‭ ere are 2-mark questions and answers based on the syllabus you provided, including‬

H
‭formulas:‬

‭UNIT I: Descriptive Statistics‬

‭1.‬ ‭Define statistics.‬
‭○‬ ‭Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and‬
‭ resenting data.‬
p
‭2.‬ ‭What is the difference between a population and a sample?‬
‭○‬ ‭A population is the entire group of individuals or items being studied, while a‬
‭sample is a subset of the population.‬
‭3.‬ ‭What are primary data?‬
‭○‬ ‭Primary data are collected directly from the original source by the researcher‬
‭for a specific purpose.‬
‭4.‬ ‭What are secondary data?‬
‭○‬ ‭Secondary data are data that have been previously collected by someone else‬
‭and are used for a different purpose.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Define measures of central tendency.‬
‭○‬ ‭Measures of central tendency are statistical values that describe the center or‬
‭typical value of a dataset.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Name three measures of central tendency.‬
‭○‬ ‭Mean, median, and mode.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Define variance.‬
‭○‬ ‭Variance is a measure of how spread out the data points are in a dataset. It is‬
‭the average of the squared differences from the mean.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula:‬
‭■‬ ‭Population variance: σ² = Σ(xᵢ - μ)² / N‬
‭■‬ ‭Sample variance: s² = Σ(xᵢ - x̄ )² / (n-1)‬
‭8.‬ ‭Define standard deviation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It measures the average‬
‭distance of the data points from the mean.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula:‬
‭■‬ ‭Population standard deviation: σ = √σ²‬
‭■‬ ‭Sample standard deviation: s = √s²‬
‭9.‬ ‭What is skewness?‬
‭○‬ ‭Skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of a probability distribution.‬
‭10.‬‭What is kurtosis?‬
‭○‬ ‭Kurtosis is a measure of the "tailedness" of the probability distribution.‬
‭11.‬ ‭Define correlation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Correlation is a statistical measure that describes the extent to which two‬
 v‭ ariables are linearly related.‬
‭12.‬‭What is a correlation coefficient?‬
‭○‬ ‭A correlation coefficient is a number between -1 and +1 that indicates the‬
‭strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: r = Σ[(xᵢ - x̄ )(yᵢ - ȳ )] / [sₓsᵧ(n-1)]‬
‭13.‬‭What is rank correlation?‬
*‭ Rank correlation is the correlation between the ranks of the variables.‬
‭* Formula: ρ = 1 - [6Σdᵢ² / n(n² - 1)]‬

‭14.‬‭Define regression coefficients.‬

*‭ Regression coefficients are constants that describe the relationship between independent and‬
‭dependent variables in a regression equation.‬
‭* For the simple linear regression equation (Y = bX + a), 'b' is the slope, and 'a' is the intercept.‬

‭15.‬‭What is the method of least squares?‬

*‭ The method of least squares is a technique used to find the best-fitting line or curve for a given set of‬
‭data points by minimizing the sum of the squares of the residuals.‬
‭* Residual: The difference between the observed and predicted values.‬

‭16.‬‭What are regression lines?‬

‭* Regression lines are lines that best represent the relationship between two variables.‬

‭UNIT II: Probability‬

‭1.‬ ‭Define probability.‬
‭○‬ ‭Probability is a measure of the likelihood that an event will occur.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: P(A) = Number of favorable outcomes / Total number of possible‬
‭ utcomes‬
o
‭ .‬ ‭State the probability axioms.‬
2
‭○‬ ‭The probability of any event is greater than or equal to 0. The probability of‬
‭the sample space is 1. For any sequence of mutually exclusive events, the‬
‭probability of their union is the sum of their individual probabilities.‬
‭■‬ ‭Axiom 1: P(A) ≥ 0‬
‭■‬ ‭Axiom 2: P(S) = 1‬
‭■‬ ‭Axiom 3: For mutually exclusive events A₁, A₂, ..., Aₙ, P(A₁ ∪ A₂ ∪ ... ∪ Aₙ) =‬
‭P(A₁) + P(A₂) + ... + P(Aₙ)‬
‭3.‬ ‭State the addition law of probability.‬
 ‭○‬ ‭The addition law states that for any two events A and B, P(A or B) = P(A) +‬
‭ (B) - P(A and B).‬
P
‭○‬ ‭Formula: P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B)‬
‭4.‬ ‭State the multiplicative law of probability.‬
‭○‬ ‭The multiplicative law states that for any two events A and B, P(A and B) =‬
‭P(A) * P(B|A) = P(B) * P(A|B). If A and B are independent, P(A and B) = P(A) *‬
‭P(B).‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula:‬
‭■‬ ‭General: P(A ∩ B) = P(A) * P(B|A) = P(B) * P(A|B)‬
‭■‬ ‭Independent events: P(A ∩ B) = P(A) * P(B)‬
‭5.‬ ‭Define conditional probability.‬
‭○‬ ‭Conditional probability is the probability of an event occurring, given that‬
‭another event has already occurred.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: P(A|B) = P(A ∩ B) / P(B)‬
‭6.‬ ‭State Baye's theorem.‬
‭○‬ ‭Bayes' theorem describes the probability of an event, based on prior‬
‭knowledge of conditions that might be related to the event.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: P(A|B) = [P(B|A) * P(A)] / P(B)‬
‭7.‬ ‭Define a random variable.‬
‭○‬ ‭A random variable is a variable whose value is a numerical outcome of a‬
‭random phenomenon.‬
‭8.‬ ‭What is a discrete random variable?‬
‭○‬ ‭A discrete random variable is a variable that can only take on a finite number‬
‭of values or a countably infinite number of values.‬
‭9.‬ ‭What is a continuous random variable?‬
‭○‬ ‭A continuous random variable is a variable that can take on any value within a‬
‭given range.‬
‭10.‬‭Define probability density function (PDF).‬
‭○‬ ‭A probability density function (PDF) is a function that describes the likelihood‬
‭of a continuous random variable taking on a given value.‬
‭○‬ ‭Property: The area under the PDF curve over the entire range of the variable‬
‭is equal to 1.‬
‭11.‬ ‭Define mathematical expectation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Mathematical expectation is the weighted average of the possible values of a‬
‭random variable, where the weights are the probabilities of the values.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula:‬
‭■‬ ‭Discrete: E(X) = ΣxᵢP(xᵢ)‬
‭■‬ ‭Continuous: E(X) = ∫x f(x) dx‬
‭UNIT III: Probability Distributions‬
‭1.‬ ‭Define probability distribution.‬
‭○‬ ‭A probability distribution is a function that describes the likelihood of‬
‭ btaining the possible values of a random variable.‬
o
‭2.‬ ‭State the properties of the binomial distribution.‬
‭○‬ ‭The binomial distribution has a fixed number of trials, each trial is‬
‭independent, there are only two outcomes (success or failure), and the‬
‭probability of success is constant.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: P(x) = ⁿCₓ pˣ qⁿ⁻ˣ‬
‭3.‬ ‭State the properties of the Poisson distribution.‬
‭○‬ ‭The Poisson distribution describes the probability of a given number of events‬
‭occurring in a fixed interval of time or space if these events occur with a‬
‭known average rate and independently of the time since the last event.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: P(x) = (e⁻λ λˣ) / x!‬
‭4.‬ ‭State the properties of the normal distribution.‬
‭○‬ ‭The normal distribution is bell-shaped, symmetric, and defined by its mean‬
‭and standard deviation.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: f(x) = (1 / (σ√(2π))) e^[-½((x-μ)/σ)²]‬
‭5.‬ ‭State Chebyshev's inequality.‬
‭○‬ ‭Chebyshev's inequality provides a lower bound for the probability that a‬
‭random variable lies within a certain number of standard deviations from its‬
‭mean.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: P(|X - μ| ≥ kσ) ≤ 1/k²‬
‭6.‬ ‭What is the approximation of the binomial distribution to the normal‬
‭distribution?‬
‭○‬ ‭When the number of trials in a binomial distribution is large and the‬
‭probability of success is not too close to 0 or 1, the binomial distribution can‬
‭be approximated by the normal distribution.‬
‭○‬ ‭Conditions: n is large, p is not too close to 0 or 1.‬

‭UNIT IV: Estimation and Testing of Hypothesis, Large Sample Tests‬

‭1.‬ ‭Define a parameter.‬
‭○‬ ‭A parameter is a numerical characteristic of a population.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Define a statistic.‬
‭○‬ ‭A statistic is a numerical characteristic of a sample.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Define sampling distribution.‬
‭○‬ ‭A sampling distribution is the probability distribution of a statistic obtained‬
f‭ rom all possible samples of a specific size drawn from a population.‬
‭ .‬ ‭Define point estimation.‬
4
 ‭○‬ ‭Point estimation is the process of estimating a population parameter with a‬
s‭ ingle value.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Define null hypothesis.‬
‭○‬ ‭A null hypothesis is a statement about a population parameter that is‬
‭assumed to be true until evidence indicates otherwise.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Define alternative hypothesis.‬
‭○‬ ‭An alternative hypothesis is a statement that contradicts the null hypothesis‬
‭and is accepted if the null hypothesis is rejected.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Define critical region.‬
‭○‬ ‭A critical region is the set of all test statistic values for which the null‬
‭hypothesis will be rejected.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Define acceptance region.‬
‭○‬ ‭The acceptance region is the set of all test statistic values for which the null‬
‭hypothesis will not be rejected.‬
‭9.‬ ‭Define level of significance.‬
‭○‬ ‭The level of significance is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis‬
‭when it is actually true (Type I error).‬
‭○‬ ‭Denoted by α.‬
‭10.‬‭Define Type I error.‬
‭○‬ ‭A Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true.‬
‭11.‬ ‭Define Type II error.‬
‭○‬ ‭A Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is false.‬
‭○‬ ‭Denoted by β.‬
‭12.‬‭Define power of the test.‬
‭○‬ ‭The power of a test is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis‬
‭when it is false.‬
‭○‬ ‭Power = 1 - β‬
‭13.‬‭What is a large sample test?‬
‭* A large sample test is a hypothesis test used when the sample size is large (typically, n > 30).‬

‭14.‬‭Give an example of a large sample test.‬

*‭ Z-test for single proportion.‬
‭* Formula: z = (p - P) / √[P(1-P)/n]‬

‭15.‬‭Define confidence interval.‬

*‭ A confidence interval is a range of values that is likely to contain the true value of a population‬
‭parameter.‬
‭* Formula: sample statistic ± (critical value * standard error)‬
‭UNIT V: Small Sample Tests‬
‭1.‬ ‭What is a small sample test?‬
‭○‬ ‭A small sample test is a hypothesis test used when the sample size is small‬
(‭ typically, n ≤ 30).‬
‭2.‬ ‭Define Student's t-distribution.‬
‭○‬ ‭The Student's t-distribution is a probability distribution used for estimating‬
‭population parameters when the sample size is small.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Give an example of a test using the t-distribution.‬
‭○‬ ‭T-test for single mean.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: t = (x̄ - μ) / (s/√n)‬
‭4.‬ ‭What is a paired t-test?‬
‭○‬ ‭A paired t-test is used to compare the means of two related groups.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: t = (d̄ - μd) / (s_d/√n)‬
‭5.‬ ‭What is an F-test?‬
‭○‬ ‭An F-test is used to compare the variances of two populations.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: F = s₁² / s₂²‬
‭6.‬ ‭Define Chi-square test.‬
‭○‬ ‭The Chi-square test is a statistical test used to determine if there is a‬
‭significant association between categorical variables.‬
‭○‬ ‭Formula: χ² = Σ[(Oᵢ - Eᵢ)² / Eᵢ]‬
‭7.‬ ‭What is a Chi-square test for goodness of fit?‬
‭○‬ ‭A Chi-square test for goodness of fit is used to test whether a sample‬
‭distribution fits a hypothesized distribution.‬
‭8.‬ ‭What is a Chi-square test for independence of attributes?‬
‭○‬ ‭A Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to test whether two‬
‭categorical variables are independent of each other.‬