of reac on
 To study the rate of a reaction, an essential apparatus is clock and other apparatus could be either
balance (to measure the change in mass of reaction flask) or gas syringe (to measure the change in
volume of gas) at regular time intervals.
 The height of rate curve (or yield) is directly proportional to the number of moles of reactants.
 Theoretical yield is always greater than actual yield. Smaller values will be numerator. (Calculation of
percentage yield).
 Catalyst does not provide energy to reactant molecules while it only lowers the activation energy. Only
an increase in temperature provides the energy to reactant particles.
 Enzymes are also considered as catalysts which are used in some of the organic reactions.
 Rate of a reaction is directly proportional to pressure, temperature and concentration but inversely
proportional to particle size of reactant.
 If the volume of a solution is kept constant then by increasing the concentration, rate as well as the
height of curve will be increased. In this case, moles are also increased therefore the height of curve
increases. Find moles by using the formula, Mole = C×V
 If concentration of an excessive reactant is increased, then rate will increase but amount of product
will not increase. Q. 18. 0620_21_2024
 Change in rate & height of curve
 If temperature is changed, rate changes but height of curve stays same (provided that all other
conditions stay constant).
 If particle size is changed, rate changes but height of curve stays same (provided that all other
conditions stay constant).
 If concentration is changed, rate changes but height of curve may or may not change depending
on new moles of reactant. So, we need to find new moles of reactant by using
formula, Mole = C×V

Mole
 To find the mass of an element in the given moles of a compound, formula is,

Mass of element = mole × Ar of element × No. of atoms of that element in the compound

Solved past paper ques on:

By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

 To find no. of moles of atoms in given moles of a compound, formula is,

no. of moles of atoms in given mol of a compound = Mole × Atoms in one molecule of comp.

e.g. let’s find no. of moles of atoms present in 2 mol of CO2

 In some MCQs we are given a mass of substances or volume of a gas, and we are asked to find the
greatest number of atoms from the given compounds then shortest way is,

First, find the moles and then multiply moles with the total number of atoms present in the formula of
the compound. Formula is,

no. of total atoms of a compound = Mole × Atoms in one molecule of comp.

 Atoms in the element or compound are directly proportional to moles. If two substances (having
equal number of atoms in their formulae) have equal number of moles then they have equal number
of atoms as well.
 The molecules of two covalent compounds will be equal if their moles are equal.
 Mass of one mole of a substance is equal to its Ar (for element) or Mr (for a diatomic element or
compound). It is also called molar mass of the substance.
 In a gas phase balanced equation, the ratio of volumes of gases is directly proportional to the ratio of
moles (or coefficients).
 Mass of impure substance is always greater than pure substance. Smaller values will be numerator.
(Calculation of percentage purity).
 To find Mr of a hydrated salt like (CuSO4.5H2O), mass of these five water molecules will also be added.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

 If Mr of a compound is not given and we need to calculate molecular formula of an organic compound
(by using the percentages of elements) then moles of elements (before dividing by smallest mole
value) are considered as subscripts of molecular formula.
Solved past paper ques on:

Atmosphere & environment

 Mainly, nitrates cause eutrophication that is river pollution.
Redox
 If an element is present in free form (uncombined form) at one side of chemical equation and in
compound form at other side of equation, then it is a redox reaction.
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
 Here Mg is in elemental form on the left side while it is in compound form on right side. So, it is redox reaction.
 Furthermore, hydrogen is in compound form on the left side while in elemental form on the right side as well.
 HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → AgCl (Precipitate) + HNO3(aq)

 Neutralization reactions (reactions of acid and alkali to produce salt) are not redox reactions. For
example,
Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water
Acid + Metal Hydroxide → Salt + Water
Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
 A reaction in which an insoluble salt is formed is not a redox reaction. It is the reaction that is involved
in the precipitation method of salt forming. For example,

 Thermal decomposition is not a redox reaction. For example,

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Electrolysis
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

 In electrolysis, if electrodes are inert and solution is diluted then from negative ions, only the OH-1 will
discharge to produce O2 but if solution is concentrated then Cl-1 or Br-1 or I-1 will discharge to produce
inert halogen.
 During electrolysis of dil. H2SO4, we always get double the volume of hydrogen and a single volume of
oxygen gas. In this electrolysis water converts into hydrogen & oxygen, in the presence of sulfuric acid.
The molar ratio of hydrogen & oxygen in water is 2:1.
 The positive ion of a metal, which is lower in the reactivity series, will be discharged first during
electrolysis.
 Aqueous acids, alkalis, soluble salts and molten ionic compounds are conductors of current due to the
presence of free ions.
 Products of electrolysis of dil. HCl are H2 and Cl2 (instead of O2) because HCl is a strong acid, and it
gives a large number of Cl- ions in water so concentration of Cl- ions is higher than OH- ions therefore
Cl- ions preferably go to anode.
 When electrolysis of dilute acid or alkali is carried out then acid or alkali becomes more concentrated
as ions of water are discharged.
 If we perform electrolysis of some salts for same time under same conditions, then the metal lower in
the reactivity series will be reduced in greater amount.

Metals
 Reduction of metal oxide by C or H means “displacement of metal by C or H” and we get neutral metal.
 Cu & Ag do not react with diluted acids because these metals are lower than H in the reactivity series
therefore can’t displace H from the acid. The color of cu-metal is pink or reddish brown while copper
oxide is black. (See my notes of colors of important compounds)
 The color of the compounds of the metals of group I, group II, Al and Zn is white and when these white
compounds are dissolved in water, we get colorless solution.
 Alloys have the same structure as metals so there is a sea of electrons in alloys and alloys are
conductor.
 Hydrogen gas can reduce only Cu & Ag from their oxides because only Cu and Ag are lower than H in
reactivity series.
 Cu & Ag don’t react with dil. acids.
 The manufacture of all metals involves a reduction of metal ions i.e. gain of electron by metal ions.
 Metal + cold water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
 Metal + steam → Metal oxide + Hydrogen
 Iron, produced by blast furnace, still contains some impurities.

Organic chemistry
 In organic chemistry, vertical condenser on reaction flask prevents the escaping of reactants from
the reaction flask.
 Alkenes and cycloalkanes have the same general formula (CnH2n) and they could be isomers of
each other. Cycloalkanes give substitution reaction like alkanes while alkenes give addition reaction.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

 Alkene (being unsaturated) decolorizes the aq. Bromine (the product contains two Br-atoms on
adjacent carbons) but polyethene (being saturated) does not.
 Isomerism of alkanes and alkenes starts from at least four C-atoms. Butane has 2 while
butene has 3 isomers.
 In naming the esters, alkanoate part of ester comes from carboxylic acid while alkyl part comes from
alcohol.
 How to identify the structure of a nylon in MCQs?
Ans. There are only two types of boxes in the chain which are separated by amide linkage.

 How to identify the structure of a protein in MCQs?

Ans. There are more than two types of boxes in the chain which are separated by amide linkage.

 Differentiating between the structures of addition & condensation polymers:

In the addition polymer, in the main chain, there are only C-atoms covalently bonded with each other
while in the condensation polymer, in the main chain, there are different atoms covalently bonded
with each other.
 In the addition reaction, two reactants react to give only one product. In the addition polymers, the
main chain contains all the carbon atoms bonded covalently with each other while in the condensation
polymers main chain contains C and O/N.
 To find the monomer of an addition polymer, select the first two carbons (along with branches) on
main chain, remove the bonds from both sides, make a double bond between the two selected
carbons. Now just match with the given options.

 In condensation reaction, functional groups of organic compounds react to form a product along with
the formation of water.
 In naming the esters, alkanoate part of ester comes from carboxylic acid while alkyl part comes
from alcohol.
 Combustion is also a form of oxidation.
 Incomplete combustion of only organic compounds can result in the formation of CO or pure
carbon (C) but combustion of CO always forms CO2.
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

 In alkane & alkene, number of C-atoms is always lesser than the number of H-atoms in both
empirical and molecular formula.
 Percentage of an element in the molecular formula and empirical formula of a compound remains
same.
 In the addition polymers, mass of monomers and polymers remain same while mass of condensation
polymer is always lesser than the mass of monomers because water molecules are formed as side-
product.
 In a combustion reaction of a substance containing carbon atom,
 Greater the number of C-atoms in the substance, greater the amount of O 2 will be needed and
greater the amount of CO2 will be formed.
 Greater the number of O-atoms in the organic compound, smaller the amount of O 2 is needed.
Some me an inverted structure of a carboxylic acid or ester is given and we need to write it in original format
e.g. (Carboxylic acids & esters)

Carboxylic acids

Esters
By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

 Finding moles or coefficient of O2 in the combustion reaction of an organic compound

Hydrocarbon containing C & H only.

 Coefficient of O2 = number of C-atoms + 0.25(number of H-atoms)

e.g. C6H12
Coefficient of O2 = 6 + 0.25 × 12
=9
 Coefficient of O2 = number of C-atoms + 0.25(number of H-atoms) – 0.5(number of O-atoms)
e.g. C2H4O2

Coefficient of O2 = 2 + 0.25(4) – 0.5(2)

=2

General Tips
 Some important uses of gases:
 Hydrogen: is used in the preparation of ammonia and margarine,
 Nitrogen: is used in the preparation of ammonia,
 Oxygen: is used in welding and steel making (oxygen is blown through the hot steel to remove
some of the carbon, C converts into CO2)
 By Kamal Ahmad (03334567757)
LGS, BSS, CBS, Scarsdale, Scope

On mel ng and boiling, which type of forces overcome?

Substance Forces overcome during melting & boiling
Ionic compounds Electrostatic forces of attraction between positive and negative ions
Diatomic covalent molecules of element Intermolecular forces among molecules
Simple molecules of covalent compound Intermolecular forces among molecules
Organic polymer Intermolecular forces among molecules
Giant covalent molecules Covalent bonds break
Metal Forces of attraction between positive ions and sea of electrons

 Oxygen is not a flammable gas rather it helps in combustion while hydrogen is flammable gas.
 Common water insoluble gases are H2, N2 and CO while soluble gases are NH3, SO2, SO3, NO2 and HCl.
 Uses of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
 For desulphurization of waste gases coming out from factories
 To treat the acidity (after acid rain) of lakes
 In the periodic table, metals are on the left side while non-metals are on right side so metallic
character increases from left to right in the periodic table.