ABOUT THE BOOK

This book is about

Empowering you to navigate the complexities of healthcare practice, “Introduction to Health Care”
offers a solid foundation of knowledge and skills that help you succeed in your healthcare profession.
The book emphasizes core competencies such as communication, infection control, and
professionalism that are necessary for modern practice. With a focus on developing critical thinking
skills, the text utilizes a five-step problem-solving model to guide readers through assessing a
situation, considering alternatives, choosing an appropriate solution, evaluating results, and revising
as necessary. The book will specifically guide you through:

• exploring various careers in healthcare and strategies for securing and maintaining them (Unit 1)
• examining the history of healthcare and current challenges in the field (Unit 2)
• discussing personal and workplace safety guidelines and challenges (Unit 3)
• delving into various communication methods used in healthcare settings (Unit 4)
• studying the structure and function of the human body (Unit 5)

This book is for

“Introduction to Health Care” is an essential guide for you embarking on college-level healthcare
programs or exploring career options in healthcare. This full-color text provides a comprehensive
introduction to the foundational concepts that are common across all healthcare professions. It
serves as a solid base for further learning in specific professional courses. The topics covered are
relevant to both direct patient care professions, such as nursing and dental assisting, and support
roles, such as health information technology and pharmacy technician. The book’s goal is to offer a
broad understanding of healthcare essentials and does not delve into skills and procedures specific to
individual professions.

This book is unique because

The book was crafted with practical applicability to the healthcare industry at its core. Written by
experienced faculty members who teach healthcare courses, it incorporates current industry needs in
its content. Each chapter features a realistic case study that mirrors real-world situations you may
encounter. Additionally, the content has undergone thorough review and verification by industry
experts.

You are guided to adopt a healthcare professional’s mindset. A five-step problem-solving model is
clearly explained to aid them in approaching new situations systematically. Each chapter includes an
exercise called “Thinking it Through” that prompts you to apply the concepts presented to real-world
scenarios. The chapter concludes with two application exercises and one problem-solving exercise
that allow you to review and apply the chapter’s content.

This resource is a unique contribution to health education as content is informed by an inclusive

approach that incorporates culturally-responsive techniques related to race/ethnicity, gender/sex/
sexual orientation, body sizes/types, and ability/disability. Also, an assortment of authors with diverse
roles across Washington state have contributed to this textbook. These diverse voices are focused on
providing you with the foundational tools, techniques, and knowledge required to empower them to
meet the challenges found within the ever-changing Washington health care environment.

Image Attribution for Cover Page

Photo by Dragos Gontariu on Unsplash
Introduction to Early Childhood Education
INTRODUCTION TO EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
Washington Open Proftech

GAYLE JULIAN; BRENDA BOYD BROWN, PH.D.; ANGELA BLUMS, PHD;

CHRISTINE MOON, M.S; JENNIFER KARSHNA, PH.D; ARDENE NIEMER,
M.ED.; NINDERJIT KAUR GILL; AND HOLLY LANOUE, M.ED

SBCTC
Introduction to Early Childhood Education Copyright © by SBCTC is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License, except where otherwise noted.
CONTENTS

Introduction 1

Main Body

Chapter 1: An Overview of the Field of Early Childhood Education 4

Chapter 2: Theories and Program Approaches 33
Chapter 3 : Brain Development 63
Chapter 4: Child Development and Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99
Chapter 5: Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Early Childhood Education 127
Chapter 6: Observation and Assessment 155
Chapter 7: The Value of Play 181
Chapter 8: Early Learning Environments 199
Chapter 9 : Family Partnerships 217
Chapter 10 : Beyond Behaviors 258
Chapter 11: Professionalism in Early Childhood Education 305

About the Authors 335

Appendix 340
Glossary 346
1 | INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Child With Blue

Hands/ Photo
Credit: Marcus
Spiske, Unsplash
License

Overview to the Text

Welcome to Washington State’s collaboratively written textbook designed for ECED& 105
Introduction to Early Childhood Education course. This course is found in the common course
inventory in Washington State and is one of the first courses in the ECE Initial Certificate. This course
holds a set of common student learning outcomes that are aligned with Washington State Core
Competencies as published by the Department of Children Youth and Families.

Although the authors feel that we have included rich information that meets the needs of students
taking an introductory course in the field, individual instructors might choose to add additional
materials, edit or move chapters to fit their communities. It is our hope that you will find the book to
be a foundational piece to your introductory course keeping in mind that our vision for the book was
much like going to your favorite buffet restaurant . . . you get a little bit about a whole big field.

The authors also recognize that becoming an early childhood professional is influenced by our
individual identities and lived experiences as well as by our caring interactions with families and
community contexts. Chapters in this book will support your growth to connect who you are to your
 INTRODUCTION | 2
growing identity as an early childhood educator who supports joyful, equitable and inclusive learning
experiences for the children and families you will work with in your communities.

Objectives

The book aligns with the following common course student learning outcomes. In addition, each chapter
will include objectives discussed in that particular chapter.

Upon completion of the course, the student will be able to:

• Explain current theories and ongoing research in early care and education
• Describe the role of play in early childhood programs
• Compare early learning program models.
• Explain the importance of developing culturally responsive partnerships with families.
• Identify appropriate guidance techniques used in early care education settings
• Describe the observation, assessment,and teaching cycle used to plan curriculum for all young
children. Apply the professional code of ethics for early care and education to resolve dilemmas.
• Describe major historical figures, advocates, and events shaping today’s early childhood field.

Context for this Text

“Each and every child, beginning at birth, has the opportunity to benefit from high-quality early
childhood education, delivered by an effective, diverse, well-prepared and well-compensated
workforce” ~ Power to the Profession Vision Statement (2020, p. 1)

Today’s children live in an increasingly diverse world that is dynamic and changing . . . minute by
minute. What remains constant in the minds of people who make the profession of early education a
part of their world is that the work involves learning about yourself as much as it does learning about
the field of early learning and the children and families we serve.

The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is an organization that guides
the work that we do every day. NAEYC’s Power to the Profession initiative is a framework to unify the
field. Pieces of the framework have guided this textbook, and to that end, the authors would like to
share common terminology used through the text that supported our efforts and give context to the
text.
3 | INTRODUCTION
Early childhood is defined as the period of life that includes pre-birth through age 8. The field is
referred to as early childhood education and encompasses education and care provided in all types
of settings for children birth to age 8. While reading the text, keep in mind that every state has unique
and sometimes complex systems, and the focus of this text is based on Washington State policies,
licensing laws, and education requirements.

Education is defined as a series of learning experiences with related and age-appropriate

assessments of learning within a program. Programs may be called childcare centers, preschools,
child development centers or family home early learning programs. Programs might also include
components of parent education or home visiting. Settings in a home environment in Washington
State are referred to as Friends, Families and Neighbors (FFN) and programs for children ages 5 to 8
include kindergarten as well as primary grades and can be found in publicly funded or privately
funded settings.

Probably the most common term throughout this text will be the use of the word teacher because “it
is the broadest term, it captures most of the job responsibilities, commands society’s respect, and is,
after all, what children usually call the adults who care for and educate them no matter what the
setting” (Bredekamp, 2011, p. 21).

Welcome to this journey. It is a beautiful and fulfilling one.

References
Bredekamp, S. (2011). Effective practices in early childhood education: Building a foundation.
Merrill.

Power to the Profession Task Force. (2020, March). Unifying framework for the early childhood
education profession. Power to the Profession. https://powertotheprofession.org/wp-content/
uploads/2020/03/Power-to-Profession-Framework-03312020-web.pdf
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 4

CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

French Child
Playing/ Photo
Credit: Marjory
Collins, Public
Domain

Overview
Welcome to the field of early childhood education and to the profession of working with young
children! You are beginning the path to the rewarding career of teaching and caring for young
children and connecting with the adults and families that care for them. In this first chapter we will
explore what it means to be a caring and nurturing educator, discuss the field of early childhood
education in general, and learn about some of the historical figures and events that impact the work
we do today.
5 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Objectives

• Explain how a teacher of young children brings a personal and professional perspective to the
classroom.
• Describe the types of programs that exist in the field of early learning.
• Identify that the field of early learning has significant historical roots that ties it to trends found in
modern society.
• Explain the role of government in the field of early learning.

Key Terms

• Advocate
• Bias
• Code of Ethics
• Department of Child, Youth and Families (DCYF)
• Humanism
• Inclusion
• Morality
• National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
• Power to the Profession
• Temperament
• Values
• Washington State Core Competencies
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 6

1.1 The Nurturing Teacher

The most important task asked of you as an early childhood teacher is working directly with children.
Yes, you will play with them. You will also teach them, talk with them, guide their behaviors, provide
for their physical and psychological growth and development, document their progress, model
appropriate interactions, and nurture them. You will interact with the adults in their lives, and the
connection you build to each child and their families you serve will live on in your professional life for
however long you continue to work in the field of early learning. One of the primary goals of the early
childhood educator is to be a nurturing teacher: one that promotes respect among everyone involved
in the classroom, and this level of respect is underlined by a sense of the joy in teaching children. You
may have an image in your mind of what a nurturing teacher might look like, and it could include some
of the behaviors and tasks listed above. It also includes building a caring, learning community that
involves a positive classroom community that involves many elements beyond bright colors and
having the appropriate number of math manipulatives. In fact, creating warm inviting classrooms is
among some of the most important work that we do for children and families. Positive relationships
are at the heart of everything we do as teachers and the messages we send leave lasting impressions
that will lay a foundation for children’s approaches to learning for the rest of their lives. All the
children you will teach in your career will come to your classroom with a diversity of experiences,
backgrounds, and family structures.
7 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Nurturing Teacher With Student/ Photo Credit: Kampus Production, Pexels License

In addition, each day you walk into the classroom, you will bring with you a set of personal and
professional values that will guide your work. Although there is no “one way is the correct way” or one
personality that lends itself better to the teaching profession, there are tendencies, personalities and
skills that contribute to the daily success you will have working in the profession. We will begin the
book by exploring what all teachers of young children carry with them as they enter the classroom
each day.

1.1.1 The Teacher as a Person

Who you are as a person will be the foundation of the daily work that you will do with children and
families and will impact the professional that you are aspiring to be within the field of early learning.
You will bring with you the skills and knowledge that you have about children and child development,
your life experiences, your personal values and morality as well as your own temperament and
personality. Attitudes that you hold about diversity and inclusion of children will factor into how your
classroom is set up and managed.
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 8

1.1.2 Skills and Knowledge

Every profession has a set of skills and a knowledge base that individuals within that profession use to
define the field of study (or profession itself). For example, a dentist should have skills to check your
teeth and fill cavities, whereas a car mechanic has knowledge about how to diagnose a faulty
carburetor. Working as an effective teacher means that you should have knowledge and a specialized
skill set about many topics within the profession of early childhood education. It also requires that
you stay current in the knowledge base of early childhood education and work to apply professional
knowledge and skills for the benefit of young children and in partnership with their families.

A recent study entitled Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8 explores
implications of research-based child development practices that influence those who work with
children (Committee on the Science of Children et al., 2015). National Association for the Education
of Young Children (NAEYC) [/GL] has relied on this book and its findings to inform the Power to the
Profession movement dedicated to improving the well-being of all children focusing on the
educational development services for children, birth to age 8. NAEYC has a set of national standards
for early childhood professional preparation programs described in [crossref:2]chapter 2[/crossref} of
this text.

The Washington State Department of Children, Youth & Families ( Washington State Department of
Child, Youth, and Families (DCYF) ) has published a set of core competencies and frameworks (2022)
to guide decisions and practices carried out by professionals in all early care and education settings.
These competencies coordinate and design courses for certificates and degrees as part of the skills
and knowledge Washington State feels is important for teachers to possess and are described in
detail in [crossref:11]chapter 11[crossref].

Washington State also has a set of certificates called Washington State Stackable Certificates that
build on one another and can lead to an Associate degree in early childhood education and beyond.
The certificates are offered at community colleges throughout the state and are the starting point in
Washington to begin a career in early learning. This course, ECED & 105 Introduction to Early
Childhood Education is one of the courses listed in the Initial 12-credit certificate, so you are on your
way to acquiring the skills and knowledge recommended by our state.

As you work in the field, you will gain a set of skills not only through college courses, along with
earning your annual 10 hours of professional development training requirements through the
Managed Education and Registry Information Tool (MERIT). Your day-to-day interactions with
children and families, your work with colleagues and leaders in the field, membership in professional
organizations, additional reading you enjoy about a particular topic, or you may choose to pursue
advanced degrees. Each of these experiences, along with many others, will contribute to your own
personalized knowledge and skills that are unique to you and your work.
9 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

1.1.3 Life Experiences

Whatever career a person chooses, they bring with them into their work their whole history as a
person including all life experiences from early childhood and beyond. Each day when you walk into
your classroom environment, you are bringing your personality/ temperament, attitudes and values
that grow from your culture, community and your own individual influences on your own early
childhood experiences.

Remembering your childhood and how those early experiences shaped you as a person are worth
thoughtful reflection as you enter the field. It is important to recognize that your experiences will not
be the same ones that you provide to the children you work with and that both the positive, as well as
the not so positive, parts of our past influence our work. Being able to compassionately care for
children requires that you know and acknowledge those experiences, remembering that self-care is
critical. As the saying goes, “you cannot pour from an empty cup” and reviewing your past in non
judgemental ways as you observe and work with children is paramount. Recognizing that everyone
experiences negative feelings and experiences can provide you with a critical lens as you assist a child
struggling with their own self-acceptance. Part of the reflective process (a process that is a critical
component to working with children) is to think about every interaction you have with children and
families and determine who you want to be as a teacher.

1.1.4 Personal Values and Morality

Personal values are the things that are important to us. They are the characteristics and behaviors
that motivate us and guide our decision making. Our values are comprised of the moral code that
guides our action and defines who we are. Some values follow a universal rule of conduct, and others
are personal and are defined by our family of origin, culture, religious beliefs, and the communities in
which we live and work. In addition, our life experiences will also impact the values we hold as a
person.

It is possible that you have chosen to work with children and families because you value children. You
could also be motivated by social justice, equality, a passion for learning, or an experience you might
have had as a child. Awareness of your own values and recognizing that not everyone will have the
same set of values that you have, are very much the foundation of what makes you, you.
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 10
Personal morality has roots firmly in early
childhood education. At a very young age we
learn what is right and what is wrong in a
multitude of ways through the adults that care
for and guide us as children. This could be found
in homes, classrooms, neighborhoods, places of
worship and communities as we navigate how to
treat others and respect differences. It becomes
the basis of how we make decisions and choices
daily. The NAEYC code of ethics, which you will
learn about in the next chapter, is a professional
Preschool Girl and Teacher in Garden/ Photo credit: document that can offer guidance as we work
Allison Shelley/The Verbatim Agency for EDUimages, with children and families, especially if
CC BY-NC 4.0 situations arise that cause us to question or
think about the situation as it is related to our
own individual set of values and morals.

1.1.5 Temperament Personality

Temperament is defined as a set of inborn traits that organize the way we approach the world. These
traits are instrumental in the way we learn about the world around us. Researchers Alexander
Thomas and Stella Chess (1977) have studied temperament related to ways in which we respond to
the environments where we live and work (and for children, play!). Figure 1.3 below illustrates the
nine individual traits as related to adult learning shown in a continuum model. It is important to
remember that these traits should not be viewed as “ good” or “bad” but do provide information about
how we interact within our environments.

Nine Dimensions of Temperament/ Photo credit: Gayle

Julian, CC BY 4.0
11 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Looking at the continuum above, you could place yourself at the higher end of the continuum for
example in activity level (very high/active), or anywhere along the continuum to “low/inactive”. Some
of these temperament traits are good “fits” for individuals working with children daily: positive
quality of mood, and higher activity levels for example.

Generally speaking, traits are seen as a “goodness of fit” when a person’s temperament aligns with the
tasks necessary in a job or career. That is not to say that if you don’t possess certain traits for a career,
that the career might not be for you! It is a starting point for thinking about how your personality fits
into the field of early learning.

Reflection

What are your temperament traits and how do they support working with children and families?

1.1.6 Attitudes about Diversity and Inclusion

Messages we get as young children about groups of people whose culture, language, class, ethnicity,
sexual orientation, appearance, ability, or religion that differs from ours as well as the experiences
from our own lives influence our attitudes as adults. We develop expectations about people, and it is
important to recognize this within yourself and the community where you work. A bias is “a tendency,
inclination, or prejudice toward or against something or someone” (Psychology Today, n.d., para. 1).
Some biases are positive and helpful (like choosing to eat foods that are considered healthy).
However, bias is often based on stereotypes, rather than actual knowledge of an individual or
circumstance and this can often lead to prejudgment or discriminatory practice.

Many people struggle to recognize their own biases, and it is important to note that everyone has
some bias as our brains attempt to categorize people and things “like” us and people and things
“unlike” us. If taken to the extreme, this type of categorization can bring about feelings of an “us
versus them” mentality which can lead to harmful prejudice. Bias is a universal human condition and
even the most dedicated and well-meaning teachers hold beliefs that may affect their students.
Sometimes, these beliefs can be harmful-if they are left unexamined. Identifying your own biases will
help you to resist having a negative effect on the children and families that you work with. When you
recognize a bias; it might help you to dispel feelings you have that could lead to negative reactions.

Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor once said, “Personal experiences affect the facts that judges
choose to see” (2001, para. 23). This recognition of bias holds true in the field of early childhood
education as well.
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 12

Reflection

How do you feel that your personal values and goals might be reflected in your classroom and
teaching each day?

Is there a particular age of child that you are interested in working with? Or maybe an age group that
you would be challenged by?

Inclusion is the “act or practice of including: the state of being included” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.).
Sometimes in the field of Education, the term inclusion is reserved for conversations around special
needs children and the importance of including all children in work and play. Inclusion can also be
seen in day-to-day practice when children might leave a child behind in play or say something like
“you’re not invited to my birthday party” in an attempt to exclude a particular child. It is important
that teachers support all children in helping them to understand that they are an important part of
the school community. Our job is to foster a development of belonging that will prepare them for life
in their community as they grow.

1.2 The Teacher as a Professional

In a bold strategic initiative called Power to the Profession , NAEYC made the statement that
“positive relationships are at the core of quality, investing specifically in early childhood educators is
the best thing we can do to improve early childhood education” (2020, p. 3). Because you are enrolled
in this course, it is safe to say that you are interested in becoming a professional within the field of
early learning and recognize that positive relationships are at the core of our work. The Power to the
Profession initiative is attempting to recognize that the work we do in the classroom each day is
recognized as a very important profession within our society. It is critically important that the
behavior we engage in each day reflects the professional ideals of the field.

Being recognized as a professional goes beyond the personal traits discussed earlier in this chapter. It
also requires the typical “soft skills” a good employee might need (being to work on time, having a
positive attitude, communicating well, keeping personal grievances outside of the workplace among
others) and also includes following the values and ethics outlined by the profession itself.

Early childhood professionals are divers with different perspectives. This is why we turn to the
NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2011), to provide an understanding of professional behavior. The
code can also serve as a guide to help resolve ethical dilemmas.
13 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Child playing in the

sand./ Photo credit:
anaterate, Pixabay
License

1.2.1 Code of Ethics

The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2011) provides the field with a set of professional beliefs and
commitments. As previously mentioned, this code can guide our daily work, as well as assist as a
reference when faced with ethical dilemmas in the workplace.

The code is composed of Ideals and Principles, but at the very foundation of the code is a set of core
values. These core values express central beliefs, commitments to society and the common purpose
of our profession.

Core Values

• Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life cycle
• Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn
• Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family
• Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of family, culture,
community, and society
• Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family member, and
colleague)
• Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues
• Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships that
are based on trust and respect (NAEYC, 2011, p. 1)
• Most people within the field of early learning find themselves in agreement with the core values
set forth in the code. As you grow within the profession, you might begin to see alignment of your
own personal values reflected in your daily work. [crossref:2]Chapter 2[/crossref] of this text will
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 14
provide a deep dive into the code of ethics published by NAEYC.

1.2.2 Advocacy

Many people believe that the smartest investment a country could make to their society is to
advocate for quality early childhood education, and an advocate for early learning is a person that
would support the field of early learning. A recent UNICEF report indicates that “children enrolled in
early education [programs] are more likely to stay in school and to attain minimum reading and
mathematics competencies extending beyond primary school” (Wisthuff, 2019, para. 2). That makes it
seem as though advocating for early childhood education becomes not only an investment in our
future as a society in general, but an easy decision at that! However, according to the UNICEF report,
175 million children are currently not engaged in any type of early childhood education programs. In
low-income countries, nearly 8 out of 10 children are missing out on early childhood classrooms.

In Washington State, there are many groups that advocate for quality early learning to support
children, families, and programs where children are enrolled. Agencies such as Child Care Aware of
Washington, Children’s Alliance, The Department of Children Youth and Families, Washington State
Family Child Care Association, and Washington Association for the Education of Young Children are
just a few.

Advocating for all children is very much a part of the fabric of what we do. Advocacy work doesn’t
have to be national, sweeping movements, but rather, it can be showing that early investments in
children are important to the healthy growth and development of all children. Working together as a
profession in our individual communities to share the important work that we do provides the
support that all children should be able to access the early education they deserve. How to create
advocacy opportunities will be discussed broadly in [crossref:11}chapter 11[/crossref] of this text.
When thinking about advocacy many people have images of talking with politicians trying to convince
them of the importance of a passion, or some people might think that advocacy involves lengthy letter
writing campaigns. But advocacy doesn’t have to be that difficult and can be as simple as talking with
friends, families, neighbors and others in your community about your passion for working with young
children and families. Often, this begins by telling your own story of why you chose to be in this
profession. Advocacy also includes keeping up with what is happening in the field, both in terms of
current trends, and the ties to historical perspective.

1.2.3 Working with Families

Just like each child is unique, every family is unique and the child(ren) you are working with comes to
you each day wrapped in a blanket of family values, culture, attitudes, and beliefs. Building positive
and good working relationships with families is one of the most important roles that an early
childhood educator has. Partnering with parents allows the children that you teach to see that the
important adults in their life are working together and can help both them and the family to be
comfortable in your classroom environment.
15 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Father and child

looking at a book./
Photo credit:
Picsea, Unsplash
License

Just like any relationship the family-teacher relationship can be complex and can include many
people. This could include the child’s family, the teacher, the staff at the child’s program, and the
community that the child lives within. By working together, you can build a rich environment that
supports both the child and their family which will serve as models for creating positive relationships
within the community.

Early childhood teachers have a wealth of resources to share with families. You may find yourself in
the role of bridging resources within the community to the families you serve. This may involve
employing a variety of communication techniques to support families. Whether it is a classroom app
or other social media, a newsletter or bulletin board, representing all families and including all family
members is vital to building healthy relationships.

Some programs, particularly Head Start programs, incorporate a portion of their programming
devoted to Home Visits. This allows the teacher to become acquainted with the family in the child’s
familiar home environment. In some cases, this can strengthen the relationship with the family, while
other families may feel vulnerable when a “teacher comes calling.” Whatever the communication may
be, it is important to remember that building positive trusting relationships with the family of children
is a core value of the profession.

Reflection
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 16

What do you want to learn about or grow in your understanding of how to partner with families and
communities?

1.3 The Structure of the Field of Early Learning

When looking at an overview of the field of early learning, it can be overwhelming to consider the
huge variety of program approaches, settings, and models found within the field. This chapter will
focus on the more common programs for children pre-birth to age 8 found currently in the United
States that might be interesting to students beginning the journey to become a teacher of young
children. In future chapters of this text, program philosophies (sometimes called approaches, or
curriculum approaches) will be addressed.

NAEYC has also presented a document from the Power to the Profession work entitled the Unifying
Framework for the Early Childhood Education Profession (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020).
This document recognized that the field in general includes a very diverse range of individuals and
settings that contribute to the field. The document attempts to unify the field and discusses how the
United States can make significant and sustained investments in high quality early learning programs.
Consideration of this document is the foundation for the discussion regarding how the field is
structured.

1.3.1 Programs for children pre-birth to age five

The majority of programs caring for children birth, to age five are small private, tuition based
childcare centers that offer either part day or full day programs. Licensed childcare centers in the
state of Washington obtain their license from the Department of Children, Youth and Families. The
number of children that a center can be licensed for depends on the space and ages of the children
they serve. Families can use tools found on the DCYF website to search for care in their community as
well as review any licensing infractions or concerns the department has about a center.

One framework in place to assure quality of care in Washington State is through the Early Achievers
program. This program provides a rating system for childcare providers based on observable
elements of quality indicators. In addition, some centers might seek accreditation through NAEYC.
This optional accreditation is an independent study of a center focusing on many aspects of a center
including the curriculum, environment, education of the teachers as well as many other quality
indicators.

Family home early learning programs (located in the operator’s home) are the least visible, yet most
17 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
prevalent form of childcare in many communities. In Washington state, Family Childcare Homes are
licensed and can apply to be Early Achievers sites as well.

Family, Friends and Neighbor care (FFN) differs from family childcare in that this type of care might
include unlicensed grandparents, aunts/uncles, elders, older siblings, friends or neighbors who
support families by providing childcare. FFN is the most common type of childcare for infants,
toddlers and school-age children before and after school hours. FFN are not regulated by the state,
although some FFN providers can receive childcare subsidies for childcare if they are willing to follow
the DCYF guidelines.

Family Friend and

Neighbor provider
and child sit on a
couch and read a
picture book. /
Photo credit:
ParentiPacek,
Pixabay License

Preschool (sometimes called part day programs and can also include cooperative preschools or
nursery schools) are unlicensed educational programs that generally offer a school ready curriculum
to support children. In many communities, preschools can be housed in community centers, churches,
or even outdoors! These programs are not monitored by DCYF, and to date, there are no education
requirements for teachers working in preschools.

Other types of childcare available in Washington State include:

• crisis nurseries that provide care for families in crisis such as domestic violence, homelessness,
employment, or other crisis situations,
• developmental preschools that are available to some children with special needs often housed at
local school districts,
• private preschools offering curriculum for no more than four hours per day.
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 18

1.3.2 Programs for children age 5 to 8

There are several types of program options for children ages 5 to 8 including kindergarten (found in
both public and private schools), elementary or homeschool or school-age childcare. Most children
will enroll in kindergarten at age 5, or shortly after their fifth birthday, depending on the community
school district calendar for the community in which the family lives. Historically, kindergarten (a
German word translation for “a child’s garden”) was meant to be a bridge between the home and
elementary school environment and most kindergartens were housed in local elementary schools.
The first public kindergarten in the United States was housed in a St. Louis Missouri, Des Peres
elementary school (Moore & Sabo-Risley, 2018), and over the 20th century, kindergarten has
changed and been innovated into full day programs with rigorous testing and curriculum. Today,
kindergarten looks startlingly like what first grade used to be, and the need for high quality early
childhood education prior to kindergarten has been the focus of several studies and summarized by
the Alliance for Childhood’s report entitled “Crisis in the Kindergarten” (Miller & Almon, 2009).

Elementary school age children can enroll in either their local community public school, funded by
federal tax dollars or a private school in which parents pay tuition for their children to attend. In
addition to both of those programs, children can be homeschooled. The numbers of children being
homeschooled grew 28.9% between 1999 and 2003, 37.6% between 2003 and 2007, 17.4% between
2007 and 2012. As of 2015-16, around 1,690,000 children were being homeschooled (Coalition for
Responsible Home Education, 2017).
19 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Socially distant elementary students/ Photo credit: Allison Shelley, CC BY-NC 4.0

Reflection

What type of program are you currently working in or do you see yourself working in?

What are the benefits for you?

Is there a type of program that you would not be comfortable working in?

School-age care refers to programs that operate before and after school and during the summer and
holiday breaks. School-age programs often include a structured routine and allow children a space to
complete homework, build relationships with children that attend school different than their own,
and can be offered through community groups, the YMCA or other parks and recreation programs or
private homes. Not all school-age programs require licenses.
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 20

1.4 History Of Early Childhood Education

Many of our current ideas in educational philosophy are built on ideas and theories of the past. The
roots of early childhood education goes as far back as Plato (428-348 B.C.E.), who was a Greek
philosopher who believed that the teacher’s role was to direct children through play towards “their
final aim in life” (360 B.C.E., Book I). Dr. David Elkind (2010) believes that the field of early childhood
education is “the most holistic and least differentiated of any level of education” (para. 2) due to the
solid grounding in philosophy, theory, and research. What theorists most noted in the field have in
common is that what makes early childhood education unique is that it starts with the child, and not
with the subject matter.

1.4.1 The Origins of Early Childhood Education

The philosophical foundations of early education includes the early work of may individuals including
Czech philosopher John Amos Comenius (1592-1670), British philosopher John Locke (1632-1704)
and Swiss philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) in addition to many other European and
American philosophers that will be discussed in [crossref:3]chapter 3[/crossref]. Alongside these
philosophical applications, the field is grounded in research through education figures such as Swiss
psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), German American psychologist Erik Erikson (1902-1994) and
German educator Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) as well as European theorists and educators all of
whom have contributed to Western approaches in early learning.

It wasn’t until after World War II that early childhood education came to be seen as an important
foundation to every child’s educational pathway, the roots of which are based in humanism. This
thought process has the concern for the developmentally appropriate practice, a concept discussed in
[crossref:2]chapter 2[/crossref] of this text.

The infographic in Figure 1.3 illustrates the progression of thought from some notable theorists that
have contributed to the field of early childhood education from Ancient Greece to the first
Kindergarten funded in the United States. As you look at the timeline, think about how the
philosophies of each time period have influenced current thinking.
21 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

1.4.2 The Origins of Childcare in the

United States

In the United States today, most women with

young children are employed outside the home.
The necessity (or choice) to work outside the
home has created a need for care for young
children during working hours. The term “day
care” was used historically to refer to the
working hours teachers were in classrooms.
Today, professionals prefer the term childcare
as it is more inclusive and reflects the important
work of nurturing the child.

In 1620 when the white European settlers were

taking land from the American Indians, and
starting the colonization of the land they stole,
the women slaves were expected to maintain
the home and care for thier owners’ children
(Lloyd et al., 2021). Part of the duties may
require them to nurse the owners’ child if
needed, depending on the age and if the mother
Notable Historical Thoughts About Early Childhood was not able to nurse her own child. They were
Education/ Photo credit: Gayle Julian, CC BY-NC 4.0 caring for the children on their owners’
property.

Childcare can be traced to starting in New York in 1893 when the National Federation of Day
Nurseries, the first nationwide organization devoted to childcare, began. The care at the time was
hardly labeled “quality” and so a set of progressive women began the U.S Children’s Bureau in 1912 to
set policy for quality childcare (Michel, 2011).

The Depression had an impact on childcare as unemployment rose. During Roosevelt’s New Deal, a
program of Emergency Nursery Schools (ENS) grew but was open only part of the day. By the end of
the 1930s high staff turnover rates forced the closure of many of the ENS. With the approach of
World War II, the unemployment crisis dropped, and many women went to work for the government
to support war efforts. However, it was not until 1943 that support allocated $6 million dollars to
reopen ENS. In 1944, only 3,000 childcare centers were operating, yet the capacity for 130,000
children was needed. This lack of care during the day began the spread of the “latchkey child,” and
often children were found sleeping in locked cars in company parking lots while mothers worked
(Michel, 2011).

In 1954, the childcare tax deduction allowed low to moderate income families to deduct expenses for
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 22
childcare from their income taxes and a program entitled New York Women (led by Elinor
Guggenheimer) helped to establish a licensing system for childcare in that city that eventually grew
across the U.S.

In the 1960s, federal support for childcare was tied to “policies designed to encourage poor and low-
income women to enter training programs” and the workforce until a group of “labor leaders, civil
rights leaders and early childhood advocates worked with Congress to legislate universal childcare
policy” (Michel, 2011, para. 19). These efforts failed under President Nixon, and as a result, direct
federal support for childcare was limited to low-income families.

Daycare Nursery
Under the Aid for
Dependent
Children Program/
Photo credit:
Thomas J.
O’Halloran, Public
Domain

In the 1980s, President Reagan shifted funding and the passage of the Social Services Block Grant Act
(part of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981), which allocated funds to support individual
states for child care and development. The issue with this was that even though there were increased
funds for childcare, problems with supply and quality for lower income families became difficult, and
middle-income families faced childcare centers with high turnover rates of child care employees due
to low pay and poor benefits.

In the 1990s, funding through welfare reform initiatives such as the Family and Medical Leave Act
(1993) provided some childcare relief dollares for families, but existing federal childcare policies have
gone largely unchanged since the 1950s and do not meet the needs of the working families of today.

There are hundreds of private advocacy groups in the United States that are interested in early
childhood education and the policies that support quality and equity for all families today, but most
23 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
research agrees that the system of childcare is a fragmented system. In the next section of this
chapter, we will explore how the government has supported early learning.

1.5 Government Funding that Supports Early Learning

For more than 80 years, the federal government has invested in childcare and early childhood
education programs to support parents and children and help them to succeed. Over time, as society
has changed, so has the amount of funding and the names of the funding programs. There is no doubt
that as our society continues to change, so will the need for funding children and families across the
United States.

“From a historic point of view, the United States is in the midst of a second child care revolution, as
more and more children under the age of six are cared for by someone other than their parents”
(Kilburn & Hao, 1996, p. 46). Historians have known for at least two centuries that the well-being of
all children depends on the quality of care received in the early years. Some people believe that as a
system, we have failed to act boldly on that knowledge within the government arena, and money to
support all children is inequitable.

During the 19th (and early 20th) centuries, a two-tiered system of early childhood education types of
programs evolved in the United States. One tier had roots in social welfare systems while the other
was rooted in the education system providing “preschool” education for middle-and upper-class
children (Cahan, 1989). During the last century, the federal government has vastly expanded its role
in early childhood education (Yarrow, 2009). In this chapter, we will focus on government
involvement in terms of funding.

As previously mentioned, in 1933 the first federal investment in childcare was made in response to
the Great Depression. The Emergency Nursery School program provided childcare for the children of
people working government paid jobs and by 1935, the Aid to Dependent Children program was
included in part of President Poosevelt’s New Deal. During this time, many childcare centers were
open seven days a week for 12 months a year and even provided infirmaries for sick children and hot
meals for families to take home after work. This all sounds wonderful, but one must remember that it
took two wars and demands on the workforce for the government to make such meaningful
resources for working families (Kiesling, 2019).
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 24

War Workers’
Nursery/ Photo
credit: Ann
Rosener, Public
Domain

After World War II, expansion of public kindergarten began, and the government funded programs
for low-income children through Head Start funding and federal childcare subsidies (Economic
Opportunity Amendments of 1965). The goal for the funding was to prepare children living in low
income households for elementary school, and now Head Start offers a range of comprehensive
services to strengthen families. In 1994, Early Head Start was created to support pregnant women,
infants, and toddlers through age three (Human Services Amendments of 1994).
25 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
In 1974, federal dollars helped to create the Social Services Block Grant (Housing and Community
Development Act of 1974), to support parents in the workforce by supporting childcare service, and
in 1990, this program was extended to families with incomes that did not qualify under previous
income guidelines. In 1996, President Bill Clinton signed a law, the Personal Responsibility and Work
Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, that brought welfare freeform to working families under a
program called Temporary Assistance for Need Families (TANF) program.

Over the past two decades, as we learn more about children’s brain development and research into
quality early learning experiences filter into the government scene, Congress is increasing funding for
already existing programs. Head Start has had an increase from 6.8 to 10.6 billion dollars to serve 1.3
million children and 769,000 families each month (Bipartisan Policy Center, 2019).

The role that an individual state plays in childcare comes from state involvement in both federally
funded and state-initiated programs. For example, not all states match federal funds allocated to
some federally funded programs and states can determine the eligibility criteria for participation in
federally funded programs.

Every state regulates child care in some form, and all states license child care centers. In Washington
state, the Department of Children, Youth and Families is responsible for licensing and the monitoring
of licenses for childcare and family child care centers.

1.5.1 Washington State Involvement in Setting Standards for the Field

In Washington State, the Department of Children, Youth and Families (DCYF) is the agency that
supports adult educators who care for and teach young children. The mission of the DCYF is to
provide a “comprehensive framework and delivering of services for [professional development] that
includes adult learning and workforce development to ensure improved outcomes for children, youth
and the adults who provide education and services” (n.d.-b, para. 2).

The agency supports state approved training through professional development known as STARS
recorded in a registry program entitled MERIT. The guiding framework for providing training is found
in a document called the Core Competencies. More about this system can be found in
[crossref:11]Chapter 11[/crossref].

What the state recognizes is that child outcomes can improve when children attend quality early
learning programs and when teachers’ skills and education levels are supported. To that end,
Washington state offers an ECE Career Planning Portal to assist students as they begin to plan their
career in early learning. Most community colleges in the state of Washington offer the State
Stackable Certificates, of which this class ECED 105 Intro to Early Childhood Education is a part,
within the initial ECE certificate. Assistance to go to school is provided at most community colleges
through the Early Achievers Grant program which can often fund tuition, books and other costs for
students working in the field at an Early Achievers rated child care site. In addition, financial
assistance can be given to students pursuing a bachelor’s degree through Child Care Aware of
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 26
Washington’s Scholarships for Child Care Providers. In addition, DCYF works with the Office of
Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) to support professionals working with school-age
children.

1.6 Today’s Trends Bound to History

Some of the historical trends discussed in this chapter apply to early learning today: the field still
believes in the importance of play (Plato), that early learning is the foundation for all education
moving forward, and that children grow best in environments that are nurturing and supportive. In
some cases, the financial regulations will most likely come into play as society shifts after surviving a
global pandemic.

Looking back historically can also help us to predict what lies ahead. The remainder of this chapter
will focus on trends of the past influencing the field today.

1.6.1 Educational Trends That Have Influenced Early Childhood Education

In the 2013 State of the Union address, President Barack Obama stated:

In states that make it a priority to educate our youngest children… Studies show students grow
up more likely to read and do math at grade level, graduate high school, hold a job, and form
more stable families of their own. So let’s do what works and make sure none of our children
start the race of life already behind. (para. 39)

This public address started conversation about what the United States values in terms of early
learning initiatives as it was the first time that early learning was specifically called out in a
presidential address.

If you were to do an internet search for “trends in early learning,” the results would be long and varied
with a variety of opinions from an assortment of resources both inside and outside of the field of early
learning. In addition, it is likely that you would see lists of initiatives that will shape the future of early
learning, as well as trends that impact children directly and those that are in place to support families.
Keeping that in mind, it becomes a difficult task to sort out how today’s decisions will impact
tomorrow’s children. When looking at trends, however, two things become very clear: it is necessary
that a unifying message that includes all children is essential, and that advocacy for this movement is
critical.

One way that the United States has moved toward improving consistency and trying to create quality
in childcare is through a quality rating improvement system, also called QRIS. This state-by-state
initiative attempts to address the priorities that former President Obama spoke about in his State of
the Union address (2013). In Washington state, the QRIS system is referred to as Early Achievers. The
National Center on Early Childhood Quality Assurance has a state-by-state map of QRIS state
27 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
profiles (QRIS Resource Guide) where you can learn what each state is doing to improve child care in
their state and counties.

1.6.2 Power to the Profession

Turning to the professional organization NAEYC, the document Unifying Framework for the Early
Childhood Education Profession (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020) provides insight to the
difficult current realities of the field and the pathway to unification by taking steps to professionalize
the field. Within the document, a clear message about the need to align professional preparation for
students studying early childhood education, compensation for teachers working in classrooms, and
making the clear distinction that advocating for “the good of our country’s children, families,
educators, businesses, and economy” (as cited in LeMoine et al., 2023, p. 59) is the message that so
many in the field believe will lead to public investment in early learning.

The goal of the Power to the Profession initiative is clear: to establish unity and clarity around the
career pathways, knowledge and competencies, qualifications, standards, accountability, supports,
and compensation to define the early childhood profession across all states and settings. Much more
about the initiative is in [crossref:11]chapter 11[crossref] of this text.

1.6.3 Societal Change

As society changes and as we learn more, so do the issues and trends being discussed within the field
of early childhood education. Often, the concerns professionals have in the field historically have
been reflective mirrors of those societal changes and sometimes these changes have positive or
negative impact. For example, in response to rapidly growing global awareness and the increase of
culturally responsive and anti-bias curriculum, teachers are becoming more aware of how their
classroom must reflect the communities in which they work. Certainly, the historical nod to play
based learning will again become a focus of our work as more and more young children are exposed to
technology at an early age. We certainly have yet to see the impact of the 2020 global pandemic and
the impact it will have on children and families as we continue to move towards a nation that becomes
healthy and safe again.

But the largest focus for the past few years in the field has been the diverse communities in which we
work and live and how those communities need to be supported. In 2019, NAEYC released the
Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education Position Statement that clearly communicates that all
children have the right to equitable learning opportunities. Many people within the field agree that
we must respond to this work. In Washington State, DCYF spent 2019 studying how the early
learning system can provide strategies to help all children and families thrive while eliminating
inequalities in outcomes for children. In a recent statement published throughout the state, DCYF has
reminded us of our vision:

Washington State is a place where each child starts life with a solid foundation for success
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 28
based on strong families, culturally relevant early learning practices, services and supports
that lead to racial equity and the well-being of all children and families. (n.d.-a, para. 1)

Reflection

What societal changes have occurred over the past 10 or 15 years that you feel have influenced the
field of early childhood education?

Summary

The field of early childhood education and the profession of working with young children are a rewarding
career with a rich history of teaching, nurturing, and caring for young children. As teachers, our skills,
knowledge as well as personal beliefs and morality shape how we interact with children and families.

Our field is one with historical content that ties to modern day concepts that is supported both within
our state and nationally through efforts to professionalize the field.

Becoming an ECE teacher is influenced by our individual identities and lived experiences as well as by
our caring interactions with families and community contexts. Future chapters will support your growth
to connect who you are to your growing identity as an early childhood educator who supports joyful,
equitable, and inclusive learning experiences.

One thing is certain: change is all around us in the field, and the profession must respond to the trends.
This means we will always strive to do what is best for the children and families we serve and continue to
move with the wave of change.
29 | CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Review Questions

1. What type of relationship is the heart of everything we do as teachers?

2. What is one of the primary goals of the Early Learning Teacher?
3. Who published the Core Competencies?
4. Which agency started the Power to the Profession movement and why it is so important to the
field of Early Learning?
5. Name at least three groups in Washington State that advocate for Early Learning.
6. What are the benefits from working with the families of the children you care for?
7. What are the benefits for a center becoming an Early Achievers site?
8. What are the differences of FFN from a family Child Care center?
9. Do you need a degree to work in a part day preschool?
10. What was kindergarten originally meant to be?
11. In what year did publicly funded kindergarten arrive in the United States?
12. In what year did they start the childcare tax deduction?
13. What New York woman helped establish a licensing system for childcare?
14. Daycare was historically referred to as what?
15. Which president shifted funding and passage of the Childcare and Development Block Grant?
16. Explain what Early Head Start and Head Start does for early learning?
17. What is QRIS in Washington State and why is it important?

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Wisthuff, K. (2019, July 11). A no-brainer: Advocating for early childhood education. UNICEF USA.
https://www.unicefusa.org/stories/no-brainer-advocating-early-childhood-education

Yarrow, A. L. (2009, April). History of U.S. children’s policy, 1900-present. First Focus.
https://firstfocus.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Childrens-Policy-History.pdf

Websites you may want to explore further

Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education Position Statement, National Association for the
Education of Young Children

Child Care Aware of America

A Global History of Early Childhood Education and Care, UNESCO Digital Library
 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE FIELD OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 32
National Association for the Education of Young Children

Power to the Profession, Unifying the Framework Executive Summary

Uncovering the Role of Early Childhood in Black Women’s Clubs Work Towards Racial and Gender
Justice

Washington State Department of Children, Youth & Families

33 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES

CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM

APPROACHES

A toddler playing
with a xylophone
and a drum on a
living room rug./
Photo credit:
thedanw, Pixabay
License

Overview
Imagine a classroom of children playing and learning. What type of activities do you see? How do you
know that what is going on in the classroom is supportive of children’s development? In this chapter,
we will learn about different theories that guide child developmental science as well as early
childhood education program approaches that use varying methods to support children’s
development.
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 34

Objectives

• Explain how child development and learning theories are frameworks for helping teachers
understand how children develop.
• Identify the different philosophies of various early learning program approaches that guide their
curriculum and practices with young children
• Describe how high-quality early learning programs use theories to inform their work.

Key Terms

• Attachment Pattern
• Conditioning
• Constructivism
• Internal Working Model
• Intrinsic Motivation
• Life Crisis
• Models
• More Knowledgeable Other
• Object Permanence
• Program Approach
• Reinforcers
• Scaffolding
• Schemas
• Theory
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
35 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES

2.1 Theories and Program Approaches

Preschoolers play
with trains/ Photo
credit: Allison
Shelley for
EDUimages, CC
BY-NC 4.0
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 36
The best early childhood programs are informed by sound theory. This ensures that the aims of the
program are effective and the practices have a positive impact on every child. What is a theory in the
context of early childhood education? A theory evolves from a set of ideas that are supported by a
substantial amount of evidence and are based on repeated testing of the same concepts] is a set of
ideas that are supported by a substantial amount of evidence and are based on repeated testing of
the same concepts. Theories have been repeatedly tested using scientific inquiry. This differs from a
philosophy, which is also a useful way to organize knowledge about children’s development but is not
based on empirical evidence. Theories provide an explanation on a specific phenomenon, and as such,
developmental theories explain different aspects of how children develop.

In early childhood education, theories about child development are used to decide how to carry out
program approaches. Program approaches are practices and philosophies that a program uses to
guide their teaching and learning . This is one way that early childhood educators can ensure high
quality programs for children and families. High-quality ECE programs turn to child development
theory to create effective learning environments for children. For example, child development theory
indicates that children learn best through action, engaging in a concept using their five senses. Adults,
on the other hand, have the ability to learn from reading a text or watching a video. Because of child
development theory, we know for sure that the very best way for young children to learn is with
hands-on methods. If a person designs a program with this in mind, then that program is rooted in
child development theory. That means that if a teacher wants children to learn about the parts of a
pumpkin, then she will give the children pumpkins, cut them up, and let the children explore the parts
rather than showing them a video about pumpkins. The teacher does it this way because the program
has committed to basing their practice on theory.

2.2 Theories
There are several theories about child development that are used to inform ECE programs. This
section will cover the seven most prominent theories that have influenced modern-day child
developmental science. Those are: cognitive developmental, behaviorism, social learning theory,
sociocultural, psychosocial theory, attachment, and ecological systems theory. There is no single
“correct” theory; instead, we use information from all of these theories to inform how we design early
childhood classrooms.

It is critical to examine prominent child development research and theories through a culturally
responsive framework An approach that incorporates the cultural knowledge, experiences, identities,
communication styles and cultural norms of the children and families involved in a given setting .
Today we know that research needs to be able to consider the social and cultural contexts of children
and families when describing its effectiveness or relevance. What this means in the classroom is that
when applying the principles of a particular theory, consider how it impacts the identity, agency, and
cultural norms of the children and families in your program.
37 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES

2.2.1 Cognitive Developmental

Cognitive developmental theory focuses on how children think, learn, and acquire new knowledge. It
was developed by a Swiss scientist named Jean Piaget (Miller, 2011). According to cognitive
developmental theory, children move through childhood in a series of stages. These stages determine
what behaviors adults can expect from a child as well as what capabilities a child has at a given stage.
There are four stages through which children progress: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operations, and formal operations. The features of these stages are outlined in Table 2.1. Between the
ages of birth and two years, a child is in the sensorimotor stage. In this stage, children explore objects
using their hands and mouth and coordinate sensory experiences through physical movement. If an
object is hidden from view, they believe it to have disappeared for good. When a child begins to
understand that the object still exists even if they can’t see where it went, this is referred to as object
permanence, The ability for a child to understand that if an object is hidden from view, it continues to
exist] which is one of the main understandings constructed during this stage. Between the ages of two
to seven years, a child is in the preoperational stage. During this stage, a child is able to engage in
symbolic reasoning which leads to pretend play. For example, a child might use a stick as a spoon
during this stage. The concrete operations stage takes place between the ages of seven to twelve
years. During this stage, children begin to use logical reasoning, but it is usually limited to real objects
that can be seen or touched. During this stage, children might be able to add and subtract using
manipulatives. The formal operations stage starts at age twelve and continues through adulthood.
During this stage, children can begin to engage in abstract and logical reasoning in multiple situations.
This might take the form of solving complex puzzles and games.

Piaget’s stages are a useful way to consider how children develop in thinking, learning, and acquiring
new knowledge. One consideration for all stage theories is that there is variability in how children
move through stages. The stages are not rigid; for example, just as a child turns two years old, they
may not immediately begin pretend play. Some children might do it a bit sooner and some do it a bit
later. Children are living, breathing, beings after all! Another consideration is that the transition
between stages is not sudden. Just because a two-year-old engages in pretend play does not mean
that she is now finished exploring toys and objects with her mouth. Children often have behaviors of
two stages when they are transitioning from one to the other.

Table 2.1

Piaget’s Stages of Development

 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 38

Concrete
Stage Sensorimotor Preoperational Formal Operations
Operations

12 years and
Age Birth to 2 years 2 to 7 years 7 to 12 years
beyond

Learns about Begins to engage in Engages in abstract

Begins use of logical
the world symbolic and and logical
reasoning, however,
through pretend play, but reasoning and can
Behaviors reasoning is limited
interacting with cannot engage in apply this type of
to objects that can
objects using abstract or logical thinking across
be held or seen
the five senses reasoning contexts

Cognitive developmental theory also includes an explanation for how children acquire new
knowledge. This is known as constructivism (Wadsworth, 1996). Constructivism The idea that
children create (or construct) their own knowledge through experiences with the world] is the idea
that children create (or construct) their own knowledge through experiences with the world. Children
must use their five senses to interact with objects in their environment in order to gain new
information. In this way, they build a conceptual understanding about the world around them.
Further, the stage that a child is in determines how a child constructs knowledge. If an infant is in the
sensorimotor stage, then they might gain new knowledge about an object by putting it in their mouth.
If they take an adult’s keys and start to play with them, they will learn that keys feel cold and hard
when placed in the mouth. The next time they see something made of metal, for example a spoon,
they will expect that it is cold when placed in the mouth, because they learned this from a direct
experience with the keys. Reading a book or watching a video about keys will never give the infant
this same knowledge because children need tangible, concrete items to help them learn about the
world.

Constructivism also dictates that new knowledge builds upon previous knowledge. As children build
concepts about their world, they start to organize that information into categories. These categories
are called schemas. Schemas Categories of information about a concept or thing] are categories of
information about a concept or thing. For example, two-year old Zhe might have a schema about dogs.
He might conceptualize dogs as furry, four-legged creatures who have tails. Every time he sees a new
kind of dog, he will mentally place it into that category of dogs. This process is referred to as
assimilation, fitting in new information into what is already known. When Zhe goes on a walk and sees
a black lab, a corgi, and a German Shepard, he assimilates these different types of dogs into his
schema for dogs. But what happens when he sees a Great Dane? It has four legs and a tail, but due to
its size, resembles a horse more than a dog. Zhe must then accommodate this information, therefore
changing his previously held ideas about dogs, so that his schema for dogs now includes larger dogs as
well. Consider also the first time Zhe sees a cat. It is furry, it has four legs and a tail, but it says “meow”
instead of “woof.” Zhe must once again accommodate, this time creating a new schema about cats
39 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES
which he now knows are in a different group than dogs. This process continues throughout childhood
as children learn and organize new information.

Piaget’s theory has had and continues to have enormous impact on early childhood practices. More
recently researchers have offered evidence that Piaget underestimated children’s abilities in some
situations. Today most researchers agree that a gradual shift occurs in cognitive abilities rather than
children moving through highly defined stages (Berk, 2006).

2.1.2 Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a theory based on the work of several researchers including John Watson, B.F. Skinner
and Ivan Pavlov which focuses on children’s observable behaviors and actions (“Behaviorism,” 2009).
This theory indicates that children’s behaviors can be shaped through external cues called
reinforcers. Reinforcers Actions taken by adults to encourage or discourage certain behaviors] are
actions taken by adults to encourage or discourage certain behaviors. This process is called
conditioning The idea that children are motivated by external cues which drive behavior]. When a
child has been conditioned, their behavior has been shaped in response to the cues from the teacher
to guide the child to the behaviors desired by the adult. An example of conditioning in a classroom
might look like this: A teacher wants all children to sit down for circle time. She may announce that
circle time is about to begin, and as each child sits, she gives a sticker to each one. The sticker acts as
the reinforcement for desired behavior. After this process has been repeated over a few weeks, the
children will come to sit as soon as the teacher announces circle time.

In recent years, there has been some criticism of behaviorism in classroom settings. Critics assert that
reinforcements, like stickers, deter intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation A desire to do things
based on one’s own wishes and goals] is a desire to do things based on one’s own wishes and goals.
Many believe that children should engage in acceptable behavior simply because it is desirable and
interesting. In practice, this means that to get children to sit for circle time, they must want to do it.
How to make them want to do it? Make it interesting and fun! Sing engaging songs, smile, use shakers
and instruments to find a way to draw the children in.

A further criticism of behaviorism is that it does not help children learn acceptable behavior in the
long term. That is, what happens when there is no sticker? In the absence of reinforcement, the
desired behavior can diminish. What happens when children transition to a class where no reinforcers
are given for sitting down?

Despite its shortcomings, behaviorism is still used in many classrooms and can be a successful method
for guiding children’s behavior. Reinforcers can be seen as rewards for children and can contribute to
higher class morale. Many teachers appreciate even the short-term effectiveness that behaviorism
provides in guiding children toward acceptable behavior.

A final note on behaviorism: some teachers may be tempted to use snacks or treats as reinforcers.
This practice is strongly discouraged, as it can interfere with healthy eating habits and raise issues for
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 40
children who are experiencing food insecurity. Indeed, nothing edible should be used to direct
children’s behavior.

2.1.3 Social Learning Theory

A Toddler Playing With Developmental Toys

41 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES

A teacher works
with a child on a
craft car./ Photo
credit: Ron Lach,
Pexels License

Social learning theory is based on the research of Albert Bandura about how children learn particular
behaviors based on watching the actions of those around them (Bandura, 1977). The individuals in a
child’s environment are referred to as models The individuals in a child’s environment after which
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 42
behavior is emulated]. According to social learning theory, children observe the behaviors of others
around them and use that as a model for their own behavior. For example, if a teacher commonly uses
words like please and thank you with children, the children will begin to use those words as well.
Children usually model the important adults in their life but may also model behavior from media
sources. As such, social learning theory calls into question violent content seen in media because it
may have an effect on child behavior. Social learning theory expands upon behaviorism in that
children’s behaviors are not just a matter of behavior and reinforcement but are also interwoven with
the social context as well. In this way, children learn about consequences of actions in a more organic
way rather than through prescribed reinforcers, leading to more long-term behaviors. Consider an
example of a toddler observing an adult opening a jar to find a hidden toy. The adult models the hand
coordination involved in the action and expresses delight at the contents. This encourages similar
attempts by the child who begins to practice the skill of opening a jar.

2.1.4 Sociocultural Development

A Toddler Playing
With
Developmental
Toys/ Photo credit:
Karolina
Grabowska, Pexels
License

Sociocultural development theory addresses how children learn new skills through social interactions
(“Sociocultural theory,” 2016). It is related to cognitive developmental theory in that both are focused
on how children think and learn. It was developed by the psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Instead of
focusing on how children interact with objects and concepts in the environment, social cognitive
theory focuses on how children interact with other individuals in their environment. These
individuals are referred to as the more knowledgeable other Individuals in a child’s environment who
have more skills and knowledge about a particular area than the child], as they have more skills and
knowledge about a particular area than the child. The more knowledgeable other can be an older
43 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES
peer or an adult. According to social learning theory, when children are learning a new skill, they best
accomplish it by operating on the upper edge of their abilities. This is referred to as the zone of
proximal development, or ZPD The difference between what a child can do alone and what a child can
do with help from a more knowledgeable other]. ZPD is the difference between what a child can do
alone and what a child can do with help from a more knowledgeable other (“Zone of proximal
development,” 2016). For example, if 6-year-old Shruti cannot ride a bike alone but can ride it with
help from her mother, then this activity is in her ZPD. How does her mother help her learn to ride?
She might hold onto the back of the bike seat, steadying Shruti as she pedals. She may hold onto the
handlebars, helping her daughter navigate turns. She may give verbal cues, alerting Shruti when she
needs to apply the brakes. Whatever help Shruti’s mother gives is dependent on her daughter’s skill.
This is referred to as scaffolding. Scaffolding The assistance given by the more knowledgeable other
that changes in response to the child’s ability] is the assistance given by the more knowledgeable
other that changes in response to the child’s ability. The best way to support a child’s learning is to
give them just the specific help that they need in order to allow them to complete the skill. If Shruti
has no trouble balancing and steering, then holding onto the seat and handlebars will do her no good
in learning. Verbal cues on when to apply the brakes are what she needs. On the other hand, if it is
her first time on the bike, verbal cues on how to brake will not be very useful as she wobbles around
and falls. To engage in optimal learning, a child must be guided within their zone of proximal
development. If a task is too easy, then then it may become boring. If it is too difficult, the child may
become frustrated and give up. Through scaffolding, a more knowledgeable other can help support a
child to learn things that they could not do alone. Then the more knowledgeable other will slowly
reduce the support until the child can complete the task alone.

2.1.5 Psychosocial

Another theory that focuses on the development of the child as they move through stages is
psychosocial theory. Developed by Erik Erikson, psychosocial theory posits that human development
is characterized by a series of stages (Erikson, 1963). Each stage represents a transition time for
learning and development and is marked by a specific aspect of development. Beginning at birth and
ending in late adulthood, this theory encompasses the lifespan. As an individual enters into each
stage, they are faced with a psychological conflict, known as a life crisis. A life crisis A psychological
conflict in which two conflicting aspects of development must be navigated by an individual] is when
two conflicting aspects of development must be navigated by an individual. The stages are listed in
Table 2.2. To illustrate how a child might move through a life crisis, consider the following example of
the stage “initiative vs guilt.” Three-year-old Leandro has used his crayons to color a lovely picture for
his daddy and hangs it on the wall using tape. Daddy praises Leandro for his good idea to hang
artwork on the wall using tape. Next time, Leandro decides to color directly on the wall, which leads
to a scolding from daddy instead. Leandro has shown initiative, taking independent action for
hanging a picture on the wall all by himself. He also experiences guilt for his initiative gone wrong
when he colors on the wall. As he moves through this process, he learns to take initiative in the
appropriate way and gains pride from his accomplishments.
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 44
Table 2.2

Erikson’s Stages of Development

Age Life crisis

0-18 months Trust vs. Mistrust

18 months-3 years Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

3-5 years Initiative vs. Guilt

5-13 years Industry vs. Inferiority

13-21 years Identity vs. Confusion

21-39 years Intimacy vs. Isolation

40-65 years Generativity vs. Stagnation

65 years and beyond Integrity vs. Despair

2.1.5 Attachment Theory

Figure 2.4

Man holds a baby

up in the air,
smiling. Woman
stands next to the
man, also smiling at
the baby./ Photo
credit:
balouriarajesh,
Pixabay License

Attachment theory was developed on the premise that infants need physical and emotional support
from a primary caregiver early in life in order to become emotionally well-adjusted in early childhood
and beyond. Developed by Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby, this theory is grounded in the mother-
45 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES
child bond but can be applied to the father or other primary caregiver (“Ainsworth, Mary,” 2008;
Bretherton, 1992). Attachment theory proposes four different types of bonds or attachment
patterns that a child can have with the mother (or primary caregiver). An attachment pattern
Description of the relationship between mother (or primary caregiver) and child based on the
behavior of the child] is a description of the relationship between mother and child based on the
behavior of the child. Attachment patterns were measured using a lab test called the “Strange
Situation” (Bretherton, 1992). In the Strange Situation A lab test that mimics an everyday scenario
and assesses a child’s attachment to their caregiver], the mother and baby played in a playroom along
with a friendly stranger. The mother leaves for a brief time, leaving the child to play with the stranger.
When the mother returns, the baby’s behavior upon this “reunion” is observed and coded as a type of
attachment pattern. There are four main types of attachment patterns which are outlined in Table
2.3.

Table 2.3

Mary Ainsworth’s Attachment Patterns

Attachment
Child’s behavior upon reunion Caregiver’s responsiveness to child’s needs
pattern
Seeks proximity to caregiver; positive response;
Secure Sensitive to child’s needs; consistent
is calmed by caregiver’s attempts to soothe
Insecure Does not seek proximity to caregiver; does not
Not sensitive to child’s needs; distant
avoidant seem distressed at caregiver’s absence

Insecure Is not calmed by caregiver’s attempts to soothe; Inconsistent in response to child’s needs;
resistant resists proximity sometimes sensitive, sometimes distant

Insecure
Does not fall into a reliable attachment pattern Emotionally distant
disorganized

There has been some recognition in recent years as to the lack of cross-cultural validity of the strange
situation as a measure of attachment, meaning attachment might not look the same for everyone
(Keller, 2018). The strange situation was developed using a mostly western, middle-class sample.
Because adult interactions with infants can vary by culture, the reactions of infants during the strange
situation might not always look the same. While there are some other ways to measure attachment,
more research is needed to uncover ways to measure attachment across a variety of cultures.

Secure attachment leads to positive outcomes for children. Securely attached children are more
likely to have positive social relationships and are more successful in school. On the other hand,
insecurely attached children have trouble forming and maintaining social relationships and tend to
have behavior and academic problems in school.

What do mothers and other primary caregivers do to form a secure attachment? It mostly relies on
sensitivity. Sensitivity in this sense refers to a responsiveness to an infant’s emotions. If baby cries,
the mother soothes her. If baby laughs, mother laughs along. In this way, the infant builds a reliable
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 46
bond with the mother that sets them up for stable emotional connection. Additionally, it helps a child
develop an internal working model for how relationships should function in general. An internal
working model A conceptual understanding of how the relationship between an individual and a
loved one should be] is a conceptual understanding of how the relationship between an individual and
a loved one should be. With a securely attached child, their internal working model might be
something like “the adults in my life are people who love me and take care of me. My needs are met
by them.” This is later transferred to form trusting relationships with others like grandparents,
teachers, and later, romantic partners.

2.1.6 Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological systems theory, developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, focuses on the child in the context of
their environment. The premise of this theory is that the child develops in response to the multiple
systems that influence them (Bronfenbrenner, 1992). For example, a child is influenced by their
immediate household family, extended family, neighbors, schools, and society at large. These systems
are organized into categories based on their immediate contact with the child and how directly or
indirectly they influence the child (Morris, 2009; “Psychosocial development,” 2016). The systems
also influence one another. For example, the language a family speaks at home is influenced by the
society in which the family lives. These systems each have names. The system that refers to the
child’s immediate environment is the Microsystem Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes
the parts of a child’s immediate environment that influence the child’s development]. The child’s
immediate family, school or childcare, and friends are in the microsystem. The Mesosystem Part of
the Ecological Systems Theory; includes the connections between parts of a child’s immediate
environment that influence the child’s development] refers to the connections between the entities in
the microsystem. The interactions of parents and the teachers at school are an example of the
mesosystem. The next layer is the Exosystem Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes parts of
a child’s indirect environment that influence the child’s development], or the social influences that are
more removed from the child. Parent’s workplace, healthcare services, and local politics are examples
of the exosystem. The Macrosystem Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes broad aspects of
culture that influence a child’s development] represents attitudes of the larger culture. Examples of
entities within the macrosystem are society’s acceptance of women working outside the home or
societal racism. The last system is the Chronosystem Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes
broad, national, or global aspects of society that influence a child’s development], or the way larger
societal events change over time. Global warming, and the political policies in place to hinder it, is an
example of the chronosystem. Let us take a look at an example of 3-year-old Maria. She lives with her
parents and older sister, and they speak Spanish at home. Her parents emigrated from Mexico to the
United States seven years ago. Her microsystem includes her mother, father, sister, her best friend
Lucia, and the childcare they attend at the local community center. Her mesosystem is when her
parents volunteer at the community center where her childcare center is and when she has a playdate
at Lucia’s house. Her exosystem includes the marketing firm where her parents work, the healthcare
provided by the parents’ employers, and the state funding that runs her community-based childcare
47 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES
center. Her macrosystem contains the attitudes of society about her family’s native language and her
parent’s immigration status. Her chronosystem reflects the changing status of women of color – as
Maria has more and more role models in the media who represent her culture. As this example
illustrates, the ecological systems model represents the dynamic environments that shape how a child
develops. It is not just the parents, extended family, peers, or teachers, but rather all the parts of
society working together.

Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Systems
Model/ Photo
credit: Angela
Blums, CC BY 4.0

These theories all have strengths and limitations, which require teachers to consider many theories
as they apply them to their daily practices. It is okay and even encouraged to choose parts of theories
that work well in your program.

Reflection

What are some practical ways in which you could use child development theories in your work with
children?

Which of these theories do you align with the most and why?

2.1.7 Beyond Historical Theories

Many of the theories listed in this chapter are rooted in a white, European perspective. This has led
some to critique the relevance of these theories in our diverse contemporary society. To do so, it is
first important to consider how specific parts of a theory can be applied in a culturally responsive way.
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 48
Consider this example. In many European American families, where independence is valued, teaching
a baby to feed oneself is considered a critical skill and toddlers are expected to feed themselves. In
other cultures, where collaboration is emphasized, an adult feeding a toddler is considered more
appropriate. These differing practices could impact how a caregiver scaffolds a child to feed
themselves independently. In both cases, an adult provides some scaffolding to the child on feeding,
but the type and degree of scaffolding differs based on culture. This example illustrates one way in
which a theory can be applied across multiple cultures, and how theories can even broaden the
understanding of the diversity of your program.

Reflection

What are some other ways in which culture can influence child rearing practices?

Beyond prominent theories, what are some other ways that educators can inform their practice?

Another key source of information that should inform programs is current scientific research about
child development and early childhood education. In order to keep curriculum relevant to modern-
day approaches, ECE professionals should stay informed about new research through professional
development organizations such as National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC). When reading current research, check to see who were the participants in the study. Were
they from diverse racial, cultural, geographic, and economic groups? This can provide some context
for how this research could be applied in programs.

Cultural knowledge that has been passed down orally is another source of information that can help
shape programs. For example, Indigenous knowledge can provide valuable information about
behavior, care, and education of young children. This knowledge has not been incorporated into many
mainstream early childhood programs, but has the potential to provide teachers with a wealth of
understanding about early childhood education (Gordon, 2023).

2.2 Program Approaches

49 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES

A child plays a math

game in which a
number of dots are
matched with a
numeral./ Photo
credit: newarta,
Pixabay License

Early childhood programs use child development theories to inform their practice. High-quality
programs know that grounding program practices in sound theory leads to better outcomes for
children. When programs use real, hands-on experiences to teach children about their world, it is due
to the influence of the cognitive developmental model. Likewise, when programs include family
involvement or community connections, we can thank the influence of the ecological systems theory.
Program approaches may be dynamic based on the individual needs of the students or a specific
student population. That is, they may change based on the families who are enrolled. The next section
will take a look at some programmatic approaches which are combinations of theory and practice
which create specific curriculum choices.

2.2.1 High Scope

High scope is a program model that is child-centered and provides children with hands-on
experiences. Its roots are unique – it originated from a research-based preschool program in
Michigan in the 1960s called the Perry Preschool Project. The goal of the Perry Preschool Project
was to enroll low-income children in high quality preschool experiences to see if it would improve
their life outcomes (Schweinhart, 2003; Schweinhart et al., 1993). The researcher David Weikart
followed the children’s progress for decades to measure the results. Weikart chose to include low-
income children because, in comparison to middle-income children, children in low-income
households are at greater risk for lowered academic achievement, have lower rates of high school
graduation, higher rates of crime, and a higher likelihood of poverty later in life. The goal of the Perry
Preschool project was to counter the effects of poverty early in life. This was one of the first and most
published pieces of scientific research to investigate how economic investments in early childhood
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 50
education could have long-term benefits to the child, the family, and to society. The idea was that if
you give a child a strong start early on, it will pay off when they become adolescents and adults. What
the researchers hoped for came true. Children who participated in the Perry Preschool Project had
greater academic achievement, greater high school graduation rates, lower rates of crime, and higher
adult earnings than their low-income peers who were not in the preschool project. This study showed
that access to high-quality preschool programs in the first few years of life can have long-term
benefits for the child. This research highlighted the importance of the early years of a child’s life in
influencing the course of their future.

So, what was the magic formula of the Perry Preschool Project? There were several components, but
two main pieces stand out. The classroom system of plan-do-review and family involvement. Plan-
Do-Review A learning process that helps children organize their activities through planning, action,
and reflection] is a system that helps children organize their play activities. Children gather in a circle
and the teacher asks them what activity center they plan to play in during the morning free play time.
The choices range from blocks and art to dramatic play or puzzles. Children make their choice to the
group, such as “I plan to play with Jakeem in the blocks area. We are going to build a really big
bridge!” After the children make their plans, they go and do the activity of their choice. It is okay if
kids switch activities or change their plans during this time. After free play, the children return to the
circle and report back on how their plans went. Did Jakeem and his friend build a successful bridge?
What went well? Did anything unexpected happen? The teacher will ask these types of probing
questions to get the children to think about their activities. This method supports cognitive
development because it involves planning. Children are able to explore their world and engage in
hands-on activities. The plan-do-review helps to support their memory development and helps them
to develop concentration, attention, and focus, all skills which are related to the academics they will
engage in when they enter elementary school.

The second main component of the Perry Preschool Project was family involvement. Families were
visited in their homes by teachers to create connections between what was happening in the
classroom and at home. When a child learns a concept in class, it should not stay in class. Having
families participate in learning at home can help create layers of learning for the child. It also provides
an opportunity for parent support and education. This approach aligns with the ecological model in
that the family and community are integrated into a child’s early childhood education setting,
supporting development using the multiple contexts involved in a child’s life.

The High Scope model follows the findings from the Perry Preschool Project. It has taken those
evidence-based strategies Approaches that have been developed through repeated scientific
research and testing to make sure that they are effective] and created a program model to serve
children in early learning settings. It is the embodiment of the philosophy that family income need
not be the sole determining factor in children’s academic and life outcomes.

A similar program to the Perry Preschool Project is Head Start. Head Start is a preschool program
which also has its roots in researching ways to improve the lives of children in poverty. Head Start
research has found similar results to the Perry Preschool, and with comparable methods (Weikart et
51 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES
al., 1978). Head Start has become a long-term, nationwide program that still exists today. Indeed,
many Head Start programs even follow the High Scope method. These programs demonstrate the
need and effectiveness of high-quality preschool programs.

Fact: Supporting Children and Families: Head Start Programs

Head Start programs were developed in the 1960s to promote school readiness for children whose
families needed extra support. Head start programs focus on the whole child: with healthy meals,
family involvement, and developmental check ins. According to research, children who participate in
Head Start have positive long-term outcomes: they are more likely to graduate high school, less likely
to live in poverty as adults, and have lifelong better physical health (McKey et al., 1985).

2.2.2 Developmental Interaction

The Developmental Interaction approach was founded by Lucy Sprague Mitchell, an education
reformer who developed innovative ideas for educating children and helped to professionalize
teaching for women. Mitchell also founded the Bank Street College of Education in New York. The
developmental interaction approach, sometimes called the Bank Street approach, focuses on
developing the child in all areas – physical, intellectual, social, and emotional (Nager & Shapiro, 2000).
Teachers in the Developmental Interaction approach see learning as a holistic process and consider
developmental domains (physical, intellectual, social, and emotional) as inherently interconnected. It
emphasizes meeting children where they are and providing opportunities for making choices (Nager
& Shapiro, 2007). It is play-based, so children have lots of free time to explore on their own terms. It
also emphasizes the child’s role in society – another nod to the ecological model of child development.

2.2.3 Montessori

The Montessori approach to education was developed by Maria Montessori, an Italian physician and
educator who was interested in reforming the way children learn in group settings (Montessori,
1964/2013; Seldin, 2002). The Montessori method has distinct key features that make it stand out
from other approaches. One such feature is mixed-age groups in a single class. Children in
Montessori classrooms can range from 2.5 to 6 years old. This means that there is a great deal of peer
learning happening. Older children can model behavior for younger children, which can help facilitate
learning better than direct instruction from a teacher.

Another feature of Montessori classroom is the concept of constructivism. Montessori classrooms

rely on a carefully structured classroom with materials that children can use to discover new
concepts on their own using real life materials. Items are often made from natural materials to give
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 52
the child a realistic concept of the weight of an object based on its size. In order to deeply engage
with materials, children are given a large block of free play time – usually about 2.5 to 3 hours. During
this time, teachers will help children on an individual or small group level with materials. The
materials have an emphasis on child development. Some may involve fine motor skills, like threading
beads on a string, and some may promote problem solving, a part of cognitive development, such
ordering pegs into holes by size and shape. Many activities are related to practical life: washing
dishes, placing flowers in a vase, and cleaning up after oneself. Materials for practical life are always
child-sized so that the child can feel that she can master the activity without unnecessary
impediments. There is a strong emphasis on completion. Children will not be interrupted by a
teacher when they are in the middle of a task, as this is thought to disrupt learning. Independence is
also emphasized. Children are encouraged to learn how to use buttons and zippers in order to dress
themselves at an early age. Teachers without a Montessori background are often surprised to see the
abilities of a two-and-a-half-year-old getting a jacket on and zipping it alone.
53 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES

Child Holding Blue

Round Plastic
Montessori Toy/
Photo credit:
newarta, Unsplash
License

Mealtimes in Montessori centers can often differ from those of traditional classrooms. When a meal
is served, children will be invited to the table and asked to join when they are ready. There is no large-
scale, formal transition from playtime to lunchtime. If a child is still working on an activity, then he
may complete it in as much time as he wishes. Typically, children gather around the table more or less
at the same time, but it happens organically. Children are drawn to the smell of food and a chance to
visit with playmates at the table. Children serve themselves and pour their own milk using child-sized
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 54
utensils and milk pitchers. At the end of the meal, children clear their own dishes and place them on a
cart after removing unfinished food.

With such a free environment, how do teachers encourage classroom harmony in a Montessori
classroom? Teachers use guidance strategies that are similar to other approaches, but children often
learn from observing older peers. If a 3-year-old is approaching the art easel for the first time, she
may watch a 5-year-old first. She may observe her peer carefully dipping the brush into the cup,
keeping paint on the paper, and wiping up any spills with a cloth. Sometimes, this way of learning how
to use and respect classroom materials can resonate more with a young child than when a teacher
outlines strict rules for how to properly use paint.

2.2.4 Waldorf

Waldorf schools originated in Germany and were developed by Rudolf Steiner in the 1920s (Barnes,
1991). Waldorf programs have a strong emphasis on everyday practical activities and centers are
designed to resemble a home in order to facilitate this. Cooking, cleaning, sewing, and building are all
activities that children engage in in a Waldorf program. There is a strong emphasis on oral
storytelling, creative arts, and music. Historically, Waldorf programs included mystical and spiritual
elements, but many modern programs do not (Goldshmidt, 2017). Children are encouraged to engage
in free play using toys and activities made of natural materials. Like in Montessori programs, the
belief is that children are more connected to toys and tools that are made of wood rather than plastic,
as it is more aesthetically pleasing and facilitates a connection to nature. In that spirit, Waldorf
classrooms include natural materials such as acorns, shells and wool that are used for counting
games, art, and storytelling. Academic subjects are integrated with one another – math is taught
through storytelling, combining mathematical problem solving with language development. This
helps promote cognitive development in a holistic way. Teachers facilitate early math activities using
small wool dolls and other natural, tangible materials. However, formal learning of letters and
numbers are not pushed upon young children in Waldorf schools. It is the belief that children will
come around to letter and number identification when they are ready, and that is usually not until the
age of 6 or 7 years, which is when it is formally introduced in Waldorf schools. Interestingly, this
coincides with most modern European educational systems as well (Sharp, 2002). Preschools in the
U.S., on the other hand, typically begin letter and number identification well before age 5 (although
this is beginning to change). This variation is a valuable lesson in cultural differences in
developmentally appropriate practice.

Another key feature of the Waldorf approach is the daily rhythm. While many preschools follow a
daily schedule with specific hour or minute intervals, Waldorf programs follow a rhythm instead.
What matters here is the sequence of the day, not how long each activity takes. So daily activities
always follow the same sequence but may not be at the same time every day. In the morning, for
example, the teacher may invite the children to help bake bread or make soup for lunch. Children
gather around kneading dough or chopping vegetables (children are encouraged to learn knife safety
at an early age), and as they finish, they may disperse into other activities like sewing, building with
55 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES
blocks, or dancing with scarves. Another teacher might gather a group of students to invite them to
hear a story that she is telling using puppets and props to act out the plot. Children may naturally
come and go from the story based on what they are interested in playing with at that time. When the
lunch is ready, the teacher will invite children to the table with a song and, oftentimes, by lighting a
candle (children are also taught safety around the candle). There is no set time, but meals are
typically served at about the same time each day. Children rely on the order of events to help them
predict their environment. A difference of 15 or 20 minutes makes no difference to them, however.
This focus on rhythm is also reflected in the practice of honoring the changing of seasons. Waldorf
programs also include rituals that celebrate the rhythms of nature. This gives the children a
connection to the larger system of which they are a part.
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 56

Rainbow colored
wool used in a
Waldorf classroom
for crafts/ Photo
credit: star athena,
CC BY 2.0

2.2.5 Reggio Emilia

The Reggio Emilia approach takes its name from the Italian city where it originated. A constructivist
approach, the Reggio method provides encouragement that children should explore their world using
hands-on methods that are child-directed. The approach was developed by Loris Malaguzzi following
World War II (Edwards, 2002). It was his belief that children should be able to freely express
themselves. In that vein, Reggio programs encourage arts and music.
57 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES

Child’s hand
holding a
paintbrush with a
palette of paint./
Photo credit:
EvgeniT, Pixabay
License

One core belief in the Reggio approach is the Hundred Languages of Children The belief that children
can express themselves through various types of artistic expression], or the ability of children to
express their thoughts and feelings through arts such as painting, sculpting, and drawing (Edwards et
al., 1998; Gandini, 1993). Indeed, Reggio programs are known for their emphasis on beautiful
artwork. Children’s art is displayed on the wall at the child’s eye level, often with a description of the
work written by the teacher in the child’s own words. This honors the child’s creative spirit and helps
promote healthy emotional development. Another feature of the original Reggio school in Italy is the
connection to community. The children there learn directly from members of the community, and the
community members feel responsible for taking part in children’s education. American programs
emulate this goal with strong parental involvement. US programs are referred to as “Reggio inspired”
because the true Reggio schools in Italy have the connection to community that is unique to that
location. The Reggio approach believes that children learn from adults, peers, and the environment.
The environment is thought to be the “third teacher” and is set up so that children can explore
independently as their interests guide them. Spaces are set up with natural light, living plants, and
materials that encourage creativity.

2.2.6 Forest Schools and Outdoor Learning

The model for most American forest schools originated in Sweden and other European countries and
their popularity has been growing in the United States in recent years (Knight, 2013; Williams-
Siegfredsen, 2017). However, Native Americans have been practicing nature-based learning for
generations, and these models are also used in the development of forest schools and outdoor
learning programs (Lees & Bang, 2022). The concept of forest schools is that children spend their
 CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES | 58
whole day outdoors, in all weather. All activities take place outside – stories, art, construction, and
even meals. Children are dressed in appropriate clothing for all weather so that they are comfortable
and safe while outside. Many of the same activities that take place in indoor preschools also happen
in forest preschools. Children create art, often using natural materials, but might also use paint, clay,
and crayons. Science activities are well-suited to a forest environment, as children can collect leaves
and rocks to sort and categorize, or examine bugs using a magnifying glass. Nature-based learning
can include life cycles of plants and animals, foraging for edible foods, and nature-based medicines.
Nature-based learning also lends itself well to teaching children about Indigenous culture and
practices, which provides opportunities for cultural understanding as well as practical knowledge. An
outdoor environment is well-suited to engage in construction projects, which may include building a
tower with rocks or building a giant fort out of sticks, branches, and rope. Forest schools sometimes
have a covered shelter or area where materials are kept in bins and teachers can take out the
materials at the start of each day so that children have access to all the things they need for free play.
Teachers do circle time, read books, tell stories, and sing songs, the same as in a typical preschool.
Mealtimes take place outdoors and children wash hands using an outdoor hand washing station.
Usually children do not sleep outdoors, so forest schools are typically either half-day programs or
include only children who are old enough to not need naptime. Children in forest schools have a
strong connection to nature, and it is believed to provide many health and developmental benefits.

On a related note, in July 2021 Washington State became the first state to permanently license
outdoor, nature-based childcare for preschool and school-age children under a new Senate Bill 5151
(Russillo, 2021). This comes after a four-year outdoor preschool pilot program and gave DCYF the
ability to set the precedent as the first state in the nation to develop licensing requirements for
outdoor education.

Refection

How can a child’s individual culture be reflected in program approaches?

Consider a program within your community. How is that program culturally relevant?
59 | CHAPTER 2: THEORIES AND PROGRAM APPROACHES

Summary

Theories give us insight about how children develop. There are seven major theories on child
development, and each one is useful in understanding children’s needs at a given age. It is important that
teachers have a deep knowledge of children in order to create learning experiences that support
development. High-quality early childhood programs must be informed by theory. There are a variety of
approaches and philosophies in early childhood program models, and each has its own unique benefits.
One thing that all program models have in common is the connection to theory that supports children’s
optimal development.

Review Questions

1. How can constructivism be used to plan activities for young children?

2. What are the limitations of using behaviorism in an early childhood classroom?
3. Why is it important to consider cultural context when engaging with children?
4. How can Bronfenbrenner’s work be used in a preschool setting? Is it equally important for
older children? Why or why not?
5. If you had to choose the best features of the program approaches presented in this chapter to
create your dream classroom, which features would you choose? Why did you choose these
features?

References
Ainsworth, Mary. (2008). In W. A. Darity, Jr. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social sciences (2nd
ed., Vol. 1, pp. 67-68). Macmillan Reference USA. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3045300051/
GVRL?u=puya65247&sid=GVRL&xid=80e3d47d

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.

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Barnes, H. (1991). Learning that grows with the learner: An introduction to Waldorf education.
Educational Leadership, 49(2), 52-54.

Behaviorism. (2009). In E. M. Anderman & L. H. Anderman (Eds.), Psychology of classroom learning: An

encyclopedia (Vol. 1, pp. 97-99). Macmillan Reference USA. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/
CX3027800039/GVRL?u=puya65247&sid=GVRL&xid=5af1a19f

Berk, L. E. (2006). Child development (7th ed.). Pearson Education.

Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth.
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Bronfenbrenner, U. (1992). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Six theories of child development:
Revised formulations and current issues (pp. 187–249). Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.). (1998). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio
Emilia approach–advanced reflections (2nd ed.). Greenwood.

Edwards, C. P. (2002). Three approaches from Europe: Waldorf, Montessori, and Reggio Emilia. Early
Childhood Research & Practice, 4(1), 2-14. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED464766

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). Norton.

Gandini, L. (1993). Fundamentals of the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. Young
Children, 49(1), 4-8.

Goldshmidt, G. (2017). Waldorf education as spiritual education. Religion & Education, 44(3), 346-363.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15507394.2017.1294400

Gordon, H.S.J. (2023). 5 things to know about Indigenous Knowledge when working with Indigenous
children, youth, and families. Child Trends. https://doi.org/10.56417/3504n5609v

Keller, H. (2018). Universality claim of attachment theory: Children’s socioemotional development

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Knight, S. (Ed.). (2013). International perspectives on Forest School: Natural spaces to play and learn (1st
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Lees, A., & Bang, M. (2022). We’re not migrating yet: Engaging children’s geographies and learning
with lands and waters. Occasional Paper Series, (48), 33-47. https://doi.org/10.58295/
2375-3668.1454

McKey, R. H., Condelli, L., Ganson, H., Barrett, B. J., McConkey, C., & Plantz, M. C. (1985, June). The
impact of Head Start on children, families, and communities: Final report of the Head Start evaluation,
synthesis, and utilization project. Head Start Bureau, Administration for Children, Youth and Families,
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Office of Human Development Services, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
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Miller, P. H. (2011). Piaget’s theory: Past, present, and future. In U. Goswami (Ed.), The Wiley-Blackwell
handbook of childhood cognitive development (2nd ed., pp. 649–672). Wiley-Blackwell.

Montessori, M. (2013). The Montessori method. Transaction Publishers. (Original work published 1964)

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Nager, N., & Shapiro, E. K. (Eds.). (2000). Revisiting a progressive pedagogy: The developmental-interaction
approach. SUNY Press.

Nager, N., & Shapiro, E. K. (2007, January). A progressive approach to the education of teachers: Some
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GVRL?u=puya65247&sid=GVRL&xid=0c8890e7

Russillo, J. (2021, June 17). Bill expands opportunities for outdoor, nature-based early learning in
Washington. South Seattle Emerald. Retrieved May 12, 2024, from
https://southseattleemerald.com/2021/06/17/bill-expands-opportunities-for-outdoor-nature-
based-early-learning-in-washington/

Schweinhart, L. J. (2003, April 24-27). Benefits, costs, and explanation of the High/Scope Perry Preschool
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benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 27. (Monograph of the High/Scope
Educational Research Foundation No. 10). High/Scope Press.

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(2nd ed., Vol. 5, pp. 1675-1680). Macmillan Reference USA. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/
CX3403200418/GVRL?u=puya65247&sid=GVRL&xid=674c8a8d

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publications/school-starting-age-european-policy-and-recent-research/

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contemporary early childhood education (Vol. 3, pp. 1255-1260). SAGE Reference.
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and longitudinal results through fourth grade (Monograph No. 3). High/Scope Foundation.

Williams-Siegfredsen, J. (2017). Understanding the Danish Forest School approach: Early years education
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Zone of proximal development. (2016). In J. L. Longe (Ed.), The Gale encyclopedia of psychology (3rd ed.,
Vol. 2, p. 1233). Gale. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3631000800/
GVRL?u=puya65247&sid=GVRL&xid=0f3cac58
63 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

Front View of
Brain/ Photo credit:
National Institute
on Aging, National
Institutes of Health,
Pubic Domain

Overview
A baby is eating breakfast and drops their spoon off the high chair tray. The adult nearby picks it up
and places it back on the tray with a smile and kind word. The baby looks at the adult and then the
spoon, picks it up and drops it onto the floor again. The adult laughs and picks the spoon up, replacing
it on the tray as they gently smooth down the baby’s hair. This interaction happens three more times.
The adult recognizes the child’s need for repetition of this cause and effect activity and gladly
participates in the back and forth game. After all, it is a game that is building a healthy brain.

A clear understanding of brain development helps adults support healthy brain growth in the children
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 64
they live and work with. Studying the brain gives us a better understanding of children’s development,
differing abilities, and guides us in improving programs and policies impacting children and families.

This chapter will cover current information on how the brain develops and what is required to keep it
healthy. It will explore functions of brain regions in a typically developing brain and the impact of
trauma and stress. Finally, it will address applications of brain development to the field of Early
Childhood. The science of brain development is constantly changing, and teachers should strive to
stay abreast of current research by visiting reliable websites such as the Center on the Developing
Child at Harvard University or the Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences at University of
Washington.

Objectives

• Identify basic anatomy of the brain

• Explain how neurons connect to create pathways in the brain
• Describe how early experiences impact brain development
• Examine the role of brain development in early childhood education
• Describe the elements a child needs to develop a healthy brain

Key Terms

• ACEs- Adverse Childhood Experiences

• Amygdala
• Axon
• Boundaries
• BrainStem and midbrain
65 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

• Burnout
• Cell Body
• Cerebellum
• Compassion Fatigue
• Cortex
• Cortical Modulation
• Cortisol
• Co-regulation
• Dendrite
• Distress
• Emotional Intelligence
• Enriched Environment
• Frontal lobe
• Glial Cell
• Limbic system
• Mindfulness
• Myelin
• Neuron
• Neurotransmitters
• Occipital lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Plasticity
• Prefrontal lobe
Resilience
• Plasticity
• Pruning
• Serve and Return
• Stress
• Synaptic Gap
• Temporal lobe
• Thalamus
• Toxic Stress
• Vagus Nerve
• Window of Opportunity
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 66

Human Brains/
Photo credit: @Peta
de Aztlan, CC BY
2.0

3.1 Brain Development Basics

3.1.1 Introduction

The brain is the most complex organ in the human body, and the only organ to study itself. It is critical
to understand how the brain develops and what is necessary to maintain its health because it informs
and impacts everything we do in our lives, especially when working with children. As we will learn, the
brain develops quickly in the early childhood years and continues to change throughout our lives.
67 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

Beta-Amyloid
Plaques and Tau in
the Brain/ Photo
credit: NIH Image
Gallery, Public
Domain

When we understand the brain, we understand the power and impact of positive early childhood
experiences. We also come to understand the impact on young brains from toxic stress and trauma
and how we can prevent this. Building healthy brains from the start benefits everyone.

3.1.2 Brain Anatomy

At the cellular level, the brain is made up of 86 billion nerve cells called neurons . There are at least 10
times more support cells, called glial cells . Neurons communicate with each other through billions of
connections in an electrochemical process. There are about 500 trillion connections in the adult
human brain.

Fact

Research estimating the number of neurons has improved over the years. Earlier research estimated
there were 100 billion nerve cells. Newer techniques developed by neuroscientist Suzana
Herculano-Houzel give us a more accurate estimate of 86 billion (as cited in BrainFacts.org, 2018).

Although there has long been a debate about whether we are more impacted by nurture (our
environment) or nature (our individual biology), we now understand that it is actually a unique
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 68
combination of both. Neither nature nor nurture fully explains what makes us human; it is a complex
relationship between the two. Biology and genetics provide the potential, but our social environment
shapes our ability to access that potential.

Nervous Tissues/
Photo credit:
OpenStax, CC BY
4.0

3.1.2.1 Neurons

At the most basic level, a neuron is made up of a dendrite, cell body and axon. Between neurons there
is a small gap called the synaptic gap.

A dendrite and its spines receive information from other neurons. The number of dendrites on a
neuron varies from a few hundred to thousands. Dendrites are covered with spines (varicosities) that
are neurotransmitter receptor sites.

The cell body and its DNA genetic system use the nutrients that the blood brings to maintain the cell
and to synthesize neurotransmitter molecules (messengers between cells).

The axon sends information from the neuron to other neurons. Each neuron generally has one axon
branching out into many terminals. Axons vary in length from 1 millimeter to about 3 feet! Mature
axons are covered in an insulated coating, which looks like sausage links, called myelin.

The synaptic gap is the tiny space between neurons; the neurons don’t actually touch.
Neurotransmitters are released into the gap and act as chemical messengers to the receiving neuron.

Neurons transmit information to each other through axons and dendrites by using the synaptic gap to
69 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
exchange neurotransmitters. The axon sends a message through a series of electrical impulses called
the action potential. When the impulse reaches the end of the axon the electrical activity ceases. A
chemical process takes place in the form of neurotransmission. If the message is “transmit
information” an electrical charge is triggered in the next neuron. That neuron’s dendrite receives the
message and electrically sends it through the axon to the next neuron. The process repeats until the
message has reached its destination. If the message is “don’t transmit information,” the message is not
passed on.

3.1.2.1 Neurotransmission

When the electrical impulse that carries information reaches the end of a neuron’s axon, it is stopped
at the tiny synaptic gap that separates them from the receiving neuron. The circuit is broken.
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers secreted at the synapse that have the potential to
continue the circuit and transmit information between neurons.

Without neurotransmitters the brain could not process information or send out instructions to run
the rest of the body. They affect the formation, maintenance, activity and longevity of synapses and
neurons. Neurotransmitter molecules are produced within a specific type of neuron (different
neurons are specialized in different neurotransmitters) and stored in tiny sacs known as vesicles.
When an electrical signal reaches the vesicles, they release their neurotransmitters into the synaptic
gap.

Each type of neurotransmitter has a unique shape that acts like a key. Released neurotransmitters
attempt to attach to receptor sites (usually on the receiving neuron’s dendrites). Each receptor site is
shaped like a lock that will fit only certain types of neurotransmitters. If the “key” fits, the
neurotransmitter will send a message to turn on a receiving neuron (excitatory message) or off
(inhibitory message).

When a neurotransmitter’s job is done, the receptors release the molecules, which are either broken
down or recycled. Each neurotransmitter has a very specialized function. Some neurotransmitters
carry emotional information that impacts our mood, outlook on life and behavior. For example,
cortisol has an impact on our stress response system and dopamine has an impact on our motivation,
satisfaction and pleasure. Serotonin plays a role in our mood management.

Figure 3.4

Action of SSRIs and NRIs

 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 70

Action of SSRIs and NRIs/ Photo credit: Arran Lewis for

the Wellcome Collection, CC BY 4.0 3.1.3 Growth and Development of
the Brain

Brains begin development in the womb, starting as a neural tube and rapidly developing from the
bottom up to form the lower, mid and outer brain. Development is impacted by the mother’s nutrition,
stress, environment and other factors such as their mental health. During this time neurons migrate
along the glial cells into place. The specific time table for migration is unknown and can be negatively
impacted by the mother ingesting drugs or alcohol during pregnancy.

Babies are born with an estimated 86 billion brain cells. They create new connections, in the form of
neural pathways, in response to active engagement in stimulating experiences. In the first few years
of life more than 1 million new neural connections form every second (Center on the Developing
Child, n.d.-a). Most neural pathways are created after birth as a result of stimuli coming from the
environment that the child interacts with through the senses.

Each time the brain responds to a similar stimulus there is an increased propensity for the neurons to
reconnect along the same pathway. Connections grow in the brain when experiences are repeated
over and over or when an experience triggers a strong emotional reaction. The brain becomes hard
wired to respond along established pathways. Think back to the opening story of the baby in the high
71 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
chair dropping their spoon. That repeated experience with the caring adult is building pathways in the
brain as they learn about cause and effect.

Neurons physically change as a result of this activation. Neurons grow new dendrite branches and
receptor sites allowing the brain to process information more effectively and efficiently in more areas
of the brain. The brain changes in response to experience by making connections between new input
and what is already known and in place. The brain learns by recognizing patterns to make sense of
new experiences. For example, when a baby tracks a toy with their eyes while grasping at it with their
hand their visual and motor pathways are connecting and growing stronger. Experience literally
sculpts the brain!

Fact

Babies need rich sensory interactions with caring adults. Long periods of time spent alone in a car
seat or other carrying device can inhibit brain growth and physical development.

The most active period for creating connections is in the early years of life, but new connections can
form throughout life. After this rapid proliferation early on, unused brain cells and connections wither
away in a process called pruning. Pruning is necessary in order to make room for the pathways the
child needs most to survive in their world. Creating room also has the function of making the
remaining pathways more efficient. Think of how pruning a fruit tree is essential to make room for
new growth and fruit to mature. Pruning too many neurons that are important will decrease the
brain’s efficiency. Pruning happens most rapidly between ages 2 and 10, but is happening in some
form throughout life, starting at about 8 months and ending in the late 20s (Cafasso, 2018). The
intensity of the pruning is dependent on which area of the brain is being affected at the time.
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 72

Synaptic Density/
Photo credit: Harry
T. Chugani, All
rights reserved.
Used with
permission.

3.1.3.1 Plasticity of the Brain

Plasticity is the term that describes the ease with which the brain can change itself. Our genes
provide the blueprint, and our experiences are the architect. Which genes get turned on or off is
determined by our experiences and environment. The brain’s pathways strengthen as they are used.
As stated above, the neurons that are not used are subject to pruning, so it is a literal “use it or lose it”
scenario. There is a remarkable increase in synapses during the first year of life. In the beginning of
life the rate of connections is about 1 million per second (Center on the Developing Child, n.d.-a). The
brain is most plastic early in life and it is easier to influence a baby’s brain than try to rewire parts of it
in the later years.
73 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
3.1.3.2 Windows of Opportunity

There are some windows of opportunity in the

brain for optimal growth. During certain stages
of brain growth, parts of the brain become much
more active in response to what the senses
absorb, growing and learning faster than at any
other time in life. Children need the right
experiences at the right time for their brains to
fully develop in these areas. Some areas in the
brain have windows that are merely an easier
time to learn a task (like a second language) and
Graph demonstrating plasticity, showing the brain’s others are more critical. Sight is one of these
ability to change in response to experiences goes down critical windows of opportunity. If the eyes are
with age, and the amount of effort change requires goes
up with age. Photo Credit: All rights reserved. Used with deprived of sensory input early in life the
permission. neurons poised to connect for visual pathways
reassign to areas in the brain where there is
more experiential input happening (Eagleman, 2020). Most windows of opportunity are only optimal
times and not absolutes. Every child is on their own timetable and so the age they reach the window
will vary.

When developmental stages are interrupted or skipped, or an injury of any degree is experienced,
some sensory-motor and cognitive functions may be impaired or missing. For most functions it is
never too late to grow new neurons and pathways, but it gets increasingly harder to do as the brain
ages. The human brain has a remarkable ability to heal. Windows don’t slam shut but slowly close as
we age, never really shutting for good.

Figure 3.7

Human Brain Development

 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 74

Human Brain
Development/
Photo credit:
Center on the
Developing Child,
Harvard University,
Used with
permission from the
author.

Tip

Early intervention is key to helping the brain get back on track for optimal development when a
cognitive or sensory deficit is noticed. Check with your local school districts, family support agencies,
and others to find out more about early intervention services available near you.

3.1.3.3 Enriched Environments

Children need active involvement in a stimulating, challenging and loving environment to cause the
brain to grow and flourish. Passive involvement, isolation and an impoverished environment diminish
the brain.

What is included in an enriched environment for the brain?

Sleep: babies, children and adult’s brains need adequate sleep (see table 1). Sleep is when the brain
renews itself and cements learning.

Nutrition: brains need proper nutrition with the right types of fat, protein, fruits and vegetables. We
are quite literally what we eat, and our brain can only function as well as the fuel we give it. Foods high
in refined sugar are toxic for a growing brain. The American Association of Pediatrics recommends
75 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
limiting the amount of sugar children consume each day to no more than 6 teaspoons for ages 2 and
older; a typical child consumes more than triple that on average (Jenco, 2016). A great resource to
make sure you are giving kids a balanced diet is MyPlate by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Water is also essential for the brain and body to stay hydrated. Encouraging children to drink water
instead of juice is important to reduce the amount of sugar they are consuming while hydrating their
brain. WebMD suggests the following: Toddlers need 2-4 cups, 4-8 year olds need 5 cups, 9-13 year
olds need 7-8 cups and over 14 years need 8-11 cups (Wheeler, 2016).

Children need a safe environment with appropriate boundaries. Giving kids the freedom to explore
while making sure that the environment is free from toxins and hazards helps young brains grow.
They need the chance to interact with interesting materials and be given clear guidance about what is
safe and not safe. We can think of boundaries as a fence we provide that surrounds the child and
enlarges as they mature. The fence keeps them safe but within it they are free to explore and push
against the boundary, so they know they are safe. Emotional warmth and safety is key!

Another important part of an enriched environment is positive role models and guidance. Adults
should model the lifestyle and behavior they want from children. Eating healthy, drinking water,
getting adequate sleep and exercise, and modeling emotional intelligence and growth mind set skills
are all part of this. If the adults around children strive to keep their brains healthy chances are kids
will follow suit. Positive guidance lets the child know they are safe. It is critical to remember that
behavior is a learned skill just like tying their shoe. Both require activation of neurons to build strong
pathways.

Young brains do best when media is limited, and they have daily exercise with time in nature.
Movement of bodies creates an increase in the oxygen and blood flow to the brain, helping to keep it
healthy at any age. Movement is important for not only keeping the brain healthy but also for
improved mental health and school success. “For example, researchers found that children who had
an opportunity to run for 15 to 45 minutes before class were less distracted and more attentive to
schoolwork” (Wilson & Conyers, 2014, para. 5).

Nature provides the brain with a complex bath of sensory input that will strengthen pathways and
connections in a way that can’t be replicated indoors, while helping kids build confidence, creativity
and responsibility. “Many researchers agree that kids who play outside are happier, better at paying
attention and less anxious than kids who spend more time indoors” (Cohen, 2023, para. 1).

In addition, our brains need down time and unstructured play. Down time for brains allows children to
follow their own interests and develop mastery over skills they are learning. It is through
unstructured play time that children feel free to learn about their world and strengthen their abilities.
Young brains need practice repeating positive developmentally appropriate experiences with caring
adults supporting them.

It is important not to stress the child by pushing them to do things they are not ready for or providing
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 76
an overstimulating environment. The best approach is to follow the lead of the child and focus on
their interests and unique timetables.

The child’s brain is not a smaller version of an adult brain. Neurons are still moving into position. As
the brain develops, neurons migrate from the inner surface of the brain to form the outer layers.
Immature neurons use fibers from cells called glia as highways to carry them to their destinations.

Tip

Some things you can try in your classroom are: take a nature walk and collect and sort things around
you (leaves, sticks, insects etc), have kids move through an obstacle course on the playground, or
bring loose parts outside and let kids build big structures using boxes, tape, and other recyclable
items. Use your imagination to get kids’ bodies moving and spending lots of time outside.

Table 3.1

Recommended Sleep By Age Group

Age Range Recommended Hours of Sleep

Newborn 0-3 months old 14-17 hours *includes naps

Infant 4-11 months old 12-15 hours *includes naps

Toddler 1-2 years old 11-14 hours *includes naps

Preschool 3-5 years old 10-13 hours *includes naps

School-age 6-12 years old 9-12 hours per 24 hours

Teen 13-18 years old 8-10 hours per 24 hours

Adult 18-60 years old 7-9 hours

Older Adult 65 or more years old 7-8 hours

77 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
Note: Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022).

3.1.3.4 Myelination

Mature neurons have axons that are coated by a fatty layer called myelin, the protective sheath that
covers communicating neurons. Myelin acts in two ways: it provides substance for the brain and
insulates the cells. The myelination of axons speeds up the conduction of nerve impulses, through an
ingenious mechanism that does not require large amounts of additional space or energy. Areas of the
brain do not function efficiently until they are fully myelinated. Babies are born without much myelin.

According to Harvard Health, “how the brain begins is how it stays” for the rest of life (McCarthy,
2018, para. 3), so it is important to make sure nerves grow and connect and get covered with myelin.
The essential nutrients for brain growth include:

• Protein. Protein can be found in meat, poultry, seafood, beans and peas, eggs, soy products, nuts
and seeds, as well as dairy.
• Zinc. The food that has the most zinc, interestingly, is oysters — but it’s also found in many meats,
fish, dairy products, and nuts.
• Iron. Meats, beans and lentils, fortified cereals and breads, dark leafy vegetables, and baked
potatoes are among the best sources of iron.
• Choline. Meat, dairy, and eggs have lots of choline, but so do many vegetables and other foods.
• Folate. This nutrient, which is especially important for pregnant mothers, can be found in liver,
spinach, fortified cereals and breads, as well as other foods.
• Iodine. Seaweed is a great source of iodine, but we also get it from iodized salt, seafood, dairy
products, and enriched grains.
• Vitamin A. Along with liver, carrots, sweet potato, and spinach are good sources of this vitamin.
• Vitamin D. This is the “sunshine vitamin,” and the best way to get it is to get outside. The flesh of
fatty fishes such as salmon have it, as does fish liver oil, and products fortified with it, such as
fortified milk. (McCarthy, 2018, para. 6)

Breast milk contains a fat almost identical to the fat in myelin, so if possible, mothers should nurse
during the first year or more of life. Recent research has shown positive neurodevelopment and
longer term cognitive outcomes for babies that are exclusively breastfed at least the first 3 months of
life (Deoni et al., 2018). If formula is necessary, it is important to make sure they include ingredients as
close to the composition of breastmilk as possible.

In order to protect a babies’ unmyelinated neurons, it is important to never shake a baby. Although
there may be no outside sign of damage, the neurons get whipped around and have no myelin to
protect them from the impact to the skull.
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 78
3.1.3.5 Boundaries and Readiness

The brain has boundaries around how quickly it can develop that are established by myelination
timetables. Myelination can be stimulated when the brain is ready, but it cannot be rushed. Pushing a
child to do something before they are ready can result in learning problems later on. Follow the child’s
cues: their interest and frustration level will tell you when their brain is ready (or not) to learn a new
skill.

Fact

One study by Rebecca Marcon (2002) found that children who participated in child initiated
preschools did better academically than their peers who attended academic focused preschools. Her
conclusion is that “their progress may have been slowed by overly academic preschool experiences
that introduced formalized learning experiences too early for most children’s developmental status”
(Marcon, 2002, para. 1).

Myelination continues to develop slowly all during childhood and adolescence in a gradual
progression from lower to higher level systems. Early childhood is spent primarily on the brain stem,
cerebellum and sensory cortex. Puberty is when the limbic system is primarily being myelinated and
late adolescence is when the prefrontal cortex finishes myelination.

3.1.4 Layers of the Brain

The brain develops sequentially from the brainstem up, with the cortex developing last and
continuously throughout life.
79 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

Brain and Nearby

Structures/ Photo
credit: NIH Image
Gallery, Public
Domain

The Brain stem and midbrain are the first to develop and are mostly concerned with survival. The
autonomic nervous system is regulated by the brain stem. It is the first part to mature. Babies are
born with autonomic nervous system neurons fully myelinated. These neurons control survival needs
such as heartbeat, breathing, and sucking. The brainstem and midbrain monitor the outer world
through sensory input and activate the body to respond in ways that ensure self-preservation. The
brain stem processes information at a subconscious level; it is quick and reactive. Some of its
functions include autonomic nervous system, fight/flight/freeze/fawn response, defense mechanisms,
territoriality, reflexes, rote responses, routine, and habits. It is the least plastic layer of the brain and
the most highly resistant to change. The reason habits are so hard to break is because they reside in
this region of the brain.
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 80

Diagram of a brain
showing various
areas: Thinking
Brain: Cortex;
Sensory Cortex;
Chief Executive
Officer: Prefrontal
Cortex; Feeling
Brain: Limbic
System;
Coordination:
Cerebellum;
Survival Brain:
Brain Stem./ Photo
credit: Nicholas
Malara for WA
Open ProfTech, ©
SBCTC, CC BY 4.0

The Cerebellum is mostly in charge of coordination. It controls automatic movements and the
coordination of movement and thought or balance. The cerebellum is where procedural memory is
stored like our motor skills. It does not involve conscious thought except when we are first learning
something (like riding a bike). This area of the brain matures in early childhood and works in
coordination with the brain stem.

The limbic system is where emotions are processed. The limbic system is made up of many structures
in the middle of the brain including the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, and olfactory bulbs. This
area receives, interprets, and responds to emotional signals sent from the body. It processes
information at the subconscious level and forms emotional patterns. This area is also associated with
long term memory and matures during puberty.
81 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
The cortex is where higher level thinking at the conscious level occurs. This includes, making sense of
the world, decision making, creativity, reason, logic, imagination, self-awareness, and self-control.
Everything that makes us uniquely human is the result of the interplay between the cortex working in
harmony with the lower brain structures. The cortex loves change, novelty, fresh input and variety. It
is the most plastic layer of the brain. The cortex is divided into specialized areas called lobes that are
determined by their function. It matures over a long period of time, from the back to the front of the
brain.

3.1.5 Lobes of the Brain

Diagram of the Brain/ Photo credit: Bernard Hollander, Wellcome Collection,

Public Domain

The cortex is split up into areas that are responsible for different functions. The back and side lobes
are mostly related to sensory functions.

The occipital lobe is mainly responsible for vision and develops very early. The temporal lobe
processes hearing, speech, language, and memory. The parietal lobeprocesses incoming sensory
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 82
information like touch, pressure, pain, cold, heat, taste, and proprioception. The frontal lobe is
responsible for gross and fine motor movements.

The prefrontal lobe, the very front section of the frontal lobe, is responsible for critical thinking,
creative thinking and problem solving. It is the part of the brain that allows us to imagine, plan and
rehearse future actions. This area connects to the limbic system to regulate emotions. It is this
integration of emotions with thought that is essential to the decision-making process. This area of the
brain starts to develop around 8 months and continues to develop late into adolescence (around age
26).

Executive function and self-regulation are also associated with this area of the brain. A child who
develops the ability to self-regulate has better impulse control, mental flexibility, and emotional
intelligence. These functions are critical for learning. Although children do not have executive
function from birth, it can be strengthened through practice with games and activities specifically
aimed at reinforcing these skills.

Tip

There are many activities you can do in your classroom to develop the executive function and build
self-regulation. Simple games like red light/green light or simon says are excellent for this purpose.
You can also find wonderful activities at the Center on the Developing Child.

3.2 Connecting Brain Development to Early Childhood Education

Now that we have a basic understanding of the building blocks of the brain and how it develops over
time, it is important to understand how this knowledge can help us create brain healthy early
childhood experiences for all children. The following section will discuss the importance of creating
environments and interactions that help the brain grow and give it the best possible opportunities for
cognitive and emotional outcomes.

3.2.1 Media and Screen Time

The developing brain needs positive interactions with caring adults in an enriched environment for
optimal growth. Interactions with media or screens can be detrimental to this development as it
deprives the brain of multisensory interactions which are necessary for neuronal growth. Media
includes phones, television, computers and anything with a screen. The Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
has recommended limited media for all ages and adding emphasis on in-person interactions. Research
by AAP has found that using:
83 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
A healthy Family Media Use Plan that is individualized for a specific child, teenager, or family
can identify an appropriate balance between screen time/online time and other activities, set
boundaries for accessing content, guide displays of personal information, encourage age-
appropriate critical thinking and digital literacy, and support open family communication and
implementation of consistent rules about media use. (Chassiakos et al., 2016)

They recommend none or very limited screen time for children under 2. If media is used they suggest
that an adult be present and interact with the child while watching and limit this to video chatting. For
children 2-5 they recommend a max of 1 hour per day of viewing. School age children should be
limited to no more than 2 hours per day. They suggest adults co-view with all children so that they can
reinforce lessons and point out stereotypes and bias that may be hurtful. It is also important to
consider the type of media they are consuming, passive viewing has a different brain impact than
creating content or interactive games. Adults need to select high quality programming for young
children that is educational (Chassiakos et al., 2016).

The American Academy of Pediatrics shares important information about why limited media use for
children is important (note that they use the term “behavior problems”; a strength-based way to
reframe this would be to say “behavior challenges” or “unwanted behaviors”). This guidance from AAP
recommendations on media use for children (2016) is summarized below from EduResearcher
(Marachi, 2016):

Overuse of digital media may place your child at risk of:

• Not enough sleep. Young children with more media exposure or who have a TV, computer, or
mobile device in their bedrooms sleep less and fall asleep later at night. Even babies can be
overstimulated by screens and miss the sleep they need to grow.
• Delays in learning and social skills. Children who watch too much TV in infancy and preschool
years can show delays in attention, thinking, language, and social skills. One of the reasons for
the delays could be because they interact less with parents and family. Parents who keep the TV
on or focus on their own digital media miss precious opportunities to interact with their children
and help them learn.
• Obesity. Heavy media use during preschool years is linked to weight gain and risk of childhood
obesity. Food advertising and snacking while watching TV can promote obesity. Also, children
who overuse media are less apt to be active with healthy, physical play.
• Behavior problems. Violent content on TV and screens can contribute to behavior problems in
children, either because they are scared and confused by what they see, or they try to mimic on-
screen characters. (para. 8)

The Common Sense media website has wonderful resources for parents and teachers and even has
lessons for school age to help develop positive media habits for kids.
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 84

3.2.2 Social Emotional Development: The Limbic System

One of the first brain constructs to develop before birth are those that process emotion. Early
emotional experiences form a kind of template that continued emotional development is built on.
These experiences have a disproportionate importance in organizing the mature brain. Emotions
develop in layers, each more complex than the last as the child responds to their emotional
environment. Emotional learning becomes ingrained as experiences are repeated over and over.

Limbic System/
Photo credit: Laura
Dahl, CC BY-NC 2.0
85 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
The Prefrontal cortex regulates emotional responses and is developed and connected with the limbic
system early, between 8 and 18 months of life. These neural pathways in the limbic system and
prefrontal lobes provide the framework for emotional intelligence.

Peter Salovey (a Yale Psychologist) and John Mayer (a University of New Hampshire psychologist)
first proposed that we also have emotional intelligence (1990). Daniel Goleman popularized this
concept in his book Emotional Intelligence (1995).

Emotional Intelligence (EI)consists of a person’s abilities in 5 main areas or domains (Goleman, 1995):

Self-Awareness –the ability to recognize or know feelings as they are happening and using them
to make life decisions you can live with. This includes pleasant, unpleasant and multiple
emotions at once. It is critical we teach children about all their feelings and give them a wide
range of emotional labeling (see Figure 3.12).

Mood Management –the ability to handle distressing emotions in appropriate ways to maintain
our wellbeing.

Self-Motivation –the ability to persist in the face of setbacks and channeling your impulses in
order to pursue your goals.

Empathy – the ability to recognize and share another’s feelings.

Social Arts – the ability to interact with others in positive and socially acceptable ways.

Emotional Intelligence is important because studies have shown that higher emotional intelligence is
a better predictor of success in children than IQ (Durlak et al., 2011). Kids who participated in social
emotional learning (SEL) programs at school had significantly improved social and emotional skills,
attitudes, behavior and academic performance.

In order for emotional intelligence to develop, children need to feel secure and that their needs for
survival are being met. The fundamental task of an infant is figuring out how to get their needs met in
their world. Children need to feel loved and emotionally secure. It is essential that they have a
consistent, nurturing relationship with the same caregiver early in life in order to develop a secure
attachment.

Attunement is critical to the development of EI. This is when a child’s inner feelings are accepted and
mirrored back to them by caregivers. “The brain uses the same pathways to generate an emotion as to
respond to one” but “if emotions are repeatedly met with indifference or a clashing response,” they
may “fail to strengthen” or be eliminated (Begley, 2010, para. 15). Feelings mirrored back to children
help them develop self-awareness, the foundation of Emotional Intelligence. It is important to teach
and help label a wide range of feelings when interacting with kids. Using a feelings wheel in your
classroom is a great way to expand the range of feelings you teach.
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 86

The Feeling Wheel/

Photo credit:
Feeling Wheel, CC
BY-SA 4.0

Fact

A child’s ability to regulate their emotions (calm down or self sooth) is built when they feel soothed
by their caregivers. It is generally accepted that a baby does not have the ability to self –sooth until
6-8 months (Burnham et al., 2002). It is not recommended that babies “cry it out” until after this time
because even if they do become quiet, stress chemicals, like cortisol, stay active in their brain and
inhibit optimal development of the stress response pathways.
87 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

3.2.3 Stress and Trauma

3.2.3.1 The Impact of Stress

Stressis defined as a “physical, chemical, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension and
may be a factor in disease causation” (Merriam-Webster, 2024). Stress is a normal part of life and our
brains are capable of handling stressful events in a positive way if given the right experiences in
childhood. In general, there are two types of stress: positive stress or eustress and negative stress or
distress. Which type of stress we experience, how much and how we interpret it all impact how
damaging stress is to our systems.

Illustration of Brain
Regions/ Photo
credit: National
Institutes of Health
(NIH), Public
Domain

Neural pathways run from the eyes, ears and other sense organs to a central clearing house deep in
the brain called the thalamus. The thalamus works with the hypothalamus and amygdala to pass on
the information to the higher levels of the cortex. They act like a gate to pathways that run to the
cortex and are activated by how we feel about the information being processed by the limbic system
(Zhang et al., 2019).

When we experience a positive emotion, are actively engaged, or appropriately challenged, while
retaining a sense of control, we experience eustress. The thalamus opens the gateway, or upshifts, to
the cortex where higher level thinking takes place.

When a threat is perceived, we experience distress. The thalamus quickly sends a message to the
amygdala that there might be danger. The amygdala, acting as an alarm company, activates a cascade
of chemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones) involved in the stress response: freeze-flight-fight-
fawn. This distress closes the gate to the main road to the cortex and the brain downshifts to the
lower survival brain, resulting in freeze-flight-fight-fawn responses instead of higher level problem
solving (LeWine, 2024). The good news is that at the same time, another slower pathway moves up to
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 88
the cortex- like a detour route. We can now access the prefrontal lobes to modulate our emotional
reactions. This helps us make a rational decision about how to respond to an emotional trigger.

Figure 3.14

Brain Side View

Brain Side View/

Photo credit:
National Institutes
of Health (NIH),
Public Domain

Some emotional reactions bypass the cortex and can be formed without any conscious, cognitive
participation at all. The degree of control we perceive we have over the threatening situation
determines whether this hi-jacking will take place. If the brain continues to perceive the situation as a
threat the stress hormone cortisol, is released and keeps the body revved up and on high alert. When
the threat passes, the cortisol level will decrease.

New research is finding that the vagus nerve plays an important part in how the body interprets
89 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
sensory input and reacts with fight/flight/freeze/fawn. If the vagus nerve senses threat the child
becomes deregulated and the parasympathetic response takes over. It is important to help the child
regulate their body by helping them to calm the vagus nerve. You can do this through movement and
breathing activities along with other sensory experiences like playing with playdough. Co-regulating
with the child when they are younger and even as they age, can help them to build the ability to
regulate themselves as they get older (Bornstein & Esposito, 2023). Co-regulation is the interactive
process by which caring adults (1) provide warm supportive relationships, (2) promote self-regulation
through coaching, modeling, and feedback, and (3) structure supportive environments (Rosanbalm &
Murray, 2017).

Tip

Breathing with movement is a great way to calm the vagus nerve and help a child regulate. For
example, put your hands on your heart and slowly inhale as you move the right hand out to the side,
exhale as you return your hand back to your heart. Repeat on the left side and then again on the right
so that you complete 4-6 breaths. Another idea is to tape a silk flower to a pinwheel. Have the child
sniff the flower then blow on the pinwheel to make it spin. Repeat several times. When you breathe
along with the child you begin to co-regulate.

Research by Kelly McGonigal of Stanford University found that how we view stress makes a
difference in how harmful it is. There are 3 ways to change our perception of the stressor effectively;
1) View your body’s stress as helpful and energy you can use, 2) view yourself as capable of handling
and learning from the stress and 3) view stress as a common problem everyone deals with (as cited in
Parker, 2015).

Children need experiences that help them develop a strong stress-response system so that they
recover from stressful situations quickly and build stronger pathways between the limbic system and
prefrontal lobe in their brain. The main way adults can help build this healthy stress response system
is a process called serve and return The Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2019)
suggests 5 steps to build positive brain pathways through serve and return practices:

1. Notice the serve and share the child’s focus of attention. It is important to pay attention to what
the child is focused on and follow their lead on the interaction.
2. Return the serve by supporting and encouraging. Offer comfort when they are distressed, play
with them, be curious about what they are doing. Mirroring their thoughts and feelings lets them
know they are seen and understood.
3. Give it a name! Name what a child is seeing, doing, or feeling will make important language
connections in their brain, even before they can talk or understand your words. This helps them
understand the world around them.
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 90
4. Take turns…and wait. Keep the interaction going back and forth. Make sure to take time to let the
child respond to you as you take turns interacting. They need time to form responses as they are
learning so many things at once.
5. Practice endings and beginnings. Sharing focus with a child helps you know when they are done.
Did they turn away, fuss, or walk away? Let them take the lead and be sensitive to when they are
ready to start something new.

Think back to the opening story of the baby in the high chair. This loving exchange between the adult
and baby is a practice of serve and return.

When children are experiencing extreme amounts of stress and are not getting the positive
interactions to mitigate it, they are experiencing what is known as toxic stress .

3.2.3.2 Adverse Childhood Experiences

Too much toxic stress in a child’s life can damage the developing brain and lead to life-long problems
in learning, behavior, and physical and mental health. Toxic stress can come from extreme poverty,
repeated abuse, or severe maternal depression. These situations or experiences are also called
Adverse Childhood Experiences or ACEs and are a cause of prolonged toxic stress. Many studies
have confirmed the negative impact of ACEs on the health and wellbeing of children and adults
(Webster, 2022). The Center for the Developing Child at Harvard University has a wealth of
information about the impact of toxic stress and ACEs; there is also evidence of how racism is
connected to poor outcomes for children due to the impact of this as a toxic stress on child
development (n.d.-b). Toxic stress impacts a growing brain’s development by causing neurons to have
fewer connections in the limbic and prefrontal cortex, the areas of the brain that control emotional
reactivity. It is important to remember that ACEs scores are not meant to be diagnostic and should
not be used to make clinical decisions (Pondiscio, 2020).

Figure 3.15

Toxic Stress and Brain Architecture

91 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

These two images –

one showing a
typical neuron with
many connections,
and a neuron
damaged by toxic
stress with fewer
connections –
demonstrate the
impact of toxic
stress on neuron
connections
(Radley et al., 2004,
p. 2)./ Photo credit:
Radley et al., Public
Domain

3.1.3.2.1 Cortical Modulation

When a child experiences toxic stress or ACEs, the higher regions of the brain become less developed
since the brain is constantly activating the pathways to the lower, survival regions of the brain.
Neuroscientist Dr. Bruce Perry (1997) developed a model for understanding the functioning of the
layers of the brain in connection to each other called cortical modulation. In other words, how do the
higher layers modulate the lower levels of the brain? He has demonstrated that most brains that have
experienced high ACEs will not function as optimally as brains who have had adults help them develop
a strong stress response system. When looking at the number of connections in each of the layers in
children’s brains we see a difference in their function based on their experiences.

In a healthy brain where a child has low ACEs, the higher levels or cortical areas of the brain have the
most connections, and higher ratios. The thinking part of the brain is the strongest and therefore a
child would have a strong stress response system developing. The brain of a child with high ACEs will
have a ratio where the lower regions of the brian (brain stem etc.) are bigger than the higher thinking
regions (cortex). In these brains the lower regions of the brain have more connections and thus
downshifting happens in the brain more readily (Perry, 1997).

3.2.3.2.1 Resilience

Some children who experience ACEs and toxic stress can develop brains with better ratios than
others, even within the same family. We consider these children to have resilience. Resilience
requires supportive relationships and opportunities for skill building. These relationships can be
outside of the family, for example a teacher or coach, and are the active ingredient for developing
resilience. If children experiencing ACEs have access to these positive experiences, their brain can
reverse the ratio and develop a greater ability to handle the stress in their lives. These experiences
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 92
are called “Positive and Adverse Childhood Experiences,” or PACEs, and have a mitigating impact on
ACEs, leading to the best developmental outcomes for children who become adults who are
flourishing (Audage, 2021). A child’s temperament can also be a factor in developing resilience
(Center for Child & Family Well-Being, n.d.).

Tip

Building children’s resilience to ACEs is something you can do in your classroom by building positive
relationships, teaching self regulation skills and providing a safe place for kids to explore and learn
with positive guidance. You will learn more about these topics in upcoming chapters. You can also
learn about programs that are working to build resilience with children and families like the ones at
University of Washington’s Center for Child & Family Well-Being.

3.2.4 Trauma Informed Care and Education

Understanding how the brain develops and what can happen if children do not get positive, caring
experiences at home, helps teachers create classrooms that will benefit all children. One of the keys
to creating trauma informed care is understanding what the brain needs in order for a more optimal
outcome. We need to move from blaming the child to understanding them. Providing consistent care
and attachment with a teacher who is loving and compassionate is essential. Classrooms must be built
to allow for healthy, developmentally appropriate experiences that provide an enriched environment
for young brains to flourish.

Social Emotional Learning (SEL) programs in schools are helping children develop skills to build strong
pathways between the limbic and cortex layers of the brain (Calhoun et al., 2020). These programs
have demonstrated success in building a child’s resilience and emotional intelligence.

3.2.4.1 Elements of Trauma Informed Care (TIC)

According to Erdman et al. (2020), there are several elements that are an essential part of helping
kids overcome trauma and develop resilience. The first element is a safe and inviting environment
that includes structure, a variety of materials and providing thoughtful choices for children’s
activities. Secondly, children need strong, loving relationships with adults and their peers. These can
be fostered by following a child’s lead and implementing training in mindfulness. The third element is
an awareness of the importance of play for a child’s optimal development and also for helping them
learn to effectively manage stress. Lastly, they stress the importance of connecting with families to
create supportive partnerships. The researchers stress that we must not just treat individual
93 | CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
behaviors but the whole child and to remember that creating a trauma sensitive classroom benefits
all children.

Tip

Self care is an important part of being an Early Childhood Professional. People working with young
children and their families can experience burnout or compassion fatigue . We can combat these by
taking the time to care for our own needs through positive self care like exercise, mindfulness and
other brain healthy strategies (Stein et al., 2022); also see NAEYC’s Preventing Compassion Fatigue:
Caring for Yourself for additional self-care strategies.

Summary

Understanding the brain, how it develops, how it functions and what it needs for optimal development is
essential in creating a developmentally appropriate early childhood classroom. Once we understand
how to provide a place where children’s brains are getting what they need, we are more likely to reverse
negative impacts they may be experiencing elsewhere. This chapter has given you a brief overview of
brain development and function and the necessary elements a child needs in the early years and beyond.

10 Things Every Brain Needs:

1. Proper nutrition
2. Proper hydration
3. Exercise
4. Adequate Sleep
5. Healthy Loving Relationships
6. Mindfulness
7. Limited screen time
8. Safe environments to live and learn in
9. Play
10. Time in Nature
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 94

Review Questions

1. What are the 4 basic parts of a neuron?

2. Does the message always get sent between neurons?
3. How do new neural pathways get built?
4. When is the most active time of neuron growth and connection?
5. Why is pruning necessary?
6. When is the brain most plastic?
7. Are windows of opportunity absolutes?
8. What are some elements of an enriched environment?
9. Why does sleep matter?
10. Are there boundaries to when myelin can develop in the brain?
11. What happens in the limbic system?
12. What is the prefrontal lobe responsible for?
13. Why should adults co view media with children?
14. Studies show children gain what from participating in Social Emotional programs?
15. Serve and Return activities help children develop what?
16. Why do positive and supportive adult relationships help children develop resilience?
17. Why is toxic stress bad for a child?
18. Why is self care important?
19. How can you implement the 10 things every brain needs into your classroom or life?
20. Visit a classroom and identify 5 things they are doing to support healthy brain development.

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matters
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Bornstein, M. H., & Esposito, G. (2023). Coregulation: A multilevel approach via biology and behavior.
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brain-120418

Burnham, M. M., Goodlin-Jones, B. L., Gaylor, E. E., & Anders, T. F. (2002). Use of sleep aids during the
first year of life. Pediatrics, 109(4), 594–601. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.109.4.594

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Calhoun, B., Williams, J., Greenberg, M., Domitrovich, C., Russell, M. A., & Fishbein, D. H. (2020). Social
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https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/brain-architecture/

Center on the Developing Child. (n.d.-b). How racism can affect child development. Harvard
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Center on the Developing Child. (2019). 5 steps for brain-building: Serve and return. Harvard
University. https://harvardcenter.wpenginepowered.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/
HCDC_ServeReturn_for_Parents_Caregivers_2019.pdf

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LeWine, H. E. (2024, April 3). Understanding the stress response: Chronic activation of this survival
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Marachi, R. (2016, October 25). American Academy of Pediatrics issues recommendations on

#screentime and exposure to cell phones. EduResearcher. https://eduresearcher.com/2016/10/25/
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Marcon, R. A. (2002). Moving up the grades: Relationship between preschool model and later school
success. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 4(1). https://ecrp.illinois.edu/v4n1/marcon.html

McCarthy, C. (2018, January 23). The crucial brain foods all children need. Harvard Health Publishing.
https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/brain-food-children-nutrition-2018012313168

Merriam-Webster. (2024, February 29). Stress. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved March

6, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/stress

Parker, C. B. (2015, May 7). Embracing stress is more important than reducing stress, Stanford
psychologist says. Stanford News. https://news.stanford.edu/2015/05/07/stress-embrace-
mcgonigal-050715/

Perry, B. D. (1997). Incubated in terror: Neurodevelopmental factors in the “cycle of violence.” In J. D.

Osofsky (Ed.), Children in a violent society (pp. 124-149). Guilford Press.

Pondiscio, R. (2020, April 22). Researchers warn about misuses of a common measure of childhood
trauma. Thomas B. Fordham Institute. https://fordhaminstitute.org/national/commentary/
researchers-warn-about-misuses-common-measure-childhood-trauma
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Radley, J. J., Sisti, H. M., Hao, J., Rocher, A. B., McCall, T., Hof, P. R., McEwen, B. S., & Morrison, J. H.
(2004). Chronic behavioral stress induces apical dendritic reorganization in pyramidal neurons of
the medial prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience, 125(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.neuroscience.2004.01.006

Rosanbalm, K.D., & Murray, D.W. (2017). Caregiver co-regulation across development: A practice
brief (OPRE Brief #2017-80). Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for
Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/
opre/report/co-regulation-birth-through-young-adulthood-practice-brief

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9(3),
185–211. https://doi.org/10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG

Stein, R., Garay, M., & Nguyen, A. (2022). It matters: Early childhood mental health, educator stress,
and burnout. Early Childhood Education Journal, 52, 333–344. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10643-022-01438-8

Webster, E. M. (2022). The impact of adverse childhood experiences on health and development in
young children. Global Pediatric Health, 9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333794X221078708 CC BY
NC.

Wheeler, R. B. (2016, April 23). Smart sips for healthy kids. WebMD Archives.
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Wilson, D., & Conyers, M. (2014, March 12). Move your body, grow your brain. Edutopia.
https://www.edutopia.org/blog/move-body-grow-brain-donna-wilson

Zhang, X., Li, X., Steffens, D. C., Guo, H. & Wang, L. (2019). Dynamic changes in thalamic connectivity
following stress and its association with future depression severity. Brain and Behavior, 9(12), 1-13.
https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1445 CC BY.

Websites you may want to explore further

Beyond Screen Time: Help Your Kids Build Healthy Media Use Habits, HealthyChildren.org

Center on the Developing Child, Harvard University

Common Sense Education, Digital Citizenship Curriculum

Institute for Learning and Brain Sciences, University of Washington

MyPlate, U.S. Department of Agriculture

Sleep Foundation
 CHAPTER 3 : BRAIN DEVELOPMENT | 98
Washington Department of Child Youth and Families

Zero to Three

Chapter Attribution

“Chapter 3 Brain Development by Christine Moon” is CC by 4.0

99 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND

DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

Child with arms

extended toward a
soap bubble/ Photo
Credit: Leo Rivas,
Unsplash license

Overview
Have you ever watched a toddler exploring their world and wondered – What are they thinking? How
are they learning? What will they do next? How can I help them grow? The science of how children
learn, grow, and relate to others is called developmental science, or child development. Child
development The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through adolescence] is
defined as the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through adolescence.

Humans have probably thought about how children learn, grow, and relate to others since mothers
started having babies, but formal scientific inquiry about child development has only been around for
about 100 years, making it a fairly new science (Senn et al., 1975). Knowledge gained from child
development science is helpful in building strong interactions with children to help them grow to their
full potential. In this chapter we will focus on conception through about age 8 years. This unique age
span has been determined by developmental scientists as the early childhood period Ages birth
through age eight], or the period of life in which the most rapid development takes place.
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 100

Objectives

• Describe how young children’s development can be conceptualized in four main areas: physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social.
• Understand how children develop to support children’s individual developmental progression.
• Recognize how individual and cultural differences impact development such that development is
not identical for each child.
• Identify high-quality classroom settings and practices that support individual and cultural
developmental needs.

Key Terms

• Atypical development
• Child development
• Culturally relevant pedagogy
• Developmentally appropriate practice in context
• Developmental domains
• Differentiation
• Early childhood period
• Emotion regulation
• Executive function
• Fine motor skills
• Gross motor skills
• Joint attention
• Metacognition
101 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

• Neurodivergent
• Open-ended questions
• Reciprocal interactions
• Separation anxiety
• Temperament
• Toxic stress
• Typical development

4.1 How Development Unfolds

Child walking away

from camera on a
path of leaves/
Photo Credit:
Andreas160578,
Pixabay License
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 102
The young child is a fascinating growing being. Anyone who has spent time with a newborn notices
how they smile at a familiar caregiver or figure out how to pick up a rattle and shake it to make a
delightful sound. Adults are often captivated at the first time a toddler figures out how to stack blocks
to form a tower or when a preschooler hugs a friend who is feeling sad. Likewise, families often
treasure such milestones as when a child takes her first steps or learns to ride a bike. These small
moments in a child’s life provide adults with glimpses into human behavior and help us to understand
what particular aspects are developing within a child. These areas of development are referred to as
developmental domains. Developmental domains Specific areas in which growth occurs – Physical,
Cognitive, Emotional, and Social] are specific areas in which growth occurs. There are four main
developmental domains in child development:

• Physical
• Cognitive
• Social
• Emotional

These domains are not stand-alone categories of development. They interact and overlap in
important ways. Development unfolds through interactions between the child, the people around
them, and their environment. The child’s environment is the context of the home, school, place of
worship, neighborhood, society, and all the interactions a child has with people on a regular basis.
Children require certain triggers from their caregivers and their environment in order to develop. For
instance, to develop language, a child needs to be listened to and spoken to by an adult. To learn how
to walk, a child needs space, safety and freedom of movement. Development unfolds both naturally
and with a thoughtfully planned environment designed by adults.

Myth vs. Fact

Myth: Infants need lots of fancy toys and products to help them learn.

Fact: The best resource that infants have to help them learn is an attentive caregiver. While many toy
companies lead caregivers to believe that battery-powered toys can help infants learn language and
gain knowledge, these products can often hinder language development, and there is no evidence
that they promote learning. Face-to-face interactions, singing, and playing with household items and
simple basic toys (such as blocks and balls) are best for helping infants learn (Dombro et al., 2020;
National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], n.d.).
103 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

4.2 Role of Environment on Development

The way that children are cared for impacts how they develop. An environment filled with loving,
responsive caregivers works wonders on a child’s physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
development. Conversely, an environment filled with toxic stress Physical or emotional abuse,
neglect, witnessing of physical or emotional abuse of another person, or extreme poverty] will slow
down healthy development of children and those adults caring for them. Signs of toxic stress include
physical or emotional abuse, neglect, or witnessing of physical or emotional abuse of another person.
Toxic stress, which can lead to childhood trauma, can be detrimental to the early childhood stage of
development (Center on the Developing Child, n.d.). It can also impact social, emotional, and cognitive
development, lower academic achievement, and lead to long term health-related issues such as
cardiovascular problems. It is important to create an environment for the child that includes safe,
sensitive, and supportive care.

4.3 Developmental Domains

Developmental
Domains. Photo
Credit: Angela
Blums. CC BY 4.0

While development is complex, four domains have been identified: physical, cognitive, social, and
emotional. This section will introduce each of these developmental domains and explain some
important features of each domain. Keep in mind that developmental domains are interrelated, so
consider as you read the next sections how one aspect of development could affect another.
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 104

4.3.1 Physical Development

Physical development includes all things related to the body. Sometimes this domain is called
biological development because it also encompasses processes that occur inside the body at the
biological level.

4.3.1.1 Brain Development

Brain development is an important part of physical development. Infant brains begin to develop while
still in utero. Because of this, it is important to support fetal brain development through proper
nutrition and care of the mother. Once born, infant brains develop rapidly. Brain connections, called
synapses, develop rapidly during the first few months to the first 3 years of life, making this period
critical for healthy brain development. During infancy, babies require responsive interactions with
trusted caregivers that include verbal, expressive, face-to-face engagement (National Research
Council, & Institute of Medicine Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood
Development, 2000; Tierney & Nelson, 2009). Additionally, and above all, they require a safe and
secure home environment for healthy brain development.

4.3.1.2 Motor Skills

Children’s bodies are designed to wiggle and move. Motor skills refer to a child’s ability to move and
coordinate motion using their bodies. Motor skills are generally organized into two categories: gross
motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills Movement related to the large muscle groups in
the body] are related to the large muscle groups in the body: walking, running, climbing, balancing,
and jumping are examples of gross motor skills. Fine motor skills Movement related to small muscle
groups in the body] are related to small muscle groups in the body. Grasping a spoon, holding a pencil,
stringing beads, and stacking blocks are examples of fine motor skills.
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Child Climbing Tree

in Park / Photo
Credit: Mushtag
Hussain, Pexels
License

In order for gross motor skills to develop successfully, infants and children must be given
opportunities to move their bodies freely, safely and without restriction, starting from birth (Adolph
& Robinson, 2015). This is why most pediatric physical therapists recommend against the use of so-
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 106
called “baby containers” – chairs, bouncy seats, swings, and jumpers that place an infant in an upright
position before their body is ready to do so on its own. These devices can hinder development.
Instead, babies should play on a blanket or mat and have a few minutes of “tummy time” each day
starting at birth (Adolph & Robinson, 2015). This helps to strengthen neck and shoulder muscles that
will later be used in crawling. As children begin to crawl and walk, soft climbers can help to develop
gross motor skills.

Once solid on their feet, children need opportunities to practice running, jumping, balancing, and
climbing. This is why daily outdoor play is vital. Playgrounds can be great places for children to
experiment with gross motor skills. Outdoor play in natural areas is also important. Consider the
difference between climbing stairs or monkey bars on a playground vs climbing the branches of a
strong, low, tree. Both offer opportunities for using arms and legs, but tree climbing allows children to
use muscle groups in new positions and learn to balance in an irregular position (Haywood & Getchell,
2014). It also engages their brain to plan and consider which moves to make (Allen et al., 2011). If no
safe climbing trees are available, learning to walk or run on uneven ground in a field or meadow can
also be beneficial. It is important for children to move their bodies in many different ways.

Playing outdoors on playgrounds and in nature provides children opportunities to take risks. When
children climb, they not only build muscle and coordination, but also learn to overcome fears. This can
lead to greater self-confidence that carries over into other areas as well (Gull et al., 2018). This is one
way in which outdoor activity supports not only physical but also emotional development.

Fine motor skills begin to develop in infancy when the child first learns to grasp a toy such as a rattle
or a cloth. Later, they learn to throw a ball, hold a crayon, and use scissors. Children can be given
opportunities to use their hands in a variety of ways using age-appropriate materials. Young children
love to practice fine motor skills using real-life items, such as bucking the clasp of a highchair strap or
zipping a zipper. This has the added benefit of fostering independence which supports emotional
development. Children can coordinate their finger movements while learning a zipper and they can
also feel proud when they can zip their own jacket to go outside. Opportunities for fine motor
development are everywhere and can be as simple as picking up a leaf and ripping it into tiny pieces.
Teachers can foster fine motor skills by making sure to create challenging activities based on each
child’s developmental level.

4.3.2 Cognitive Development

Cognitive development includes all things related to thinking and learning. There are three areas of
cognitive development that undergo significant change in the early years and will be discussed in the
following section: problem solving, memory, and language acquisition.
107 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

A Young Girl Sitting

on the Bed while
Reading a Book/
Photo Credit:
cottonbro studio,
Pexels license

4.3.2.1 Executive Function

One key area of cognitive development is called executive function Collection of processes that
encompass attention, working memory, and inhibition]. Executive function is the collection of
processes that encompasses attention, working memory, and inhibition, and it develops between the
ages of about 3 and 6 years (Best & Miller, 2020; Zelazo & Müller, 2010). Attention is the ability of a
child to focus on something, like carefully concentrating on a picture in a book. Working memory
refers to the ability of a child to maintain several pieces of information in the mind for a short period
of time. This could be recalling some items present in the picture in the book, like a tree, a bird, and a
house. Inhibition is the ability to block out distractions, such as other background designs on the book
or even the sounds of other children playing in the classroom. Development of executive function is
key to building social relationships, acquiring, and maintaining learning, and eventual academic
success (Zelazo & Müller, 2010). For example, if a child is going to learn how to add using blocks, she
might have to first pay attention to the blocks in front of her, remember that she had three blocks on
one side and one block on the other side, and inhibit the distraction of other toys on the table. All of
these components come together with executive function. It is important to remember that because
executive function is developing between the ages of about 3 and 6 years, young children do not have
the ability to pay attention to things for long periods of time. Nor do they have the ability to
remember multiple pieces of information or block out distractions. This is important when planning
activities for young children. Setting the expectation that young children should sit at a table and
focus on one activity will result in frustration of both children and teachers, as children will
communicate their lack of executive function with a lot of wiggles and movement! This is healthy, and
teachers should keep this in mind when planning activities that require concentration.
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 108
Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) A diagnosable condition in which an
individual has difficulty concentrating and inhibiting behaviors] need extra support to develop
executive function, as concentration and inhibition are particularly difficult. Children who are in
chaotic environments or those who have experienced toxic stress and trauma may struggle with the
development of healthy executive function. Strategies that have been successful in promoting
executive function are games and activities that practice concentration and task-switching (Center on
the Developing Child, 2014). Such games need to be fun, not tied to punishment or reward. Deep
breathing and meditation have also been shown to aid in the development of executive function for
children who are struggling.

4.3.2.2 Problem Solving

When children encounter a challenge, they learn to practice problem solving. Problem solving A
system by which children use step-by-step strategies and logic to complete cognitive tasks] involves
assessing the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and reflecting on the outcome. Children
may do this without actively knowing that they are carrying out these four steps. For instance, if a
child is building a block tower on a soft carpet, it might be unstable and fall down. The child might
think of a solution: get a tray or a large book to set on the carpet to create a flat surface. The child
then gets the tray, builds the block tower, and then checks to see if it is wobbly or stable. Problem
solved! Children solve many such problems each day during play. It is helpful for teachers to facilitate
problem solving by asking open-ended questions Questions that do not have a yes or no answer;
used to facilitate thinking], or questions that do not have a yes or no answer. This type of question
helps the child see the main features and problems in the situation, encourages thinking about
solutions, and suggests solutions, all without giving the answer. An exchange might look like the
following:

Example

Teacher: “It looks like your block tower is falling down a lot. I wonder why?”

Child “Because the carpet is bumpy and soft”

Teacher: “How can you make a more stable base for your tower?”

Child: “I could put a tray underneath it!”

Teacher: “Want to try that and see what happens?”

This exchange of open-ended questions helps the child learn to problem solve on their own. The use
of the phrase “see what happens” encourages the child to engage in the fourth step of problem
109 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE
solving, assessing the outcome. After all, a problem-solving strategy may not succeed, and the child
might have to try something else. This is all part of the process of learning.

4.3.2.3 Theory of Mind

As young as 2 ½ years old most children start to figure out how other people are thinking and feeling.
The study of this ability is referred to as theory of mind, a cognitive ability supporting social
development. One of the hallmarks of theory of mind ability for a child to infer the thoughts and
feelings of others] is the ability to pick up cues and understand the mental states of others. For
example, if a child sees a friend crying, he might infer that the friend is sad. It is difficult for a young
child to get out of their own head. Children see things from their own perspective and have a difficult
time understanding the perspectives of others. So, if a child is happily playing and sees another child
crying, it takes some time before they can understand that what they are thinking and feeling is not
the same as what others are thinking and feeling. It is clear to see the connection between this
cognitive ability and building social relationships (Lecce et al., 2015). Children with Autism A
diagnosable condition in which children have difficulty with social interactions and communication,
sometimes with rigid behaviors] have difficulty with theory of mind, and many children with Autism
do not develop it at all. For this reason, Autism interventions include instruction on how to read the
mental states of others (Askham, 2022; Beeger et al., 2011).

4.3.2.4 Self-reflection

Self-reflection is the ability to think about one’s own thoughts. This is sometimes referred to as
metacognition An ability to think about one’s own thoughts], which develops between middle
childhood and adolescence. However, during early childhood there are signs of self-reflection, or
thinking back on one’s thoughts. Self-reflection is helpful in problem solving and emotional
development. If a child has solved a problem such as mixing the colors just right for a painting, the
teacher might ask “Why did you decide to do it this way?” or “Tell me about why you chose to mix
those colors?”. This helps children to think through their process and helps them remember the
strategy for next time (Bebko et al., 2014). Self-reflection in early childhood is best facilitated by
teachers using probing questions such as the examples above, but older children can engage in self-
reflection through journaling or planned exchanges with peers.

4.3.2.5 Language

Language development is a very broad and rich area of development that encompasses much more
than the scope of this section. Nevertheless, this section will highlight the key points of language
development in early childhood.

Children learn to understand language in infancy through responsive interactions with adults. Adults
should speak with and listen to infants starting at birth, making eye contact and using a gentle tone.
When infants begin to babble, adults can take turns talking and letting the baby babble. This sets up
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 110
the format for later turn taking in conversation. Throughout childhood, children will usually
understand more words than they can speak. As children begin to understand language, they can
answer simple questions with a yes or no response by shaking their heads or using simple sign
language. It has become a common practice to teach hearing infants a few common signs to facilitate
communication earlier than when they begin speaking (Rymanowicz & Cox, 2020; Thompson et al,
2007). Infants with hearing impairments can be taught sign language as soon as challenges are
detected.

Books should be read and stories told to children starting in infancy, as this helps develop new
vocabulary and creates a connection to literature that will later be important for learning. It also
helps strengthen the relationship of the child and adult. Joint attention The action of a child and a
caregiver focusing on the same object or concept at the same time] is the action of a child and a
caregiver focusing on the same object or concept at the same time. This shared experience helps to
form new vocabulary. Children learn new words much more quickly and efficiently with joint
attention than they ever could by viewing a video. In fact, there is evidence that suggests that
television can actually hinder language development rather than help (Byeon & Hong, 2015;
Chonchaiya & Pruksananonda, 2008; Zimmerman et al., 2007). Here is an example of joint attention
in action.

Example

Joint Attention

Setting: Teacher Tanisha and 18-month-old Sofia are looking out the window. Teacher Tanisha sees
some autumn leaves falling from the tree.

Teacher Tanisha: “Look Sofia, leaves are falling from the tree.”

[Sofia looks at the leaves]

[Teacher Tanisha and Sofia look at each other and make eye contact]

Sofia: Smiles and says “leaves!”

This action has three steps: adult and child focus on the same object, adult and child make eye
contact, adult names the object. In this way, children add many new words to their vocabulary, the
words are presented in a real-life context, and they strengthen social relationships with their
caregivers.

Once children begin to speak, language use should be encouraged through open-ended questions and
topics that interest the child (Bebko et al., 2014). Songs, rhymes, and books are all effective and fun
ways to encourage language, but everyday conversation is also helpful. Children like to be involved in
the real-life daily activities of adults, so engaging a child while doing tasks around the classroom is a
111 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE
good way to support language (Golubović et al., 2022; Guidepost Montessori, n.d.). Mealtimes are
another opportunity for language development, as eye contact is easy while sitting at a table.

When learning to speak, children will inevitably make errors with grammar and syntax. The best way
to support language development is to model the correct grammar and word order rather than
correcting the child. This avoids the embarrassment that might come with being called out on making
a mistake, and language modeling is simply a better way for the brain to remember how to use
grammar (Leung et al., 2021). An exchange might look something like this:

Example

Child: “After breakfast, I goed outside.”

Teacher: “After breakfast you went outside? How fun! What did you do outside?”

Child: “I played with Weihua out there”

Gently modeling correct language usage is more effective than correcting children’s grammar.

By using language modeling, the teacher provides an example of when and how to use the word in a
certain situation, thus helping the child remember it for next time.

Two children with

arms extended into
a stream of water
coming from
above./ Photo
Credit: Abigail
Keenan. Usplash
License
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 112

4.3.3 Social Development

Social development includes all things related to interacting with others. Parents, family, teachers,
and peers all have special relationships with children, and those relationships are also related to one
another. Teachers form relationships with parents, which benefits the child, and adults can facilitate
communication between children. At the center of this is the child, who is driven to form relationships
with adults and children alike.

4.3.3.1 Relationships with Caregivers

Infants begin to form relationships with caregivers at birth. Forming a strong relationship with a
primary caregiver gives a baby a feeling of safety and security. The primary caregiver is typically the
mother, but can also be the father, relative or other main person in the infant’s life. Eventually, infants
form relationships with secondary caregivers like relatives and teachers. Healthy relationships are
characterized by things like reciprocal interactions Back and forth communication between a child
and caregiver. Can be verbal or nonverbal], sensitivity to emotions, a warm, calm, voice, and lots of
positive language. These are good ways to interact with children of all ages but are particularly
important with infants as toddlers. Children may form preferences to particular caregivers and be
upset when one is not available. Similarly, children around from about 9 to 18 months of age may go
through separation anxiety A fear of being separated from their primary caregiver], or a fear of being
separated from their primary caregiver (Swanson, 2021). This is normal, and children’s emotions
should be respected during this time. They do not understand that their mother will return later,
which can be upsetting. Teachers can provide support by recognizing the child’s emotions and
providing physical comfort (if the child wants it). Using phrases like “I see you are sad that mommy has
left” or “You are feeling upset right now” are helpful in supporting the child through the tough time.

Fact

Infants and young children need lots of positive attention

Have you ever heard the phrase “Don’t hold the baby too much, you might spoil him”? Well, it was
once widely believed that paying infants too much attention might “spoil” them. This has now been
shown to be untrue. In fact, the best way to create a healthy social relationship with an infant is to
engage in physical touch and face-to-face communication (Berecz et al., 2020; Bigelow & Williams,
2020; Norholt, 2020). Back and forth, reciprocal communication is important for developing a
trusting, healthy bond between a child and a caregiver. Sharing hugs, playing peek-a-boo, talking
about what is going on, and narrating a child’s world (“We are going to change your diaper and then
lay you down for a nap”) can help babies feel a sense of security and safety with their caregiver. Bonus
– these interactions also promote language development! The benefits of positive interactions are
113 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

not limited to infants – older children also develop healthier bonds with their caregivers when they
engage in positive, back-and-forth communication (Romeo et al., 2018; Walsh, 2018).

4.3.3.2 Temperament

Temperament An infant’s regular way of reacting with their environment] is a developmental

characteristic that intersects social, emotional, and physical development, and because it has genetic
underpinnings, it is thought to be “inborn.” When most people think of genetics, they think of physical
traits such as eye color or hair texture. While these are genetically inherited characteristics, genetics
are also involved in a child’s disposition, which can later become a key part of their personality.
Temperament is an infant’s regular way of reacting with their environment, and is categorized as
either easy, difficult, or slow to warm up. This is measured by several factors including: smiling and
laughter; regularity in eating and sleep habits; approach or withdrawal; adaptability to new
situations; intensity of responsiveness; general cheerfulness or unpleasantness; distractibility or
persistence, and soothability. Parents of multiple children often report how their first child’s
temperament differed from their second: “Jorge was so quiet and peaceful as a baby. He slept all day
and never cried! Carlo on the other hand, fussed and cried all day. We thought he might never grow
out of it!” It is important to know that babies of all temperaments can grow up to be happy, healthy,
and balanced individuals.

Children’s temperament does indeed impact their behavior as an infant and this is a good example of
how children’s genetic disposition can interact with their environment to help them develop. This is
also an example of how different developmental domains can overlap. What is biological can also be
social and emotional. The relationship between a child’s temperament and a caregiver’s personality is
sometimes referred to as goodness of fit. If an infant has a difficult temperament, she may have
frequent periods of intense crying, be difficult to soothe, and may not fall asleep easily. If she has a
primary caregiver who is ready for a challenge and sees this baby as an individual who needs love and
understanding, then they have a good “goodness of fit” (Bird et al., 2006). On the other hand, if an
infant has an easy temperament and a caregiver who does not share her sunny disposition, they may
not have a “goodness of fit.”

That is why it is important for caregivers of multiple children to be adaptable to multiple infant
temperaments. Each child is an individual, and no child is better or worse than another. Further, there
is no perfect temperament. Children are who they are, and it is up to the important adults in their
lives to respect that and treat all children with love and care.

4.3.3.3 Relationships with Peers

As children grow and mature, they begin to show interest in other children. At first, it may be just a
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 114
10-month-old watching other children playing on a playground. This may not seem like much but
observing older children at play lays the groundwork for later social interactions. Later, children will
play with toys alongside one another, but not yet interact. Adults may be eager for children to form
friendships with others, but this time of play is important for children to experience before they move
into play involving rules and negotiation.

A great deal of peer relationship building is in the context of play. Play is, after all, the work of
childhood, and this is what children spend most of their waking time doing. During play, children learn
the rules of games, how to read a peer’s emotions, and how to engage in social problem solving
(Luckenbill et al., 2019). If a group of 5-year-old children are playing a game of hide and seek, younger
children who are new to the game will quickly learn the rules from the others. If two children are
playing with crayons and one takes the crayon from the other, the ensuing frustration will be evident.
In this way, children learn to read the emotions of peers.

Perhaps the most interesting development is social problem solving. When children encounter a
conflict, it can disrupt their play, and if there is one thing, we know to be true about children, it is that
they do not care for their play to be interrupted. This motivates both children to solve the conflict as
quickly as possible in order to continue play. Take an example of two children playing in the kitchen
dramatic play area. Both children want to cook, but there are only enough materials for one to stir the
soup. A conflict arises, and in order to navigate this, the children decide that one will stir the soup and
the other will chop the vegetables. This is an example of sophisticated negotiations and problem
solving. Both children need to regulate their emotions, come up with alternative activities, and decide
who will do which activity. If they give up at any time during the process, then the game is over. This
type of problem-solving behavior in the context of play is highly complex and takes a lot of practice.
Teachers can facilitate this by stepping in to help regulate emotions, brainstorm alternative activities,
or help decide who will do which activity, but only if it seems that the children need help.
115 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

Two children
playing in the sand
together./Photo
Credit: Dhammika
Heenpella. CC
BY-NC 2.0

4.3.4 Emotional Development

Emotional development includes the development of feelings, emotion regulation, and sense of self.
Emotional development is closely related to social development. They are so closely related, in fact,
that some frameworks of child development refer to them as socioemotional development or social-
emotional development. In this section we will discuss some main areas of development that lean
more toward the emotional side of things.
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 116
4.3.4.1 The Development of Emotions

When babies are born, they experience basic emotions such as contentment, interest, and distress.
After a few months they begin to experience fear, anger, happiness, and surprise. Later, when a sense
of self develops, more emotions come along such as guilt, pride, and embarrassment. It is important
for caregivers to allow children to express emotions freely and teach them to express them in socially
appropriate ways. One good way to do this is through modeling. Teachers can express mild frustration
and model strategies to overcome it. For example, a teacher may demonstrate frustration with
difficulty opening a jar, and then take some deep breaths before asking another teacher for help. This
is an effective way to teach children how to manage emotions. Another way is to read books that
depict children overcoming difficult emotions so that children have a benchmark that they can relate
to. Yet another approach is to encourage the expression of emotions through dance and art. Children
may also act out emotions through pretend play. Providing children space and time to work through
feelings in a pretend setting can be very helpful for the development of emotions.

4.3.4.2 Emotion Regulation

Emotion regulation a child’s ability to control or modify one’s own emotions] refers to a child’s ability
to control or modify one’s own emotions. It is closely tied to brain development. The underpinnings
for emotion regulation begin in infancy with the infant’s primary caregiver (Thompson & Meyer,
2007). When a baby cries for attention and is soothed by the caregiver, it sends signals to the brain
which help it to calm down. With this repeated action of crying and receiving comfort from a
caregiver, the baby’s brain slowly learns the process of how to regulate emotions. This process takes a
very long time, and more sophisticated emotion regulation occurs alongside executive function. This
means that between the ages of 3 and 5 years, children are able to learn to cope with frustrations in a
socially acceptable way (Raising Children Network, 2022).

Reflection

What are some activities that you could create to support child development? On which
developmental domains will your activities focus?

Children with ADHD can have persistent difficulty with emotion regulation, making it hard to succeed
in school environments designed for typically developing children (van Stralen, 2016). These children
need special support and understanding in order to work toward developing emotion coping
strategies (Gomes da Silva, 2008).
117 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

Resource

Some additional resources for developmental milestones and child development are The Washington
State Early Learning and Development Guidelines and the Harvard Center for the Developing Child.

4.4 Typical and Atypical Development

Lesieli Latu teaches

students with a
disability/ Photo
credit: Australia
Department of
Foreign Affairs and
Trade, CC BY 2.0

Most children develop in a similar way. Even when cultural backgrounds, geographic locations, and
personal characteristics vary, child development is generalizable. That does not mean, however, that
all children are the same. Some children develop more quickly in cognitive areas, but more slowly in
social areas. Some children develop more quickly in general than others, some more slowly. Children
are living, breathing beings, and some variation is normal. When a child develops in the way that we
expect, we refer to this as typical development When a child develops in a way that is congruent with
averages for a given age]. There is room for a good deal of variance in typical development. For
instance, babies can speak their first words anywhere from 9 to 13 months, and children begin to
write their own names anywhere from 3 to 5 years (Byington & Kim, 2017; Mayo Clinic, 2023). This
variance is healthy and normal.

Some variance is unusual, and that is referred to as atypical development When a child does not
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 118
develop in the way that is congruent with averages for a given age, causing a disturbance to everyday
activities]. Sometimes, atypically developing children are referred to as neurodivergent A
characteristic in which an individual’s brain and behavior differ from the majority of individuals],
which refers to how their brains function differently from typically developing individuals. Atypical
development can slow down growth in other areas of a child’s life. If a child cannot speak any words
by 15 or 16 months, it is considered atypical development (Brown et al., 2020). The ways and speed in
which children grow is measured by tools called developmental assessments. The caring adults in a
child’s life benefit from knowing how the child is developing, where they are struggling, and what to
expect next. Despite the name, developmental assessments are not complicated standardized tests
that a child must complete. Instead, they are carried out by the teacher through observing the child at
play or by playing small games and activities with the child. The teacher records the child’s
developmental milestones on the assessment and later shares it with the parents. If development is
not on track, teachers should speak with parents and connect them with specialists who can help.
Specialists will administer another type of assessment that is specially designed to diagnose
developmental disabilities. Atypically developing children benefit from early intervention programs
that can help them get back on track.

4.5 Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Early Childhood Educators have a wealth of resources to draw from as they plan ways to meet the
developmental needs of each of the children in their care. The National Association for the Education
of Young Children (NAEYC) is the main professional organization for Early Childhood Educators. The
NAEYC defines developmentally appropriate practice Methods that promote each child’s optimal
development and learning through a strengths-based, play-based approach to joyful, engaged
learning] as “methods that promote each child’s optimal development and learning through a
strengths-based, play-based approach to joyful, engaged learning” (NAEYC, 2020a, p. 5). It is the job
of teachers to make sure that our practice meets children’s developmental needs. For example, there
has been an unfortunate trend for modern preschools to include formal academic content taught at a
level meant for older children. These practices are not developmentally appropriate.
Developmentally appropriate practice dictates that any academic content should meet children’s
developmental needs first (NAEYCa, 2020). That means that children are given opportunities to learn
academic content that are in keeping with their developmental level – such as learning through play.

For a practice to be developmentally appropriate, it must consider developmental domains and a

child’s age, individual needs, and individual culture.

4.5.1 Developmental Domains

To consider development in planning curriculum means understanding what is appropriate at a given

age or stage of development. Developmental milestone charts (Centers for Disease Control, 2023)
can help with this. It is vital to know what children should be capable of at a given age of development
119 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE
and plan activities accordingly. For instance, we know that young children are concrete thinkers who
learn best by using real, tangible items rather than representations of items. If we want a group of
3-year-old children to learn about apples, we will give them real apples to smell, touch, see, and taste.
In this way, they can develop a long lasting, deep concept about apples. This is developmentally
appropriate. Offering them a book about apples is a useful support and vital for language
development, but the book alone will never give them the conceptual understanding about apples.
Likewise, well-meaning families often expect early childhood teachers to have children complete
worksheets in preschool. From what we know about child development, young children do not have
the executive function to allow them to sit in a chair for long periods of time to learn from worksheets
(National Center for Education Evaluation, 2022; Tomlinson, 2016). Further, their bodies are
designed to wiggle and move. Sitting at a desk will not help preschoolers learn. That is why many high-
quality early childhood programs focus on play-based learning.

4.5.2 Individual Needs

Considering an individual child’s needs means knowing what is appropriate for a given child. The way
this is determined is through developmental assessments. Curriculum should be tailored to each
child’s different developmental needs (NAEYC, 2020a). Perhaps there is an art activity in the
classroom in which children cut paper with scissors and glue it onto a larger sheet. If some children do
not have strong scissor skills, they may rip paper instead and use glue sticks to glue it down. In this
way, children’s individual developmental needs are met. They still are able to practice fine motor skills
with art, but the activity is not designed to limit children by ability level. This type of planning is the
one of the hallmarks of early childhood educators – the thoughtful practice of tailoring activities to
meet children’s individual needs. This practice is also referred to as differentiation The thoughtful
practice of tailoring activities to meet children’s individual needs], where the teacher understands
and implements the idea that “one size does not fit all.”

4.5.2.1 Cultural Context

To consider culture in developmentally appropriate practice is to keep in mind the context in which
the child is raised. Each family’s set of rules, way of communicating, neighborhood, history, status, and
environment is unique. While there are some universals, what is considered developmentally
appropriate for one culture may not be for another culture. For instance, the ways adults talk with
children can vary widely depending on the culture. Some cultures rely heavily on verbal
communication while others rely more on non-verbal communication. Cultures can also vary on their
norms around children’s freedoms to move freely around a space. Some cultures allow children to
move freely while others expect that children ask permission from an adult. Differences in these
norms may mistakenly be seen as behavior issues by teachers. It is important to consider cultural
context when supporting child development.
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 120

Reflection

Consider how NAEYC defines context in relation to developmentally appropriate practice:

“Context—everything discernible about the social and cultural contexts for each child, each educator,
and the program as a whole” (2020a, p. 7).

What are some examples in which cultural context might interact with child development
milestones?

Social learning occurs in many contexts (family, school, etc.). How might these different contexts
influence learning in different ways? How might societal inequities impact social learning?

Culturally relevant pedagogy The practice of including ideas and artifacts that refer to a child’s
individual culture] is the practice of including ideas and artifacts that refer to a child’s individual
culture. This concept also extends to assessments. When measuring development using assessments,
it is important to consider the cultural relevancy of the assessment. Does the assessment allow for
children who speak multiple languages or those who do not have a familiarity with classroom
materials? Imagine, for instance, that your assessment uses American football as examples. What
happens when you have a child in your class who has just moved from India? Will her assessment be
meaningful if she doesn’t understand the rules of American football? Teachers can be mindful of such
differences when assessing children. The best way to stay informed about cultural practices is to
develop reciprocal communication and strong relationships with families.

4.5.3 NAEYC Guidelines for Developmentally Appropriate Practice

NAEYC has outlined guidelines that help ECE teachers engage in developmentally appropriate
practice. These guidelines are summarized below, but for a deeper look please refer to the
Developmentally Appropriate Practice Position Statement from the NAEYC (2020a).

The guidelines are as follows:

1) Creating a caring community of learners

2) Engaging in reciprocal partnerships with families and fostering community connections

3) Observing, documenting, and assessing children’s development and learning

4) Teaching to enhance each child’s development and learning

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5) Planning and implementing an engaging curriculum to achieve meaningful goals

6) Demonstrating professionalism as an early childhood educator

These guidelines go beyond child development and reach to the larger context of teaching and
learning in early childhood settings. Each of the six guidelines plays a role in creating a
developmentally appropriate learning experience for children.

Creating a caring community of learners refers to how teachers create respectful interactions,
positive relationships, and a supportive environment that focuses on the strengths that each child and
family brings.

Engaging in reciprocal partnerships with families and fostering community connections refers to how
teachers establish two-way communication with families that respects varying communication styles,
create multiple types of opportunities for family participation, and use families as a source of
information for each child. It is important to also consider the community to which the program
belongs and develop practices that honor and respect the community.

Observing, documenting, and assessing children’s development and learning is how teachers measure
how children are progressing in their development. This refers to watching and systematically
observing children at play, keeping track of these observations using some type of system or tool, and
later using that information to draw conclusions about how a child is meeting developmental goals.

Teaching to enhance each child’s development and learning means that teachers use child
development principles to foster learning. One main way to achieve this is through play-based
learning. It also means that teachers use direct instruction in effective ways that meet children’s
needs and create learning experiences that are varied in format and complexity.

Planning and implementing an engaging curriculum to achieve meaningful goals refers to taking time
to reflect and consider children’s individual developmental goals and create learning experiences
around those goals. These goals come from the observations and assessments that have been
previously carried out. Curriculum should also include all developmental domains (physical, cognitive,
emotional, and social) and learning content areas (art, music, math, science, and language/literacy).

Demonstrating professionalism as an early childhood educator is achieved in many ways. One way to
demonstrate professionalism is to follow NAEYC’s position statement on Professional Standards and
Competencies for Early Childhood Educators (2020b).

Reflection
 CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE | 122

Imagine you are the teacher in a classroom of two- and three-year-olds. What developmentally
appropriate considerations would you take when designing an art activity?

Summary

Understanding child development is a vital skill for all early childhood teachers. Knowing the key
features of the developmental domains- physical, cognitive, social, and emotional is a good start. Making
sure that both typically developing and atypically developing children’s needs are met is a requirement
of good early childhood education. Implementing developmentally appropriate practice is critical to
quality teaching. As with all things, understanding child development and its connection to
developmentally appropriate practice takes time. It means seeking new knowledge and staying
connected to the children in your care.

Review Questions

1. Consider the four main areas of child development. How could you describe these four areas
of development to a parent? What examples would you use?
2. What benefits are there for children when they play outdoors in natural areas?
3. What types of questions can an adult use to promote children’s problem solving?
4. How can caregivers best support a healthy relationship with infants?
5. Around what age might children be able to regulate their emotions in socially acceptable
ways?
6. What are some ways in which teachers in early childhood classrooms can support children in
the four developmental domains?
123 | CHAPTER 4: CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICE

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CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND

INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION

Diversity, Equity
and Inclusion/
Photo credit:
Ninderjit Gill, CC
BY 4.0

Overview
This chapter serves as an introductory exploration into diversity, equity, and inclusion, and
highlighting their fundamental role in a teacher’s educational journey. We will define and examine
diversity , [ GL] equity , and [ GL] inclusion education encompass a spectrum of educational methods
aimed at addressing different aspects of diversity, equity, and inclusion (Derman-Sparks et al., 2023).
Understanding and implementing these concepts are essential in early childhood education as they
foster a nurturing and inclusive learning environment. This environment ensures that every child
feels valued, respected, and supported in their unique growth and development journey. Developing a
deeper understanding of these concepts will provide us with insight and awareness to engage in
critical reflection on our teaching practices and the early learning systems we are part of, fostering a
more impactful and meaningful approach. With an increased understanding of how these concepts
shape our professional growth and impact our education system, we can become anti-bias, anti-racist,
and culturally responsive educators. Anti-bias, anti-racist and culturally responsive approaches are
approaches that are included under the umbrella of diversity, equity and inclusion education
(Derman-Sparks et al., 2023). Achieving anti-bias and anti-racist goals necessitates a dedication to
continuous adult growth and learning. Breaking down barriers and improving practices requires
intentional learning and action such as listening to other teachers, families and community
 CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 128
perspectives which may be very different from our own. Staying current in the use of teaching
practices that promote equity and inclusion is a professional commitment required of all early
childhood teachers.

Terminology found throughout this chapter will be from National Association of the Education of
Young Children (NAEYC), Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education position statement (2019).
The statement was developed and reviewed through a collaborative effort of a diverse group of
experts in early childhood education and diversity, equity and inclusion from across the nation. This
comprehensive position statement emphasized the integral role that early childhood educators have
in supporting children’s cultural identity development and ensuring they have access to equitable
learning experiences in early learning settings. This position statement details a multifaceted
approach to diversity, equity and inclusion providing specific recommendations for people working at
various programs involving early childhood education. Key terms, concepts and recommendations, in
this chapter, will come from this position statement.

Objectives

• Define diversity, equity and inclusion

• Describe social identities
• Explain the cycle of socialization
• Define Bias
• Describe what Racism looks in early childhood education
• Define Culturally Responsive Teaching
• List ways that you can engage in Anti Bias Education
• Identify how to include and support diverse families
• Describe Critical Reflection
129 | CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Key Takeaways

• Diversity
• Bias
• Culture
• Equity
• Privilege
• Racism
• Oppression
• Inclusion

5.1 Diversity
Figure 5.1

Boy Playing on Slide in Playground

 CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 130

Boy Playing on Slide

in Playground/
Photo credit:
Quang Nguyen
Vinh, Pexels License

As teachers, we have the incredible responsibility and honor of teaching and caring for children in our
classrooms and building intentional relationships with their families. Early childhood is a time where
children are learning their numbers and letters. It is also a time when children are developing their
own personal identities and learning about social identities, which are influenced by the cultural
beliefs and values of their family, of their classrooms and of society.

Diversity is defined by the NAEYC as:

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A variation among individuals, as well as within and across groups of individuals, in terms of
their backgrounds and lived experiences. These experiences are related to social identities,
including race, ethnicity, language, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, social
and economic status, religion, ability status, and country of origin. (2019, p. 17)

Diversity is the differences among people and is a term that refers to all people and not just to some
people (Derman-Sparks et al., 2023).

The essence of this definition of diversity shifts our focus from merely acknowledging differences to
recognizing the significance these differences have had on shaping individuals’ experiences. In this
section, we will learn that diversity is not just appreciating and acknowledging differences, it is
actively reflecting on our own experiences and identities and how they influence and impact how we
are teaching. This definition specifically highlights the experiences that people have based on
differences. In this chapter, the variations among individuals are depicted as social identities. Social
identities refer to categories that have been socially constructed. This term, socially constructed,
means that these categories were established by societal norms, beliefs, and practices rather than
being inherent or naturally occurring. Importantly, these socially constructed categories carry
significant implications for individuals’ lives, influencing their opportunities, experiences, and
interactions within society (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). Understanding social construction is
important because it allows us to recognize that many aspects of our social reality are not fixed or
objective but are instead influenced by historical, cultural, and societal factors. Social construction
highlights the power dynamics and inequalities inherent in social systems and emphasizes the
importance of critically examining and challenging dominant narratives and structures to promote
social justice and equity (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).

Below are beginning definitions of the social identity groups listed in the definition.

Race is a social-political construct that categorizes and ranks groups of human beings on the
basis of skin color and other physical features (NAEYC, 2019).

Ethnicity refers to “people bound by a common language, culture and spiritual traditions, and/
or ancestry” (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017, p. 45).

Sex is the biological or genetic markers that distinguish male and female bodies and refers to
one’s genitals, body structure and is assigned at birth (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).

Gender is the assigned sex given at birth that has prescribed roles and behaviors and
expectations; gender identity is the development of one’s self as a male or female in relations to
others; and gender expression is the gender that a person presents to the world (Sensoy &
DiAngelo, 2017).

Sexual Orientation is whom a person is sexually attracted to (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020).

Social and Economic Status refers to the financial and social conditions of a person which
 CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 132
determines their access to the institutions and resources of society (Derman-Sparks et al,
2020).

Religion is a faith and worship into a particular system of beliefs.

Ability Status includes the ability that children have to do something and acknowledge
disabilities including a physical, cognitive, emotional, or neruo-divergent challenge that impacts
a person’s abilities in some areas of daily living and learning (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020;
NAEYC, 2019).

These are just the primary social identities or the social groups. We could include language,
citizenship/nationality and family structure as well. The social groups we are born into or become a
part of later in life are shaped by social interactions, cultural norms, and societal structures. They
influence how individuals are perceived by others and how they navigate social relationships and
systems. These categories are constructed through social interactions, institutions, and systems,
shaping individuals’ perceptions of themselves and others based on characteristics such as race,
ethnicity, gender, sexuality, class, religion, and nationality. Social identities have played a significant
role in shaping individuals’ experiences, opportunities, and access to resources within society (Sensoy
& DiAngelo, 2017).

Social identity categories have been created and perpetuated by society and have been influenced by
various factors such as culture, history, politics, and social norms (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). While
individuals may have agency in how they identify within these categories, the creation and
reinforcement of social identity categories primarily occur within broader societal contexts (Sensoy &
DiAngelo, 2017). Furthermore, we learn what a group is by also learning about what it is not (Sensoy
& DiAngelo, 2017). Therefore, historically many of these categories have been considered binary. For
instance, individuals were often categorized as either male or female, or as either white or a person of
color. However, we now understand that this is an oversimplification. These social categories are not
binary; they exist along spectrums. For example, gender identity can vary along a continuum
throughout one’s life, and race, as a social construct, is subject to changes in societal usage and
individual interpretation over time.We have children who identify as bi-racial and embrace multiple
social groups. It is crucial to recognize that these categories are nuanced and have sometimes been
used in ways that stigmatize rather than fostering positive connections with one’s identity.

A note to reflect on is the differences between social identities and personal identities. Personal
identities are the unique characteristics, traits, experiences, and attributes that define an individual
as a unique person (Derman-Sparks et al, 2020). These aspects of identity are deeply personal and
can include factors such as personality traits, talents, interests, values, beliefs, and life experiences.
Personal identities are shaped by individual experiences, choices, and self-perceptions. They
contribute to an individual’s sense of self and personal identity, influencing how they see themselves
and how they see and navigate the world around them. You may have learned about personal
identities in our children’s development chapter.
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When we focus on personal identities it can oversimplify the impact of social identities. We need to
recognize the complexity and diversity of individual identities while also acknowledging the systemic
barriers and inequalities that exist based on social group membership. By valuing and respecting
individuals’ personal identities while also challenging societal norms and prejudices associated with
social identities, we can work towards creating a more just and equitable classroom and society for
all.

Reflection

What social identity groups do you belong to?

What are other identities that categorize and differentiate people that are not listed?

Do you think our social identities influence how we interact and engage with other people whose
identities are different from ours?

5.1.1 Culture & the Cycle of Socialization

Culture plays a central role in shaping individuals’ social identities by providing frameworks for
understanding, interpreting, and expressing identity within the context of broader societal and
cultural norms. Culture is closely connected to social identities as it plays a significant role in shaping
how individuals perceive themselves and are perceived by others within society.

Culture is the experiences, language, values and beliefs that people share at a given time and place.
Our cultural ways of being can be as simple and visible as what we have learned to like to eat; what we
don’t like to eat; the words we use, language we speak; how we dress; and what music we like to listen
to. Culture is also complex and invisible. It is the deeply held beliefs and values we have that influence
the daily decisions we make. These beliefs can be about what eye contact should look like; touching;
relationships with our elders; the way we raise our children; and what role families should play in our
lives. There is a lot under the surface that we have learned, and we don’t see or are aware of and those
cultural ways of being become automatic.

Ultimately culture shapes and frames how we understand, view, and interact with the world around
us and what we learn depends on what cultural and social groups we belong to. Culture acts as a lens
through which we understand and make sense of our surroundings. Our cultural backgrounds,
including the social groups we belong to, shape our perspectives, beliefs, values, and behaviors. What
we learn, how we learn it, and what knowledge is considered important or relevant are all influenced
by the cultural and social contexts in which we exist. In essence, our cultural and social identities play
a crucial role in shaping our worldview and guiding our experiences and interactions within society.
For example, it is possible to learn a new culture by moving to a new country or area, by a change in
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our economic status, or by having a disability. We all belong to many cultural and social groups. When
we have similar culture with others, we usually get along better with or feel more comfortable with
them (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020).

Reflection

Think about the people who are important people in your life. What do you have in common with
them? How does this commonality make you feel when you engage with people who have similar
cultural ways of being as you?

Think about the people you know who are different from you. How do you feel when you engage with
them? What about with those who may not speak the same language as you or eat the same foods as
you?

We are socialized into cultural ways of knowing and acting based on the various cultural and social
identity groups we are a part of. This means that we learn and adopt specific cultural norms, values,
and behaviors based on the cultural and social groups we belong to. These norms and behaviors are
ingrained through socialization processes that occur within society. This process is deeply rooted
within social systems and structures, shaping our identities and perspectives in profound ways
(Harro, 2018).

Socialization is the process where we internalize the cultural norms and ideologies of society that we
have learned through the institutions we interact with i.e. education, church, peers, family, laws,
media, business etc. Harro (2018) notes that based on each of our social identities, we learn how to:

• Think about ourselves and others

• How to interact with others
• Understand what is expected of us based on a specific set of social identities we were born into
• Know what the consequences are, if we deviate from what is expected of us

What is important to understand is that these social identities that we have been assigned to, born
into, or become a part of later in life predisposes us into unequal roles (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017).
Then we are socialized into these roles both subtly and overtly by our family and various institutions,
including teachers, schools, media, religious institutions, and workplaces. These roles are enforced
through systematic training that dictates the “appropriate and acceptable ways to be” within that
identity, as outlined by Harro (2018).

In the U.S. the appropriate and acceptable ways to be have come from the dominant social groups.
The dominant social groups are men, white people, able-bodied neurotypical people, middle to upper
class people, cisgendered, heterosexuals, English speaking and middle-aged people. Subordinate or
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marginalized groups are women; people of color specifically historically racially oppressed groups;
gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender people; people with a disability; seniors and youth; and people
living in poverty. Understanding the socialization process and our connection with various groups will
enhance our understanding of the values and beliefs we have internalized, as well as our perceptions
of groups to which we do not belong.

Through culture, we acquire knowledge of and ideas about social identities and their implications. In
the context of early childhood education, NAEYC’s Advancing Equity definition acknowledges the
impact of these categorizations and connection to dominant social identities and how we have been
and are socialized. NAEYC diversity definition underscores that terms like “diverse” and “diversity”
are sometimes used as substitutes for non-White, a usage rejected by NAEYC. This rejection
challenges the notion that Whiteness represents the norm against which diversity is measured
(NAEYC, 2019, p.17). This specific clarification serves as a reminder of the social construction of race
and other social identities, as well as the meanings attributed to them by their creators, the dominant
social groups. It also highlights the harm inflicted upon individuals who do not belong to the dominant
social groups and the cultural rules that those who may belong must follow.

In early childhood, for some children the sex and gender roles that are expected of them is not what
they identify with and how they want to express themselves. However, through the cycle of
socialization, other children, families, teachers, and schools, enforce specific roles on children
(Derman-Sparks et al., 2020). An example of the socialization process and how it creates exclusion
can be demonstrated when we examine biological sex, gender identity and expression before and
immediately after a child is born. When someone is expecting a child, they are often asked about the
baby’s sex, whether it will be a boy or a girl. Based on this information, people may begin to think
about names typically associated with boys or girls, as well as consider which toys and clothes are
appropriate. Before the baby is born they are already categorized. After the baby is born, interactions
with the child often involve conscious or unconscious expectations regarding their gender identity,
behavior and appearance. For instance, girls may be encouraged to speak softly and avoid physical
play, while being complimented on their appearance in dresses. Conversely, boys may be discouraged
from crying and encouraged to demonstrate physical and emotional strength. While for some
children, their sex assignment aligns with their gender identity and expression preferences for others
that may not be the case. Therefore the cycle of socialization can enforce cultural norms that do not
allow the child to fully express themselves.

Our cultural norms and values and ways of being have already been established. These can be where
we expect a child to look us in the eyes when we speak or expecting a child to eat with utensils and not
with their hands. These rules, roles, assumptions were created by the dominant groups and
marginalized or subordinate groups were essentially exploited, disenfranchised, and discriminated
against if they did follow them (Harro, 2018). Through this cycle, society has normalized the dominant
groups’ cultural values, beliefs, and ways of being at the expense of the subordinate groups. This leads
to implicit and explicit biases regarding other social identity groups, which we will explore further to
understand its influence on our interactions and expectations of children and families. A note to
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remember here is personal identities may sometimes conflict with social identities, creating internal
tension or discomfort for individuals. At times there can be conflict between personal and social
identities. Knowing this can navigate our sense of self fostering greater self-awareness and
authenticity without minimizing the impact of societal expectations.

Reflection

Earlier you identified what social identities you may identify with.

How did you learn to be part of that group?

What role did your family, friends, community organizations play in this process of learning about
who you were and are now? What role did your teachers play?

What identities are part of the dominant groups and which ones are not?

What do we think about social groups that we are not a part of? What messages may we be sending
to children about their social identity groups based on how we were socialized about other social
groups we are not a part of?

5.1.2 Bias

When reflecting on diversity and culture, along with our socialization into the social groups we are
part of and learning about those that we are not a part of, an integral aspect of our work with children
and families, we must begin to address bias. We will define bias as the attitudes that favor one group
over another (NAEYC, 2019). Blindspots are hidden biases that are bits of knowledge about social
groups (Banaji & Greenwald, 2013). This information becomes stored in our brains because we
receive messages frequently from our cultural environments about others who are not part of our
social groups (Banaji & Greenwald, 2013; Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). Biases are inherent in all of us,
acquired through our cultural upbringing and the process of socialization. Once embedded in our
consciousness, these hidden biases can shape our interactions with members of specific social groups,
yet we may remain unaware of their impact. Explicit biases are conscious, biases that we are openly
aware of, beliefs and stereotypes that influence one’s understanding, actions, and decisions; implicit
bias affects one’s understanding, actions, and decision but in an unconscious, not aware of, manner
(NAEYC, 2019).

Explicit biases (bias we know we have) can perpetuate negative stereotypes and prejudices about
certain social groups. An example of explicit bias in the classroom may happen when we openly expect
children from specific racial groups to be good at sports or be quiet and shy. Implicit biases (biases we
don’t know we have) are automatic and will influence perceptions, judgments, and behaviors in subtle
ways, even when individuals consciously work toward being unbiased. An example of this is when we
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may tell a girl that they look pretty today in their new dress when we teach that dresses are not just
for girls. Or when we are surprised when a child who does not speak English is able to write their
name in English because we thought if you can’t speak English it will be hard to write in English.
Implicit biases may be unconscious to the offender but are often obvious to the victim and may have
deep and lasting effects (Iruka et al., 2020).

Implicit biases can contribute to disparities in access to resources, opportunities, and services across
different social groups. This can perpetuate existing inequalities and widen the gap between different
social and cultural groups. An example of systemic or institutionalized bias (implicit bias that is
ingrained in the institution) in the classroom may be where the lead teachers and supervisors are
white, but the assistants and support staff are people of color or English language learners. Another
way that systemic bias can present itself in our classrooms would be when all but one or two books
have illustrations with only white children and families in them.

Later in this chapter we will learn more about how implicit biases can lead to discriminatory actions
or decisions in early childhood based on factors such as race, gender, age, or other social identities.
This can result in unequal treatment for certain children or groups (Gillam, 2005). We will also
examine how implicit biases can limit opportunities for advancement, growth, and success for
children who are perceived as different or outside the dominant social groups. This can impact
educational attainment, and overall well-being (Milner, 2012).

We must remember that these biases are learned from messages we receive about others from our
own cultural environments through the cycle of socialization. Therefore we also have the potential to
unlearn them once we know we have them. One way we can do that is by using an anti-bias approach,
we will talk more about this later in the chapter.

Reflection

Reflect on the ways in which your values and beliefs shape your instructional choices.

Are these values and beliefs shared by the children and families you engage with? For instance, do
your expectations regarding sleeping, feeding, and potty training always align with those of the
families you serve?

Consider the biases you might hold toward individuals who do not share your values and beliefs.
Additionally, reflect on any biases you may have internalized about groups that are different then the
ones you identify with.
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5.1.3 Oppression and Privilege

When we reflect on which groups we belong to and learn more about ourselves and others through
the cycle of socialization, we also begin to recognize how we may develop biases that influence how
we interact and engage with others. Prejudice is prejudgements towards people from other social
groups that we do not belong to and discrimination are actions that are based on prejudices we have
(Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). Bias, prejudices and discrimination left unchecked has led to privilege and
oppression.

We will experience privilege and oppression based on the social identity groups we belong to.
Privilege is the unearned advantages that result from being a member of a dominant social identity
group (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). This type of privilege is deeply embedded, and it is often invisible to
those who experience it without ongoing deep self-reflection about diversity and equity. An example
of this privilege can be the language we use in our programs. If your program is an English-speaking
program, and if you speak English it will be easier for you to communicate. Because of your ability to
speak English you have access to resources and services that others who do not speak it do not have
access to. If you do not speak English and there are no other languages spoken in the program, then
you may struggle with communicating with others.

Oppression is the systematic and prolonged mistreatment of a group of people that results from
systemic bias based on their social identity groups (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). For example, ableism is
a systemic form of oppression deeply embedded in society that devalues disabilities through
structures that are based on implicit assumptions about standards of physical, intellectual, and
emotional normalcy (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020). If we are an able-bodied person, we might not think
about making sure our classroom is set up for a child who uses a wheelchair, or a family member who
uses a scooter. It may be harder to find tables for children that allow a wheelchair to slide under. If you
do find one they may be more expensive. When we have not experienced the challenges of a person
with a physical disability, the changes needed to adjust our classroom do not come to us as quickly.
They come to us when we have to make those changes because we have a child or family member who
uses a wheelchair or scooter.

This is not to say that those of us who have privilege have never experienced challenges and those of
us who have been oppressed have not experienced advantages. When we become more aware of the
biases we have and the privileges and systemic oppressions we have experienced, we can better
understand the inherent systemic oppression and privileges built into our system that are automatic.
Increased awareness allows for a deeper understanding of the systems that perpetuate both
oppression and privilege within society. As we recognize these dynamics in our own experiences and
empathize with others facing similar situations, we can actively resist and adapt our teaching
approaches to better address privileges and oppressions in our classrooms and education system.

The establishment of the first public school in the United States reflected the values and norms of the
dominant group at the time. They were created by white colonizers to assimilate and acculturate
early European settler/immigrant populations and indigenous children (Sykes & Ostendorf, 2022).
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Our earlier education system also prohibited by law educating enslaved or free Black people. We
have inherited an education system that had a narrow focus on what education should be. As early
childhood educators we have been tasked with preparing or supporting early learners for the public
school system. If we take the responsibility to learn about and become more aware and conscious of
whose norms and values we have learned, internalized, and in turn are teaching from in our own
classrooms we can begin to reflect on the changes we need to make. When we reflect, assess, and re-
evaluate and change how we teach children we can be anti-bias and anti-oppression of any kind. In
order to be culturally responsive, we have to know what cultural values and beliefs we have and are
teaching from. Again, diversity is not just appreciating and acknowledging differences, it is actively
reflecting on our own experiences and identities and how they influence and impact how we are
teaching.

Reflection

In what ways do you observe manifestations of privilege and oppression within your classroom
environment?

How can we guarantee quality learning experiences for all children within an educational system
influenced by biases, privilege, and oppression?

Can you recall instances when you have engaged in discussions or collaborated with others to
address unfair policies or practices and challenge biased perspectives?

5.1.4 NAEYC Advancing Equity Recommendation

Throughout this chapter, we will be drawing upon the Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education
(2019) statement recommendations for actionable steps and measures we can implement as we
delve into the topics of diversity, equity, and inclusion.

Now with this deeper knowledge of what diversity really means, the first recommendation from the
Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education statement (NAEYC, 2019), we are asked to examine the
impact and the influence of diversity on who we are as teachers and what and how we teach. The first
recommendation suggests that we have to recognize that we all hold some type of bias based on our
personal background and experiences and socialization. We need to “identify where our varied social
identities have provided strengths and understandings based on your experiences of both injustices
and privilege” (p. 6). Knowing which values, beliefs, and the cultural norms we hold that influence our
teaching will help us begin to reflect on the impact we have on children and families that do not have
the same values and beliefs. It is not only necessary to identify our biases but also to be anti-bias
where we are also actively fighting bias.
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As we deepen our understanding of diversity, let’s reflect on this first recommendation (NAEYC,
2019). It urges us to explore how diversity shapes our identities as educators and influences our
teaching methods. Developing awareness and understanding of our own cultural backgrounds,
personal beliefs, values, and biases is essential. This entails reflecting on our lived experiences
through the lens of our social identities (NAEYC, 2019). As teachers of young children, how we teach
is inherently influenced by our cultural perspectives and beliefs, which we have acquired through the
process of socialization. Along this journey, we have internalized biases and experienced both
privilege and oppression based on our social identities. To truly grasp the impact of diversity on our
teaching practices, we must engage in introspective work to examine our personal and social identity
development.

5.2 Equity
Figure 5.2

Equity Word Cloud

Equity Word Cloud/

Photo credit:
Ninderjit Gill, CC
BY 4.0

When biases and systemic oppression go unexamined or unchecked it leads to harmful and
discriminatory experiences for children from marginalized groups (Gilliam, 2005; Perszyk et al.,
2019). Oppression and privilege are an example of how bias can become systemic and harm groups of
people. Equity goes beyond “fairness” and provides us with a framework to understand the impact of
our biases and oppression on children and families and how we can address them. If diversity is
actively reflecting on our own experiences and identities and how they influence and impact how we
are teaching, equity involves transforming the education system itself.

The Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education statement defines equity as “the state that would be
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achieved if individuals fared the same way in society regardless of race, gender, class, language,
disability, or any other social or cultural characteristic” (NAEYC, 2019, p. 17). If we have been
socialized into unequal roles based on our social identity groups, then we are not truly equal.
Attempting to treat everyone the same is essentially not fair. We cannot have equality and fairness
until we have equity where children have similar access to resources to support their learning,
growth, and development. Giving everyone the same thing when they are starting from different
places would not be equitable.

5.2.1 Structural Inequities

The U.S. has always had diverse social and cultural groups. This wonderful and rich growth in diversity
continues today. According to the Children’s Defense Fund’s “The State of America’s Children” 2020
report, 73.4 million children lived in the U.S. in 2018. The report’s statistics show that 50 percent
were children of color: 14 percent were Black; 26 percent were Hispanic; 5 percent were Asian/
Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander; and <1 percent were American Indian/Alaska Native.

However, we have a lot of structural inequity in our country. Structural inequity is systematic and
institutionalized disparities in opportunities, resources, and outcomes that are embedded in our
institutions and systems. Structural inequity has become part of our education system and is rooted
in the policies, practices, and norms of institutions, creating patterns of advantage or disadvantage
for certain groups. Poverty is one of the biggest threats to children’s healthy development. According
to the U.S. Census, the child poverty rate more than doubled, from 5.2 percent in 2021 to 12.4
percent in 2022 (Shrider & Creamer, 2023). More children of color have been disproportionately
poor, and if we look at income based on a family’s race we can see this disparity even further: $88,200
was the median income for white families with children compared with $40,100 for Black and
$46,400 for Hispanic families in 2017 (Children’s Defense Fund, 2020). Equity would be ensuring that
people doing similar jobs regardless of race or ethnicity will get paid the same amount.

5.2.2 Race and Racism in Early Childhood Education

To help us better understand equity and structural inequities, we will specifically examine race and
what racism looks like in early childhood education. The Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education
statement (NAEYC, 2019) defines race as a social-political construct that categorizes and ranks
groups of human beings on the basis of skin color and other physical features. Race does not have a
biological basis, and it has significantly influenced societal structures and experiences. As we learned
earlier from the definition of diversity and from the cycle of socialization, race is a social identity that
confers privilege to one racial group and discriminates against others that are not part of that racial
group. Racism is defined as a belief that some races are superior or inferior to others and it operates
at a systemic level through deeply embedded structural and institutional policies that have favored
Whiteness at the expense of other groups (NAEYC, 2019). Ultimately, racism is a powerful collection
of racist policies that lead to racial inequity and are substantiated by racist ideas (Kendi, 2019).
 CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 142
We must also remember that race was a construct that was socially created. The concept of race was
historically created through social, economic, and political factors. The term “race” emerged during
periods of European colonial expansion, particularly during the 17th century (Braveman & Parker
Dominguez, 2021), when colonizers encountered diverse populations and that led them to categorize
people based on perceived physical and cultural differences.

Throughout the history of public and early childhood education children have been discriminated
against because of their race. Children of enslaved people were not allowed to attend schools and
indigenous children were removed from their homes and sent to boarding schools. Not all children
were starting with the same resources or supports and because of historical bias and oppression that
exist in our institutions even today. Earlier we reflected on bias, privilege and oppression. We can see
bias and oppression when we look at the data on preschool expulsion and suspension rates.
Researchers have confirmed that teacher’s implicit biases about a child’s race contribute to systemic
oppression. In his initial study, Gilliam (2005) found that expulsion and suspension rates are higher for
Black children in preschool programs than in K-12 schools. This continues to be seen in current data
as well. The U.S. Department of Justice and the U.S. Department of Education (2014) confirmed that
these rates were disproportionately high for Black children where Black children only make up 18%
of preschool enrollment, but 48% of preschool children suspended more than once. Gilliam (2005)
and Kunesh and Noltemeyer (2019) found that race and implicit bias seem to be contributing factors
to the higher expulsion and suspension rates for Black and brown children, specifically boys.

It’s important to note that the idea of race is not based on biological or genetic differences but rather
on socially constructed ideas about categorization (American Medical Association, 2020). Racial
differences became embedded in political and legal systems, shaping policies on slavery, segregation,
and discrimination. Laws were enacted to institutionalize racial hierarchies and maintain social
control. Now and over time, the concept of race is ingrained in social norms and structures. It has
been perpetuated through cultural beliefs, education, and social institutions. Inequity that exists
because of race and racism are things that we can actively fight against.

We also should be thinking about how our identities intersect. Intersectionality is a concept
developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw, a critical race theorist and scholar, to describe how various social
identities intersect and overlap, creating unique experiences of discrimination and privilege for
individuals who hold multiple marginalized identities (Crenshaw, 1989).

By examining the influences of various social identities, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality, we
gain insight into how complex and mutually reinforcing social inequalities can be.

5.2.3 Achievement and Opportunity

All children can achieve. All children have the capacity to learn and develop to their fullest potential
when they have the opportunities to do so. Due to individual and structural bias not all children are
given the same opportunities to succeed. Milner (2012) identified this as an opportunity gap. It is
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important for us to understand this distinction. Structural inequities adversely impact BIPOC
children; it is not something inherently in them or related to their ability and capacity to learn. Again,
all children will achieve if the opportunity to do so exists or is given to them. As teachers we have to
be creating those opportunities.

The fourth recommendation in the Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education statement reminds us
that we as teachers need to look deeper at our own expectations, practices, and curriculums
especially when outcomes vary significantly by social identities (NAEYC, 2019). Authentic
observations and assessments can assist teachers in identifying aspects of their work that could be
adjusted to create more equitable learning experiences, and family support. For example, if a child
speaks another language and is learning English, you may have an interpreter who fluently speaks the
child’s language to help you assess the child’s learning. Teachers need to see each child as a capable
learner and develop culturally responsive curriculum and individualized learning experiences to
create opportunities for growth and development based on who the child is and not who we are. We
have a responsibility to set the stage so that all children have opportunities to learn, grow and
develop to their fullest potential.

We have learned and inherited our biases about race, socio-economic class, sexual orientation,
gender expression and identity, ability and disability, language, national origin, indigenous heritage,
religion, and other identities. Ongoing critical reflection on our biases and our social and cultural
context and how we may be contributing to systemic inequities is necessary for achieving better
outcomes for all children, especially for those who are from historically and systemically,
marginalized, and oppressed groups.

5.2.4 Advancing Equity Recommendation for Everyone

Inequities, unfair advantages (privilege) and disadvantages (discrimination and oppression), are built
into our systems, they are structural. The Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education statement’s
fourth recommendation tasks us to acknowledge and seek to understand these structural inequities
and their impact over time (NAEYC, 2019). As teachers we have to be sure that we do not place blame
or fault on a child or family’s character or abilities. Because of historical and current systemic
structural inequities based on social identity groups, children from marginalized groups have been
and are disproportionately impacted. Every single child has the potential to learn, thrive and be
successful in life.
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5.3 Inclusion

Two children jointly

hold onto a single
Earth globe./ Photo
credit: Office of
Child Care, and
Office of the
Administration for
Children & Families,
Public Domain

The study of inclusion involves how we can intentionally create equitable learning opportunities into
our teaching, curriculum, and programs with a commitment to continuous learning. Inclusive teaching
strategies engage each child and ensure they feel like they belong and are able to participate in the
learning experiences with the rest of the group. It is important to understand the meaning of diversity
and equity as we think about inclusion. These concepts intersect with each other. While diversity and
equity are necessary components to understand and apply to our practice, inclusion requires
intentional efforts to actively engage with diversity and plan for equity in educational practices,
policies, and environments. In other words, inclusion involves taking deliberate actions to ensure that
all children, regardless of their backgrounds or identities, feel welcomed, valued, and supported in
early childhood settings.

5.3.1 Acknowledge, Discuss, and Plan

Creating welcoming and inclusive classrooms requires educators to put forth an ongoing effort.
When we understand the meaning of diversity and equity within early childhood education, we will
naturally feel more at ease discussing with children the differences they observe and taking
actionable steps to address them (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020). Children notice differences whether it
be race, language, ability, family structure, etc. and they ask questions about it (Sullivan et al., 2021). If
we don’t acknowledge a child’s observation in a positive way, then it gives them the impression that
the difference is a problem or something we can’t or shouldn’t talk about and may be something
negative.
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Reflect on the following steps when a child sees something that is different in another child or their
family.

1. Don’t ignore it. Our initial acknowledgement can be a simple positive affirming statement. For
example, a child may ask why their friend has two dad’s and no mom’s. A simple positive
acknowledgment of this observation is to affirm that the child does have two dads and how
wonderful that it is that there are so many different kinds of families.
2. Continue the discussion. We can continue the discussion by sharing family pictures and using
open ended questions and examples that validate and affirm the differences we see in families
and foster an environment of acceptance. If we feel uneasy about continuing the discussion
further, we should revisit it at a later time when we feel more ready.
3. Plan for integration. This leads us to the third step where we can plan for a purposeful
introduction or integration into our curriculum and materials we have in our classroom. These
can be books about families and LGBTQIA+ and planning lessons to learn more about families.

Critical reflective practices that involve consideration about children’s abilities, languages, culture,
and temperaments will guide teachers to adjust their teaching approaches to create inclusive learning
environments. This type of reflective approach focuses on the uniqueness of each child, and their
individual needs and social diversity. Following are brief descriptions of inclusive practices and
approaches you can apply to your teaching.

5.3.2 Critical Reflection

Critical reflection is required to help us assess our thinking, judgements, and actions in the classroom.
Self-reflection is a strategy that teachers should use to stop, step back, pause and think about their
work and assess to make changes or affirm what is working well. Sometimes self-reflection happens
in the moment in the classroom after a planned activity or it may happen at a time when you are not in
the classroom. Critical self-reflection is a process where we stop and consider why we did what we
did, how we did and specifically ask if there were any biases in our decision making.

Culturally and socially, many of the developmental theories that have informed our understanding of
children’s development, such as from Piaget and Erikson, was from researched done by white men
with children and families who spoke the same language, lived in similar homes and with similar
traditional family structures, who were part of the dominant (white) culture at that time. Additionally,
many of these theorists belonged to the dominant culture of their time, which was predominantly
white, able-bodied and middle to upper class. As a result, the perspectives and experiences of
marginalized or non-dominant groups may not have been adequately represented or considered in
the development of these theories. Having the ability to reflect on information that is current and
culturally responsive will help us engage with diversity, equity, and inclusion in your work with
children. Learning more about growth mindset, trauma informed care (ACEs) and language
development are places you can start to develop an understanding of current developmental needs
and supports.
 CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 146

5.3.3 Anti-Bias Approach

Earlier in this chapter, we learned what bias is. Now we will focus on how we can be anti-bias in our
work. The goal of anti-bias education is to be conscious of and actively fight against biases we have
about others and that exist in the institutions we work and live in. Derman-Sparks, LeeKeenan, and
Nimmo (2023) explain the anti-bias approach as an approach in early childhood education that
explicitly works to end all forms of bias and discrimination towards children by those who care, teach,
and guide them. It is an approach that explicitly calls for teachers to be actively engaged in anti-bias
growth and learning.

Derman-Sparks, Edwards, and Goins (2020) outline four goals of anti-bias education that will nurture
the development of the whole child. They are:

• demonstrate self-awareness, confidence, family pride, and positive social identities

• express comfort and joy with human diversity, use accurate language for human differences and
form deep, caring human connections across diverse backgrounds
• increasingly recognize and have language to describe unfairness (injustice) and understand that
unfairness hurts
• and have the will and the skills to act, with others or along against prejudice and/or
discriminatory actions

For us to meet these goals of identity, diversity, justice, and activism, we need to learn about the
social, cultural, economic context of the child, their family and of ourselves. As we discussed earlier in
this chapter, we all have biases that we learned through the cycle of socialization. We also have our
own social, cultural, and economic context that influences how we work and teach. Becoming more
conscious of our biases through critical reflective work will help us determine how we learned to
know what we know and do what we do.

To better assess our awareness and knowledge below are some activities that can be done.

1. Classrooms. Look around your classroom and reflect on the materials you use to teach children.
What social identities are represented in your books and dramatic play area? What kind of
pictures are up in your classroom? Who is visible and who do we not see?
2. Books for Children: Assess your books for bias by using the “Guide for Selecting Anti-Bias
Children’s Books” (Derman-Sparks, 2013).
3. Self-Assessments: Consider completing self-assessment about the own social identity groups
you belong to. How were you socialized into those identities? What did you learn about groups
that you belonged too and what did you learn about groups you did not belong too? Reflect on
where you may have experienced privilege and/or discrimination (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020).
4. Books for Teachers: Read more! Start with NAEYC’s Advancing Equity in Early Childhood Education
position statement (2019). Specifically look over the recommendations for early childhood
educators. The book Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves (Derman-Sparks et al.,
147 | CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
2020) provides a thorough introduction to anti-bias education in early childhood education.
5. Self-Education: Take classes on Anti-Bias Education, Diversity & Equity, Inclusion to continue to
learn and build your knowledge and awareness. Another thing to consider is finding ways to
expand your knowledge of diverse experiences and perspectives without generalizing or
stereotyping about others who are different from you (NAEYC, 2019). TED Talks are an excellent
way to hear powerful and empowering authentic stories about systemic oppressions and bias.
There are some suggestions to review following the references at the end of this chapter.
6. Intent vs Impact: Remember good intent does not always lead to positive impact. When you
commit a biased act, be ready and willing to be accountable and to take that opportunity to learn
rather than being defensive (NAEYC, 2019).
7. Book Clubs: Think about starting a book club focusing on diversity and equity with your co-
workers or with your friends and families. Or even with the children!

This is a journey and requires continuous learning for all of us. Take time to regularly reflect and
revisit the aspects listed above, so you can create an equitable and inclusive early learning setting for
children to thrive in. Invite your co-teachers to examine and discuss aspects with you. This type of
collaborative work supports raising awareness of issues and developing an anti-bias approach. For
more resources on anti-bias activities, see NAEYC’s publication, Anti-bias Education for Young Children
and Ourselves (2020).

5.3.4 Anti-Racist

If the textbooks, stories we are learning from and are using to teach are mostly from the dominant
white culture perspective, then we have to move beyond the anti-bias approach and also be anti-
racist. Children are constantly internalizing the messages conveyed in their environments. As we
previously discussed, BIPOC children are being disproportionately impacted by our education
systems. A recent study found that children as young as 5 rated images of black boys less favorably
than images of white boys and girls, with images of black girls falling in the middle (Perszyk et al.,
2019). As teachers we are also socializing children into the dominant cultural norms and values. It is
critical that we reflect on what we are teaching children that may not be visible to us.

Furthermore, Dr. Shullman, President of the American Psychological Association, stated that we are
living in a “racism pandemic,” which leads to a number of psychological, physical issues and historical
trauma (as cited in APA, 2020). The impact of racism emphasizes the urgent need for each early
childhood educator to engage in anti-racist work. This work will require us to examine our own racial
biases we may have based on our own socialization process. Anti-racist work will look different for
each person and teachers in each of our classrooms, and our teaching approaches. We all can actively
fight against racism. Some educators might say that they do not see color, however we want to avoid
this color-blind approach. When we see color, we truly see children, and welcome the diversity that
each child brings.

We will have to actively engage in learning more about what it means to be an anti-racist as well. Dr.
 CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 148
Kendi (2019) points out that the opposite of being a racist is not just being ‘not racist’, it is being an
anti-racist, where we are actively fighting for racial equity. It means examining our own beliefs about
what racial equity is. Through evaluation and reflection, we can dig deeper in our own socialization
process and check for beliefs and ideas of others based on our and their race.

5.3.5 Working with Families

You will read more about the work we need to do with families in [crossref:9]Chapter 9[crossref].
Here we will take a focus on understanding families as part of our classroom and the communities
they live and work in as well. As we learn more about ourselves, we will begin to realize the social and
cultural systems that our families lived and worked in influenced us as children and now as adults.
This same process is something we are part of for the children and families we are working with. As
teachers we have an opportunity to disrupt the socialization process that perpetuates the
discrimination and marginalization of social identity groups.

It is necessary that we move away from the binary classification of social identities. We have learned
to value and espouse the either/or way of thinking about others but why can’t we be an and/both?
When we begin to shift our thinking to an and/both perspective we allow for more space to integrate
the diverse needs and supports our children and families need. We can use a child’s home language in
the classroom and use English to support their language development. Why can’t we boys and girls
wear dresses in our classroom and be able to rough and tumble and assertive in their play?

Home Environments

In chapter 9, we will learn more about how important home environments are for each child and how
their home environments may be very different from early learning environments. Children may be
living and thriving in a single parent household; a multi-generational household where other family
members are an integral part of the home; or children may be homeless and living in transitional
housing. This is just a few ways that diversity in family structure can look for the children in our
classrooms.

Connecting with Families

Learning more about our families does not mean that we have to integrate or engage with all that
they may do for their child. But we can begin to consider ways to support the child based on what they
are learning from their family and what we are teaching them. Think about the ways you connect with
families.

• How do we get to know our families, and how do they raise their child at home? What are some
ways that incorporate the cultural ways of being of the families into your program?
• How do we reflect or consider a child’s home environment’s impact on the child’s way of being in
our classrooms?
• What networks of support does the family have outside of the home? How can we create a
149 | CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
supportive network within the early learning program?
• How are we creating a sense of emotional and physical safety for the family? For example, if a
family is undocumented then the way they engage with the school will depend on their level of
safety they feel with the teachers and the school. This will be something that impacts the child.
• How are we integrating the funds of knowledge that children and families already have into our
classroom?

Ultimately, to create culturally responsive equitable learning opportunities we must fully understand
the lived experiences of the family and the child outside of our classroom. When we reflect on how a
child is influenced and impacted by the environments that their families have to navigate to function
and survive, we can create equitable opportunities for the child and the family because we have a
better understanding of the barriers that the family is experiencing.

5.3.6 Culturally Responsive Teaching

When we integrate culturally responsive teaching into practice we are moving to another level of
critical reflection. We not only see how our social identities influence our decision-making we also
acknowledge and find ways to teach using the cultural context of the children in our classroom.
Culture is increasingly understood as inseparable from development (Rogoff, 2003). Therefore, it is
important to ensure cultural continuity, where the child’s home culture is reflected in the classroom
and is not invisible. Many marginalized social identity groups are invisible in our classrooms and
teaching materials.

Student Teachers
Read to Class/
Photo credit:
Allison Shelley/The
Verbatim Agency
for EDUimages, CC
BY-NC 4.0

Zaretta Hammond (2014) writes about the pliability of young children’s brains. Her focus was mostly
 CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 150
on older children, but it is a reminder for us as teachers of the role we play in setting the stage for how
children see and feel about themselves and where they fit into the classroom environment. Below is a
summarized list of Hammond’s three strategies that we can use right now with children, and some of
us are doing them already.

• Culturally responsive teaching in practice can be as simple as making learning fun with
interactive games that focus on social and verbal interactions, instead of just sitting and listening.
◦ Children learn by doing, so adding a game to the learning makes it more engaging. Teachers
can facilitate group activities in which children work together to create a story, or mural
together. We could create a guessing game using felt boards when teaching about body
parts. Give children felt pieces that represent different parts of the body and have them
guess what parts they use to smell something they cook at home.
• Another strategy is to make it a social experience. Think about how we lead circle time, do we
allow children to share and talk during our reading of a story or teaching of a specific lesson?
◦ Do we make time for children to talk with each other about what they are learning?
Consider asking children to share their favorite smell, family activity, food they eat together
at home, or play a song that they listen to at home.
• A third strategy is to add stories.
◦ We can invite families to share or make up stories with their children about smells? Have
elders come and tell stories in the classroom during circle. Instead of reading books, listen to
stories families have recorded. This also helps us see how using play could be a culturally
responsive strategy.

Ultimately, culturally responsive teaching occurs when we integrate teaching strategies that are
centered from the children and their family’s culture. This does not mean we have to know about all
the cultures of our families and how they live outside of the classroom. When we are open to learning
more about children and families, we will build connections and partnerships that will support
children’s development. These connections demonstrate that we welcome all families and strive to
incorporate children’s cultures into the learning experiences. We can also move beyond being
responsive and relevant and lean into being culturally sustaining in our approach as well.

Derman-Sparks, LeeKeenan, and Nimmo (2023) define culturally sustaining care as an approach that
sustains diverse communities and cultures that have and are facing systemic oppression. Culturally
sustaining education maintains, supports, and nurtures the cultural identities, languages, and
traditions of diverse communities. It goes beyond cultural responsiveness and inclusivity by actively
sustaining and perpetuating the cultural strengths, knowledge, and practices within educational and
caregiving settings. Children and their families’ cultures are dynamic, evolving, and valuable sources
of resilience, wisdom, and identity.

5.3.7 Advancing Equity Recommendations for Everyone

There are several recommendations that can support our ability and capacity to work towards
151 | CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
inclusion where all children feel like they belong. The recommendation two in the Advancing Equity in
Early Childhood Education statement tells us that we need to recognize the power and benefit of
diversity and inclusivity and recommendation three asks us to take responsibility for biased actions,
even if unintended, and actively work to repair harm (NAEYC, 2019, p. 6). In our classrooms, children
are learning about the world around them. Developmental theories and brain research tell us that the
first 8 years of a child’s life is one of exponential growth (Centers for Disease Control, 2023). Children
are curious and engaged in what we share during circle time. They are active and excited when they
participate in our planned or spontaneous activities. During this time of active cognitive learning,
children are also learning about themselves and others as well. Children in our classrooms are not
only working towards meeting developmental milestones but they are also being socialized by their
families, teachers, and the communities they live in. They are beginning to learn about the cultural
norms of their family as well as the social norms that we have in our classrooms and those of society.
We are an intimate and integral part of a child’s social and cultural growth and development. Whether
we know it or not, we may be contributing to the deep inequities that exist for children and their
families because of their social identities. As the fifth recommendation in the Advancing Equity in Early
Childhood Education statement mentions, we just need to be willing to be open to learning and commit
to learn based on our experiences with children and their families. It is imperative and necessary for
us to consider ways that we can be more inclusive in our work.

Summary

We discussed aspects related to diversity, equity, and inclusion in early learning settings. The details
within these topics included societal issues, identities, bias, and cultural identity development. The
information presented influences our teaching and program practices, along with ways to engage in anti-
bias work. Diversity is more than just being different from someone. It requires a commitment to learn
about our own diversity and how it influences our teaching. Equity is more than trying to treat everyone
fairly. We have a responsibility to understand that not everyone has had the same opportunities, so we
have a responsibility to ensure that all children have access. Inclusion is not just making everyone feel
welcome. It requires us to take an active role in engaging and integrating children and their families’
diversity into our programs intentionally.

By centering our teaching around diversity , equity , and inclusion , we are focusing on the holistic
development of every child. We hope that this chapter will motivate and inspire early childhood
educators to learn more about the children and families in their programs and strive to work with them
in a culturally responsive and sustaining way. Every interaction we engage in with children can influence
 CHAPTER 5: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 152

their memories, cultural and social development, and ideas about how they fit into this world. We have
the responsibility to ensure that every single child feels welcomed as a valuable part of the learning
community. In order to ensure that children meet their fullest potential, it is vital that we continue to
study, reflect, and act to address diversity, equity and inclusion.

Review Questions

Define diversity, equity and inclusion?

Describe why these concepts are important to know as an early childhood educator?

What are your social identities and how do or did they impact your work as a teacher?

What is the cycle of socialization?

Define bias and anti-bias?

What are some ways that you can be anti-bias?

How do you see privilege and oppression in your classroom?

How can you create opportunities for all children to succeed?

What is culturally sustaining care?

References
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new-ama-policies-recognize-race-social-not-biological-construct

American Psychological Association. (2020, May 20). “We are living in a racism pandemic,” says APA
president [Press release]. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2020/05/racism-pandemic

Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2013). Blindspot: Hidden biases of good people. Delacorte Press.

Braveman, P., & Parker Dominguez, T. (2021). Abandon “race.” Focus on racism. Frontiers in Public
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, February 24). Early brain development and
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health. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Retrieved May 13, 2024, from
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Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of
antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal
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Derman-Sparks, L. (2013). Guide for selecting anti-bias children’s books. Teaching for Change.
https://www.teachingforchange.org/selecting-anti-bias-books

Derman-Sparks, L., Edwards, J. O., & Goins, C. M. (2020). Anti-bias education for young children and
ourselves (2nd ed.). National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Derman-Sparks, L., LeeKeenan, D., & Nimmo, J. (2023). Leading anti-bias early childhood programs: A
guide to change, for change (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press.

Gilliam, W. S. (2005, April). Prekindergarteners left behind: Expulsion rates in state prekindergarten
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Hammond, Z. L. (2014). Culturally responsive teaching and the brain: Promoting authentic
engagement and rigor among culturally and linguistically diverse students. Corwin.

Harro, B. (2018). The cycle of socialization. In M. Adams, W. J. Blumenfeld, D. C. J. Catalano, K.

DeJong, H. W. Hackman, L. E. Hopkins, B. Love, M. L. Peters, D. Shlasko & X Zúñiga (Eds.), Readings
for diversity and social justice (4th ed., pp. 27-33). Routledge.

Iruka, I., Curenton, S., Durden, T., & Escayg, K.-A. (2020). Don’t look away: Embracing anti-bias
classrooms. Gryphon House.

Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to be an antiracist. One World.

Kunesh, C. E., & Noltemeyer, A. (2019). Understanding disciplinary disproportionality: Stereotypes

shape pre-service teachers’ beliefs about black boys’ behavior. Urban Education, 54(4), 471–498.
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Milner, H. R., (2012). Beyond a test score: Explaining opportunity gaps in educational practice. Journal
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National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2019, April). Advancing equity
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Perszyk, D. R., Lei, R. F., Bodenhausen, G. V., Richenson, J. A., & Waxman, S. R. (2019). Bias at the
intersection of race and gender: Evidence from preschool‐aged children. Developmental Science,
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about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201401-title-vi.html
155 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT

CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT

Child places a
rectangular puzzle
piece on a puzzle
board./ Photo
Credit: Hallie
Easley, CC BY 4.0

Overview
As an early childhood educator, you are crucial in providing young children with a safe, nurturing,
culturally responsive learning environment that supports individual learning needs. Your
understanding and skills in conducting observations, documenting them, and using assessments in
everyday teaching practices are vital to creating and maintaining this learning environment. By
mastering these skills, you become not just an educator but a powerful influencer capable of tailoring
your teaching methods to the unique needs of each child. Chapter 6 will delve into the importance
and skills necessary for observation, documentation, and assessment as you plan individualized and
group curricula.
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 156

Objectives

• Describe how the approach to child assessment has changed over time.
• Define assessment and observation.
• Explain the differences, similarities, and relationships between observation and assessment.
• Discriminate between the different types of assessment.
• Describe the cycle of observation, including the iterative nature of this process.
• Describe how the educator becomes a critical component of observation.
• Describe various methods of recording observation.
• Explain how the data collected during observation and documentation is used in planning
curriculum and responding to children in the classroom.

Key Terms

• Anecdotal record
• Assessment
• Authentic assessment
• Checklist
• Documentation
• Formal assessment
• Formative assessment
• Informal assessment
• Naturalistic observation
• Norm-referenced
• Objective
• Observation
• Portfolio
157 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT

• Rating scale
• Running record
• Standardized
• Subjective
• Work sample

6.1 A Brief History of Observation and Assessment in ECE

Observing children’s development and learning has a long history in the work of early childhood
educators (Wortham & Hardin, 2020). Understanding developmental milestones and observing to
assess a child’s progress toward milestones has been at the core of early childhood education since its
beginning. Eighteenth and early nineteenth-century educational philosophers such as Pestalozzi,
Rousseau, and Froebel believed the unique nature of childhood required observing the child to
understand their needs and abilities. Later, in the early 1900s, the child study movement initiated by
G. Stanley Hall and Lawrence Frank and continued by Hall’s students Gesell, Lewis, and Terman
helped solidify the scientific study of children and their ages and stages of development. The National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) embraced systematic child development
observation in their original Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP) statement in 1986. Even in
the most recent version of the DAP position statement, which recognizes that developmental
milestones may not be as universal as once thought, there remains a strong emphasis on the
importance of observation in naturalistic settings to ensure an authentic assessment of the child’s
development (NAEYC, 2020). Observation and documentation of children’s development are critical
tools for educators of young children and are of central focus in this chapter.

While the importance of observation has remained central in the work of early childhood education,
educational reform in the 1980s brought increasing pressure for accountability and standards in
education, including early childhood education (Shepard et al., 1998). This pressure led to
increasingly common testing of children to “prove” the results of pedagogy. The No Child Left Behind
Act (2002) increased the focus on early childhood assessment , starting with Head Start (Nerren,
2020; Wortham & Hardin, 2020). In response to this trickle-down of pressure for accountability and
testing, there was an increased effort to point out the unique characteristics of early childhood, which
made using testing protocols designed for elementary-aged children inappropriate, resulting in
invalid and unreliable results (Shepard et al., 1998). At the same time, these efforts argued that
naturalistic observation of young children is the most appropriate method for planning,
implementing, and evaluating curriculum.

National educational goals set forth by President Bush in his State of the Union address in 1990
aspired to ensure all children would, by the year 2000, “start school ready to learn” (para. 24). A panel
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 158
of experts took on the task of determining how being “ready to learn” could be assessed. The result
was “Principles and Recommendations for Early Childhood Assessment,” a report that indicates how
traditional testing is inappropriate for young children but also how assessment can be a helpful tool
when implemented with the developmental characteristics of young children and the purposes of
assessment in mind (Shepard et al., 1998). While over 25 years old, this document is still helpful in
understanding how our views of assessment in early childhood education have evolved and, perhaps
more importantly, what safeguards must be in place to avoid inappropriate use of assessment
procedures. These authors argue that the first and most important purpose for assessing young
children is to support their development and learning. Moreover, one of the best ways to meet this
purpose is through naturalistically observing the child.

In summary, throughout the history of early childhood education, there has been an emphasis on the
importance of observation conducted naturalistically and authentically. This focus remains central to
the work of early childhood educators today. As educational reform has led to increased emphasis on
standards and traditional methods of assessment such as testing, early childhood educators have
recognized the importance of safeguarding young children from this inappropriate method of
assessment while also accepting that the systematic observation of children’s growth and
development provides essential information for supporting this growth and development.

Reflection

Think about your experience with observation/GL], testing, and assessment during your school
years. Did you experience formal, standardized tests or more informal assessment methods? What
do you remember about your experience? Was it positive or negative?

If you have experience as an educator, what is your experience with observation and assessment?
Have you seen it change over time? In what ways?

6.2 Assessment
Before we discuss the definition and implementation of observation , the critical tool in the early
childhood educator’s tool kit, it is essential to know what we mean by the term assessment and how it
relates to observation. Assessment in educational settings is “the systematic collection, synthesis,
and use of data to make educational decisions about a child or a group of children” (Stone-MacDonald
et al., 2018, p. 2). This definition implies a process that includes collecting and interpreting
information to plan and guide educational experiences for children. This definition is helpful because
it identifies a few characteristics of assessment that are especially important in early childhood.
Below is a list of these characteristics.
159 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT
Assessment is ongoing. Assessment is not a test, which happens at a single point in time,
providing one snapshot of a child’s development. Thus, test and assessment are not
synonymous terms. A test can be a part of an assessment, but a single test differs from an
assessment that is broader and lengthier than a single test.

Assessment requires revisiting the collected information. Thus, the educator does not just
collect numerous observations , never to return to them. Instead, the educator reviews the
information gained through observation and other methods to create a summary or to
synthesize an understanding of the child. The process of collecting information, reviewing it,
and then utilizing that synthesized result will be discussed further later in the chapter.

Assessment has a purpose. An educator uses the synthesized information to make

decisions (i.e., how to guide behavior, what curriculum to plan next, how to facilitate a child’s
learning). Sometimes, those decisions are made long after the child has been observed, as in
the case of planning future curricula. In other cases, the assessment may happen at the
moment, as when the educator, while observing a child, chooses to insert themselves or some
material or equipment into the child’s play for learning or development purposes.
Nevertheless, whether one makes the decision immediately or in the future, assessment
should always serve a particular purpose.

Gathering assessment information or data can happen in a few ways. In early childhood education,
observation will be the primary method. However, the assessment may also include administering a
standardized test (valid, reliable, and age-appropriate), interviewing an essential adult in a child’s life
about their development or behavior, and collecting work samples of children’s writing, drawing,
building, or language.

Figure 6.1

Untitled
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 160

A young child holds

a card with the
capital letter E on
the left edge while
an adult holds the
right edge./ Photo
credit: New York
State Education
Department,
ARR(c) Copyright
Statement from
NYSED: From the
New York State
Education
Department. Early
Learning Homepage
Internet. Available
from
https://www.nysed.
gov/early-learning;
accessed August,
14th, 2024
Permission to copy,
use, and distribute
materials as
described above
shall not extend to
information housed
on this Website
that is credited to
other sources, or to
information on
Websites to which
this site links.

6.2.1 Types of Assessment

While observation is an essential tool for assessing young children, there are other ways of
classifying or organizing types of assessment . Being familiar with these types of assessments helps
understand the assessment process. One way to classify assessment is to label it as formative or
summative . Formative assessment is carried out daily during the learning process and measures the
child’s understanding as they engage in activities. Formative assessment helps the educator see how
the child responds to the curriculum provided. Is the child grasping the experience, or must it be
presented differently? Formative assessments can be informal or formal, but naturalistic
observations carried out while teaching are the norm in early childhood education. These informal
formative assessments are often called authentic assessments .

Formal assessment utilizes standardized tools designed to assess a specific skill or ability, often with
161 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT
a narrow focus. Because high-stakes decisions about education for individual children often come
from results of formal, standardized tests, these tests must show evidence of high validity and
reliability. For high validity and reliability, formal assessment tools must be specific and narrow
regarding what is being assessed and consistent in their delivery and scoring. Formal assessment
tools that measure child development are often norm-referenced , which means an individual child’s
performance is compared to a large group of children at the same chronological age (Washington
State Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2008) . Formal assessment tools are often
standardized. They are presented in a standard or consistent manner with the same tasks or
expectations used for every child.

In contrast, informal assessment can be less standard. The educator can develop the assessment to
address the children’s individual needs and the learning environment—a standard format or focus is
not required. Because informal assessment tools can be more flexible and individualized, they are
often called authentic assessments . Authentic assessment tools are used in early childhood
classrooms as part of the child’s everyday experience. As might be expected, observation naturally
allows for authentic assessment as the child is unaware of being assessed, and the performance
assessed occurs naturally. Thus, authentic assessment practices capture what the child does as a
regular part of their classroom experience, not what a child does (or does not do) when requested for
a more standardized assessment tool.

Summative assessment happens at the end of a learning period and evaluates the cumulative
learning during that period. Summative assessment allows the educator to determine the child’s
understanding after exposure to an idea or experience. Summative assessments may use a standard
or benchmark for comparison.

In following unbiased and ethically sound observation and documentation practices, the assessment
will reflect a central focus on child development. In assessing a child’s growth and development, use
various assessment tools to support developmentally appropriate, culturally, and linguistically
responsive practices. Documenting what one observes in children’s daily activities provides an
authentic assessment of the child. This kind of observation leads to assessment and should happen
without unnecessarily disrupting the child’s natural learning environment.

In summary, assessment is gathering information to make educational decisions about children and
their instruction. Observation is one assessment component—these terms are not interchangeable.

6.3 Observation
What does it mean to observe? As an educator, observation means watching and listening to children
to learn about them (Stetson et al., 2007). While this definition may sound simple, observing children
for educational purposes is intentional and is a skill that develops over time and with practice. It is a
critical skill for responsive teaching. Observing a child increases understanding of the child’s current
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 162
developmental level, what the child needs to support the next steps in development, and generally
who they are as an individual.

Educators’ methods for the observation process can be particular and unique to their circumstances.
However, a general method underlying most observational processes is apparent in all observations.
This portion of the chapter introduces this general method or process underlying all observations in
early childhood education.

6.3.1 The Educator is a Critical Component of Observation

Before discussing the process educators use, it is crucial to understand that educators are critical in
the observation process. Successful observation requires the educator to be present, intentional, and
active. Being fully present in the moment of observation allows the educator to see each child’s
uniqueness and development. Being present as an active observer means having the ability to block
out any distractions that may be present. Educators should be authentically curious during
observations and become learning and growth detectives: “the documenter is a researcher first,
collecting as much information as possible to paint a picture of progress and outcomes” (Seitz, 2008,
p. 90). To do this, an educator may have to initiate the help of other educators to ensure proper
supervision in the classroom. They should try to clear their mind of any other invasive thinking to
properly focus on what they are experiencing with the children.

In addition, observers need to be knowledgeable about early childhood development. This knowledge
will help the observer know what to look for and to set measurable, attainable, relevant, and
culturally responsive goals for the child. By understanding child development, educators can look for
evidence of an expected developmental sequence in their observations and assessments .

Another, and perhaps most important, way in which the educator is a critical component in the
observation process is their ability to manage subjectivity and bias in their observation (Jablon et al.,
2007). First, it is necessary to recognize that all humans have a subjective perspective on the world,
including how they think about children. Subjective means that personal feelings, tastes, and opinions
influence one’s perspective. We all come to the field of ECE with assumptions about how children
“are”—how they should behave, their roles in the classroom, and their relationships with adults, for
example. These assumptions often contain inherent bias and, as such, should be recognized as an
imperfect and unhelpful way to view, observe, and document the development of children. Thus,
educators must reflect upon their personal beliefs and opinions and be aware of when they are
influencing the focus or expectations of an observation and how this is recorded and interpreted. This
subjectivity may reflect a very profoundly held notion about child development.

For example, an educator may value independence in children and view this as an essential
developmental milestone—when a four-year-old appropriately stands up for what they want or
desire. This view of expected development is culturally specific. In some cultures, instead of
independence, interdependence, or an emphasis on the good of the community rather than the
163 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT
individual’s independence, is valued and expected at this age. An educator who values independence
and sees it as the expected developmental milestone may view a child who has grown up in a culture
that values interdependence as exhibiting delayed development, which is a biased perspective.

Cultural bias is not the only way our subjective beliefs or tastes can influence our observations .
Jablon and others (2007) point out that our individuality may influence how we view or respond to
children. Educators with a quiet or introverted temperament may not gravitate toward loud and
outgoing children. They may avoid them or tend to view these children’s behavior through a negative
lens. These individual teacher characteristics can also create a biased view of particular children or
groups.

So, what is the solution to this problem of subjectivity? Rather than attempting to shed one’s point of
view, which is impossible, the goal becomes “striving for objectivity” (Jablon et al., 2007, p. 42). Many
resources exist to help educators increase their objectivity in observation and documentation (i.e.,
Head Start ECLKC, 2023; Jablon et al., 2007; Peterson & Elam, 2020). Some suggested behaviors that
increase objectivity include:

• Spend time reflecting on beliefs about children. Doing so can help identify unhelpful bias in
observation . A conversation with colleagues about bias may be more fruitful in identifying
beliefs, but doing so requires the willingness to be vulnerable. Identifying bias requires a certain
level of vulnerability. Remember, having a perspective is human. Growth as an educator requires
self-reflection.
• Reflect on the cultural and familial expectations of the children in the classroom. Do they differ
from the educators’?
• In recording observations , write down only what one sees without interpretation.
• Do not infer what a child thinks or feels; describe what the child does or says.
• ·Avoid terms that make a judgment about a behavior (i.e., mad, hyper, pretty, spoiled).
• Be specific rather than overgeneralizing. For example, rather than saying, “Joe never shares with
other children,” describe what Joe did today while being observed.

The key to reducing bias in observation and documentation is to make every effort to be as objective
as possible, avoiding subjectivity in focus and documentation.

A final consideration that educators must consider is their ethical responsibility related to
observation and assessment of young children. The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct outlines the
ethical responsibilities that educators must uphold, and specify responsibilities related to
observation and assessment (Feeney & Freeman, 2018). These ethical considerations include
protecting confidentiality of assessment results, the appropriate use of assessment instruments, the
appropriate use of data collected through observation and assessment. Each of these considerations
will be discussed next.

The early childhood educator has the responsibility to treat assessment results and observation
records confidentially. Thus, observational records and results of assessments will only be shared
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 164
when there is a legitimate need for it. Such needs include informing parents who should always have
access to observation and assessment products. Assessment results may need to be shared with
specialists who are planning for individualized educational plans to support the child’s development,
or with other early childhood educators that are working with a teacher in a collegial way to plan and
implement developmentally appropriate experiences for the child. Beyond these uses, observational
records and assessment results should be treated as confidential.

The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct also addresses the responsibility of educators to only use
assessment instruments that are appropriate for the children to be assessed. For example, young
children who, for example, are dual language learners, may be assessed inaccurately if assessment
and observation is not conducted in their home language(s). Involving families in order to understand
a child’s language, prior knowledge, culture and more, are essential to learning about their knowledge
and skills.

Further, educators are ethically required to only use assessment information to support the
development and learning of children, to support their instruction and identify children who may
need additional services. Assessment information should not be used in any sort of negative way or to
limit children’s access to education.

Figure 6.2

Emma and Alice

Emma and Alice/

Photo credit:
edenpictures, CC
BY 2.0
165 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT

Reflection

Does it surprise you that educators may carry biases that influence their focus in observation or how
they document observations? Have you had experiences in which you avoided a specific type of child
because their temperament or behavior was uncomfortable? Can you see how that might influence
what you observed or how you documented what you observed?

6.3.2 Observation as a Cycle

Carrying out observation involves several steps. An observer does not just watch the child and stop
there. Instead, watching and listening are just the first steps, which lead to the documentation [/G/L]
of the observation, followed by the interpretation of the documentation. Finally, based on the
interpretation of multiple documented observations, the educator makes plans for future curriculum.
While it is common for educators to respond at the moment to what they have observed and
interpreted (likely without documenting), here, the focus will be on how observation is collected and
recorded and then reflected upon to plan future curricula.

This process can be considered a repeated cycle (see Figure 6.3). First, the educator observes, then
documents, interprets, and plans a responsive curriculum. The process begins again once children
engage with the curriculum, providing information about the children and how the planned
curriculum works to support their interests and development. Notice there is no stopping of this
cycle; it is continuous or iterative , feeding back onto itself.

Figure 6.3

Observation Cycle
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 166

Observation Cycle/
Photo credit:
Brenda Boyd, CC
BY 4.0

Thorough observations consist of three parts:

Observing: gathering information about what is seen and heard through careful watching and
listening.

Recording: documenting what was seen and heard in observation .

Interpreting: reflecting on what has been observed and documented.

After completing these three parts, the educator uses the information gathered. Using the
information can include implementing curriculum, responding to individuals or a group of children, or
creating summary reports to share with families and document learning over the school year. Thus,
observation and the information gathered from it are vital to teaching responsively to meet the
needs of the children in one’s classroom.

The following sections will further describe the three parts of the observation cycle.

6.3.2.1 What and When to Observe

Because observation was defined earlier in the chapter–watching and listening to learn about
167 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT
children and their development (Stetson et al., 2007) and the importance of objectivity in
observation/ documentation previously discussed, in this section observation will only receive brief
attention. The two points addressed here include what and when educators should observe.

What does an educator look for when observing? The key focus in observing young children is their
growth and development. The educator’s knowledge of child development is essential for structuring
observations . In addition to knowing developmental milestones, an early childhood educator
recognizes the importance of all domains of development and learning. Observation should collect
evidence of cognitive growth, physical development, social-emotional competence, and age-
appropriate learning content areas (i.e., math, science, language). In short, an educator must collect
evidence of growth and development in all areas. Educators should also be observing to know the
individual child better. What is the child interested in, what do they struggle to succeed with, and
what does the child most enjoy? These questions are equally crucial to documenting the
developmental milestones achieved.

When does an educator observe? Observations can occur from the first greeting of the day until the
last goodbye. Observations should be planned and unplanned while always being careful to ensure
proper supervision in the classroom. It is essential to get holistic snapshots of the whole child
throughout various times of the day. Additionally, observations should happen in both educator-
directed and child-directed situations (Jablon et al., 2007). It is also important to observe during
structured and unstructured learning periods both indoors and outdoors. Educators can also observe
relationships between children and staff, children and their families, and children engaged in play with
children.

When planning for observations , the educator should conduct informal and formal observations at
planned and unplanned times. This way, the observer can experience authentic representations of the
child’s skills, knowledge, and behaviors.

6.3.2.2 Recording/Documentation

Once an observer has noted significant evidence of a child’s development, the next step is to record or
document the observation . There are many reasons why educators should document observations
and many uses for the documentation collected in early childhood classrooms. Through
documentation, educators can show developmental growth and be accountable to families,
communities, and administrators, extend the learning for children, and become more confident in
their teaching. Just as there are many reasons why educators document, there are many ways to
record observations (Jablon et al., 2007).

The most common way to record developmental milestones is anecdotal notes (Bates et al., 2019).
Anecdotal notes or records are short notes taken by educators capturing observations . They can be
taken on a formal document or shortened form (such as post-it notes or index cards). These
observations can be written after an event and often focus on specific developmental domains. An
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 168
anecdotal note should be about one incident that illustrates some aspect of development or learning.
An anecdotal record can summarize this incident rather than capture every part of the occurrence,
but it should have enough detail to illustrate the specific development. Anecdotal notes are the
primary method of documenting daily occurrences of importance. When taken together, they provide
multiple data points for reflection and summarization of a child’s development and learning. This
method is essential in the educator’s [ GL] documentation toolkit. An example of an anecdotal record
is shown below.

Anecdotal Record
Example/ Photo
credit: Brenda
Boyd, CC BY 4.0

Another method of documenting development is running records. A running record requires

sequentially capturing the details of the child’s behavior while the observation is taking place and is
written in the present tense. Thus, a running record requires the observer to be out of the classroom
action to capture the needed details (Jablon et al., 2007). Because a running record is time and
energy-intensive and requires the observer to step out of the action, it is often reserved for those
instances when an educator needs to know more about a behavior or its context before responding to
it. For example, suppose a child displays adverse reactions to certain situations or acts aggressively
toward other children, and the educator cannot successfully redirect them. In that case, a running
record may provide details to help guide this behavior in the future. An example of a running record is
in Figure 6.5.
169 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT

Running Record
Example/ Photo
credit: Brenda
Boyd, CC BY 4.0

Another method of documentation is work samples . These are examples of the work produced by
the child in the classroom and illustrate the child’s development and learning. These can be writing
samples, paintings, or other art projects, examples of fine motor work such as cutting. Work samples
can also include photos of the child at play, such as a child building in the block center or engaged in a
science activity. Figure 6.6 presents an example of a work sample. Note that the written
documentation accompanying the sample provides an interpretation of the developmental
significance of the work. A compilation of multiple work samples collected over time is called a
portfolio . Many educators believe that portfolios are the best type of authentic assessment ,
displaying what a child can do and reflecting their development. These portfolios can be shared with
families, providing them with cherished mementos of their child’s time in the classroom, but more
importantly, it can be an excellent way to document growth over time. When compiling a portfolio,
one caution is to ensure that it does not become just a scrapbook of cute photos. Instead, it should
cover all areas of development and learning, presenting strong evidence of growth. Portfolios can be
time-consuming, so a clear plan of what to document is helpful.

Figure 6.6

Work Sample Example

 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 170

Work Sample
Example/ Photo
credit: Brenda
Boyd, CC BY 4.0

Checklists and rating scales also document a child’s development, skills, and knowledge. A checklist
in its simplest form is just what it sounds like—a list of skills or developmental milestones to check off
as achieved. A checklist may be organized sequentially, with the earliest emerging behaviors first on
the list and more mature abilities placed later on the list. Early learning programs may create
checklists for a specific classroom or to align with a curriculum. However, off-the-shelf checklists exist
for adoption. Figure 6.7 presents an example of a partial checklist focused on a specific age range and
a developmental domain.
171 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT

Checklist Example/
Photo credit:
Brenda Boyd, CC
BY 4.0

Rating scales are like checklists; however, instead of an item marked either yes or no, rating scales
offer a continuum for rating a skill or behavior. Thus, a rating scale informs how frequently or how
much a behavior or skill occurs.

Table 6.1 shows a blank rating scale . The form indicates the frequency with which developmental
milestones occur. While checklists and rating scales are faster to complete than the narrative
methods of documentation discussed thus far, they lack rich information about a child found in
narrative methods. Refrain from relying solely on checklists and rating scales; pair them with
narrative documentation methods.

Table 6.1

Rating Scale
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 172

Behavior/
Usually Frequently Rarely Never Comments
Skill

Climbs on and off furniture without help

Walks up and down stairs, holding on

Throws a ball

Kicks a ball

Uses feet to propel riding toy

Note: This table lists five behaviors or skills with boxes to check indicating how frequently the
behavior occurs.

When using any of these documentation methods, one should remember the earlier warnings about
bias creeping into one’s observation and writing of documentation.

Reflection

Do you have experience with any of the types of documentation described here? Do you prefer one
over the other? If you have not documented observations , which of these methods seems most likely
for you to use? Why?

6.3.2.3 Interpretation

The last part of the observation cycle is interpreting documented observations. Interpretation
requires the expertise of the prepared educator who understands child development,
developmentally appropriate practice, and the individuality of each child and family.

When interpreting observational data, educators must attend to many factors that influence how a
child behaves, including the stage of development, child health, and cultural and individual
experiences that make each child unique. Interpretation requires skill and experience and can have
severe consequences for children if there is bias or inaccurate information in the documentation .
173 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT
Because of this serious nature, using various means to document on differing days and in several
environments is essential. It is also helpful if various individuals can provide documentation and
interpretation. What one educator may observe, another may not—we all notice different things and
have different perspectives.

All educators benefit from reflecting on the observations and documentation [/G/L] they have made
in a classroom. However, many educators wonder how to find time for this practice. One
recommendation is to find a time that already exists within the day. Naptime, before families arrive
for the day, after families depart, during staff meetings, or curriculum planning, all are times when
reflecting on observational data might be possible. Finding time to interpret observational data may
be difficult, but the information gathered is often more helpful with reflection.

Interpretation and reflection may result in a summary of observations to complete summative [

assessment tools, like a checklist or a developmental continuum. This process involves synthesizing
all the collected observations into an overview of the child’s current developmental level across
various developmental and learning domains. For example, an educator may spend time at the end of
a quarter or semester reviewing the observational data collected on a child. The review and reflection
result in a summary, a bit like an average, which can identify where a child is in terms of completed
developmental milestones (on a checklist) or where the child’s development lies along a
developmental continuum. Figure 6.8 illustrates how multiple observations can be synthesized into a
summary of a child’s development.
CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 174

Funneling Data into

a Summary/Photo
credit: Brenda
Boyd, CC BY 4.0
175 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT

6.4 How Observation and Assessment Inform Teaching

The importance of observation and assessment in curriculum development, implementation, and
teaching has become abundantly clear. Effective teachers understand that observations and
assessments are essential to help inform teaching practices and guide learning activities.
Observations and assessments are a looking glass into the child’s physical abilities, interests,
strengths, and learning and should be used to inform what the educator does next.

Through observation , an educator can determine if the content planned for the children was
absorbed, if a child is struggling developmentally in any areas, or if the teaching strategies effectively
support students’ learning and can provide information for sharing with families about child growth
and development.

Having well-planned, intentional, developmentally appropriate daily activities gives teachers solid
information about scaffolding children’s learning and developing curriculum for their classroom.

To illustrate how a teacher might use observations to impact curriculum choices for an individual
child, reconsider the scenario presented in the work sampling document of Holly’s engagement in a
measurement activity (see Figure 6.9).

Holly uses art to capture her learning. In a measuring activity, Holly must find three objects: one longer than
her shoe, one the same length, and one shorter than her shoe. She found that Blueberry (Gavin’s stuffed bear)
was the same length as her shoe. After writing Blueberry on the data collection chart, Holly drew this picture
of him.

This behavior, observed in a natural environment as children are engaged in play, provides the teacher
with a wealth of information about the child’s learning, development, and interests. This observation
and authentic assessment give a snapshot of what is happening in the classroom. They can give the
teacher information about Holly’s interests and development that could inform future activity plans
for Holly and the classroom in general.

Using the narrative attached to the work sample in Figure 6.8 as an anecdotal record, , Holly’s
teacher used this observation to plan how to scaffold her learning. Figure 6.12 shows an example of a
learning plan tied to the observation.

Table 6.2

Holly’s Curriculum Plan

 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 176

Identify
Holly has been using art to represent her learning and has shown some
child’s
interest in mathematics concepts (i.e., non-standard measurement)
interest

Identify
curriculum or
Art and cognition
assessment
content area:

Part of the
Art table during choice time
daily routine:

Description of
planned Children will utilize the art media provided to create representations of
learning groups of objects and associate that group with a numeral.
experience:

Holly showed an ability to measure objects using standard measurement

Consider
tools but has not been exposed to the concepts of numerals to represent
children’s
the number of objects in a group. This initial exposure may not be entirely
developmental
successful, but using art media should draw Holly (and other children) into
levels:
this activity.

Using small counting bears, teachers will model how to create a group of
bears, placing some bears into a circular plastic ring. Then, select an art
medium to create a picture of the group and write the number of bears,
Teachers will encourage children to imitate the process, choosing their
Scaffolding objects and the type of art media (pencil drawing, markers, paint, or chalk)
strategies to represent the group and the numeral. Number cards, showing the
number of the objects and the corresponding numeral will be available to
support children’s understanding of the numeral-number
correspondence. Talk to children about numbers and numerals and
various ways to create representations of them.

It is important to remember when planning for children using observations that learning is a
continuum of growth that occurs over time and at differing rates across the domains of development
(Copple & Bredekamp, 2008). Thus, it is vital to remember that children may exhibit development at
one level in one domain and be either ahead or behind that development in another. It is also critical
to note that this authentic assessment is unlike a formal, standardized test, resulting in a cut-and-
dried outcome. Instead, authentic assessment will provide rich information about a child and guide
177 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT
teaching practices. However, expectations of a narrow and specific behavior from the child in
response to curriculum based on observation would be inappropriate.

To summarize, [ GL] observation and assessment are intricately connected to pedagogy or teaching.
Observing children provides data from which an educator plans curriculum. Observation
subsequently helps the educator assess the child’s learning from the curriculum, providing more
evidence of growth and development. The data collected in observation also assists the educator in
adapting the curriculum to meet children’s needs. In the scenario with Holly, the plan the teacher
wrote after observing her play becomes the curriculum. Assessment will occur through another
observation after the plan is executed, and the teacher can determine if the goal of playing with
numerals and artistically representing them deepens and strengthens Holly’s learning. Through
careful observation, documentation , interpretation, and reflection, teachers can plan and implement
an effective curriculum so each child can thrive as they master major developmental milestones.

Reflection

Has your idea of how assessment can inform teaching changed since you finished the chapter? If so,
in what ways? What questions do you have about how this process can be applied to the early
childhood educator?

Summary

Authentic, naturalistic observation has been a part of early childhood education since its inception.
Increased pressure for standards and accountability in education has impacted early childhood
education, but efforts to ensure assessment in ECE remains developmentally appropriate have mainly
been successful. Observation and assessment remain essential skills for productive early childhood
educators. While risks exist if observation and documentation are not objective and unbiased, high-
quality documentation of objective observation is a critical tool for responsive teaching. An educator’s
toolkit should contain a variety of methods of documentation and skill in reviewing, summarizing, and
synthesizing observational data for periodic assessment of a child’s development. The information
provided by this assessment assists in the creation of responsive curricula. Assessment done in this
manner results in essential information for responsive teaching that meets the needs of children.
 CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT | 178

Review Questions

1. Have observation and assessment always been a part of early childhood education?
2. How did changes in educational philosophy (such as the No Child Left Behind Act) influence
the use of assessment in early childhood education?
3. What is the most crucial purpose for assessment in early childhood education, according to the
authors of “Principles and Recommendations for Early Childhood Assessment?
4. Define assessment and describe how it is used in early childhood education.
5. Define observation and describe how it is used in early childhood education.
6. How are assessment and observation related?
7. Do “assessment” and “observation” mean the same thing?
8. What is formative assessment?
9. What is summative assessment, and how is it different from a formative assessment?
10. What is authentic assessment? Describe what it would look like in an early childhood
classroom.
11. Provide an example of a formal assessment.
12. What is norm-referenced assessment? How is it applicable in early childhood education?
13. What is a standardized assessment?
14. Define objective and subjective documentation.
15. Provide an example of subjectively written documentation. Improve it by making it more
objective.
16. Why is objectivity in documentation critical?
17. Describe the cycle of assessment. How is it iterative?
18. Describe anecdotal records or notes.
19. Describe running records. How are they different from anecdotal records? Why would you use
a running record?
20. Describe work samples.
21. What is a portfolio?
22. Describe checklists and rating scales and their similarities and differences.
23. Describe the process of interpreting collected documentation. Include the idea of synthesizing
various pieces of documentation into a summary.
24. Describe how the assessment results can inform curriculum planning and teaching.
179 | CHAPTER 6: OBSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT

References
Bates, C. C., Schenck, S. M., & Hoover, H. J. (2019). Quick and easy notes: Practical strategies
for busy teachers. Teaching Young Children, 13(1). https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/tyc/
oct2019/practical-strategies-teachers

Bush, G. H. W. (1990, January 31). Address before a joint session of the Congress on the state of the
Union. The American Presidency Project. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/
address-before-joint-session-the-congress-the-state-the-union-2

Copple, C. & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2008). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs serving children birth through age 8 (3rd ed). National Association for the Education of
Young Children.

Feeney, S., & Freeman, N. K. (2018). Ethics and the early childhood educator: Using the NAEYC
code (3rd ed.). National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Head Start Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center. (2023, September 26). Clearing your
view: Staying objective in observation. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services,
Administration for Children & Families. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/video/clearing-your-
view-staying-objective-observation

Jablon, J. R., Dombro, A. L., & Dichtelmiller, M. L. (2007). The power of observation from birth
through eight (2nd ed.). Teaching Strategies.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2020, April). Developmentally
appropriate practice. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/
PDFs/resources/position-statements/dap-statement_0.pdf

Nerren, J. (2020). An educated nation: Governmental policy and early childhood education in
America. In J. Donovan, K. Trimmer, & N. Flegg (Eds.), Curriculum, schooling, and applied research
(pp. 77–102). Palgrave Macmillan.

Peterson, G., & Elam, E. (2020). Observation and assessment in early childhood education. College
of the Canyons. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VlCDfAlaFWKxZXeJEVbxwg53TLvhsZSv/
view CC BY.

Seitz, H. (2008). The power of documentation in the early childhood classroom. Young Children,
63(2), 88–93. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ819242

Shepard, L., Kagan, S. L., & Wurtz, E. (Eds.). (1998, February). Principles and recommendations for
early childhood assessments. National Education Goals Panel. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED416033
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Stetson, C., Jablon, J. & Dombro, A. L. (2007). Observation: The key to responsive teaching.
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Washington State Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. (2008). A guide to

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2022-12/assessment_print.pdf

Wortham, S. C. & Hardin, B. J. (2020). Assessment in early childhood education (8th ed.). Pearson.
181 | CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY

CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY

Restaurant Play/
Photo credit:
Jennifer Karshna,
CC BY 4.0

Overview
Teacher Susan overheard “That’s not what I ordered!” with a reply of “You did not order from the
 CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY | 182
menu. You have to get something from the menu!” It was Shandra and Jack, children in the Dragonfly
preschool room. They were playing restaurant. Michelle, Shay and Tia came over and asked what was
on the menu. Jack said the menu had soup, burgers, spaghetti, and chicken nuggets. Tia asked about
the special of the day. Soon children decided on roles for themselves and there were two customers: a
cook, and a server. The play continued with ordering, cooking, eating, and paying bills. Two children
joined the restaurant play, and one watched.

Later in the day the children from the Dragonfly classroom were outside on the playground. Kai was
sitting alone, playing in the sand and filling round containers. It had rained earlier in the day so the
sand was wet. Shay came up to Kai and said “Are you making pies?” Kai replied “Yes.” Shay asked:
“What kind of pie? Can it be served in a restaurant?” Kai said “berry pie” just as a group of children ran
up to them and said “Oh no, hot lava! You are in the hot lava!” Everyone ran to the play structure,
climbed to the top, and some expressed relief that they were all safe from the lava. They looked down
at the lava for a couple of minutes until Shandra announced: “The lava is cool now.” A game of chase
started and the children ran around the playground until Jack stopped because he noticed a worm on
the ground. This led to conversations about the worm: why it was out, where it was going, and what it
eats.

Although play is a common topic, people think of many different things when they hear the word
“play” and describing it is complex. Chapter 7 starts with a description of play. The chapter continues
with information about how play supports children’s development in all domains and seven common
types of play are described. The last section will address how play happens in the early childhood
classroom and includes information about how some children struggle when playing, by themselves,
and/or with others.

Objectives

• Students will identify the three key components of play as addressed in Chapter 7.
• Students will list and describe six types of play as addressed in Chapter 7.
• Students will analyze a play scenario and for each developmental domain (physical, cognitive, and
social/emotional) illustrate one way in which children are learning.
• Students will identify and describe the three categories of common challenges some children
experience in play.
183 | CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY

Key Terms

• Extrinsic
• Intrinsic
• Experience
• Activity
• Sensorimotor Play
• Physical Play
• Exploratory Play
• Constructive Play
• Dramatic Play
• Outdoor/Nature Play
• Risky Play
• Expressive Language
• Receptive Language

7.1 What is Play

Play is common in childhood, especially for young children, yet it is difficult to describe (Mardel, 2019;
Piaget, 1962; Sutton-Smith, 1997). Nevertheless, the presence of play for young children and as part
of early childhood education (ECE) has persisted over time (Piaget, 1973; Smilansky & Shefatya,
1990; Sutton-Smith, 1997). Play is also considered an aspect of developmentally appropriate practice
(DAP), according to the National Association for the Education of Young Children (2020). Before you
read further, take a moment to write down your description of play. In a few sentences or bullet
points, how would you describe play? Save your notes so you can compare them with what is
described in this chapter.

One reason play is difficult to describe is that it is creative and fluid. As they are playing children try
things out and develop ideas. It is not planned. The children act, talk, and do. Play is also personal—the
player engages based on their own knowledge, understanding, and experiences. Play is a series or set
of behaviors and actions (Piaget, 1962). It involves all domains of development, social/emotional,
cognitive, and physical. Play is extrinsic —outside of an external to a person and observable. It is also
 CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY | 184
intrinsic —within and inside a person and not observable. This means there are aspects of play that
are external and can be seen and some that are internal and difficult to see (Parton, 1932; Smilansky
& Shefatya, 1990; Sutton-Smith, 1997; Vygotsky, 1978).

Children make choices about what to play with, how to use the materials (toys), and whether or not
there will be others involved. They make these decisions based on who and what is in the
environment. For example, when four-year-old Joey arrives and enters the classroom, Joey plays with
puzzles every day. When he arrives on Wednesday, he goes directly to the puzzle shelf and pulls down
a puzzle. He glances over at three peers who are building a boat with blocks. Joey looks back and
forth at the puzzle and the block building several times. Hesitantly, he sets the puzzle back on the
shelf and goes over to the block area and says, “I am going to build a very big ship,” and starts to build
next to his peers’ boat.

In this example, Joey is originally interested in working a puzzle, but the boat building also captured
his attention. He pauses before he starts the puzzle and seems to think about what he wants to do.
The behavior—playing with puzzles or blocks—is observable and extrinsic. The decision-making is
intrinsic, an internal cognitive and social/emotional process of deciding and following through with
the decision. A careful observer who has a relationship with Joey and knows him well could comment
on Joey’s motivation (Erikson, 1963), interests (Dewey, 1913), and thinking (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky,
1978). Although the careful observer could comment on Joey’s motivation, the comments are a
hypothesis. Additionally, Joey’s actions may change at any moment. Play is creative and fluid—young
children’s actions change due to shifts in interests, developmental levels, and for various other
reasons that are unseen. Therefore, play is complex, and when you think about all that is involved, you
can see how it is difficult to describe.

7.1.1 Description of Play

Although play is complex, there are key components that can be used to describe it. Three words that
have been used to describe play are: choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019). Play, even for
infants and toddlers, includes choices, such as deciding what to play, how to play it, and for how long
they want to play. It also includes imagination and making up the things that may be different from
reality (Luckenbill et al., 2019).

Joey, from the example in the previous section, makes his own decision about what to play. Wonder
relates to curiosity—Joey is curious about what his peers are doing. The story of Joey’s play
continues: Joey starts building his big ship and while doing so talks with his peers. They discuss how
they are using blocks to build their ships and begin to discuss trips. Joey says, “If we are going on a
long trip, we will need food!” He runs to the dramatic play area and brings back plastic food. Two more
children join the play, and the ships are redesigned and enlarged so that the children can get on the
ship, take a trip, and eat food. One person says, “Let’s go to dinosaur land!” The other children agree,
and the journey begins. The children are focused, talking, and laughing at different ideas. The second
part of the story shows delight. In this example, the laughter is an obvious sign of delight; however,
185 | CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY
enjoyment and joy can be experienced in many ways, and it is not always with laughter. The example
also shows that the children are using their imaginations and making up ideas.

7.2 Play and Children’s Development

Play, with the opportunities for choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019), can be thought of as an
experience rather than an activity . Experience and activity are not the same. Experiences involve
personal connections and are defined as “something personally encountered, undergone, or lived
through” (Merriam-Webster, 2005b, p. 440). The various definitions of activity include action and
“being active” (Merriam-Webster, 2005a, p. 13). Although play is active, it is also personal and
involves children bringing their own knowledge of the world to build upon it either alone or with
others during play experiences (Parten, 1932; Piaget, 1962; Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990; Smith, 2010;
Sutton-Smith, 1997; Vygotsky, 1978). A well-designed environment can be used by a skillful teacher
for play experiences as a priority for supporting children’s learning. [crossref:8]Chapter 8[/crossref]
of this book will address the environment.

Play, as an experience, can result in benefits for children as it creates conditions conducive to growth
and development (Dewey, 1938; NAEYC, 2020; Piaget, 1973). Despite the benefits, academic
instruction (such as learning the names of letters and numbers) is valued over play in some early
learning programs (Almon & Miller, 2011). This is creating a reduction in opportunities for children to
play. Because it is important for children’s development, the American Academy of Pediatrics
published a report to guide doctors with information needed to talk with families about play,
including writing a prescription for it (Yogman et al., 2018).

Katz (2010) wrote about “standards of experience” and described how instead of emphasizing
performance standards (such as identifying letters and numbers), teachers and other early learning
professionals can think about types of experiences offered for children. Rather than academic
activities, children can engage in play, which allows them to pursue what is of interest to them and to
do so at their own developmental level.

Play experiences create opportunities for children to engage in all areas of development and it
promotes creative thought and expression (Bodrova & Leong, 1996; Carlson, 2011; Dewey, 1913,
1916, 1938; Isbell & Yoshizawa, 2016; Parten, 1932; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990;
Smith, 2010; Sutton-Smith, 1997; Yogman et al., 2018). Additionally, play is valuable because it can
result in practice that builds various skills (Sutton-Smith, 1997). The domains of development are
cognitive, physical, social, and emotional. These areas overlap and intersect with each other, and this
can be seen during play. For the purposes of understanding how play supports each developmental
domain, the domains will be described separately but keep in mind that all developmental domains
are used when children are playing.

Play is intellectual; it requires thinking. When playing, children represent their thinking symbolically
through the use of physical and mental tools (Dewey, 1916; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Vygotsky, 1978).
 CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY | 186
During play, children not only represent their ideas, but they also construct knowledge of the physical
and social world (Piaget, 1962; Vygotsky, 1978). Play requires self-regulation, which builds executive
function (Bodrova & Leong, 1996; Yogman et al., 2018). As described by Yogman et al. (2018), play
helps children develop twenty-first century skills such as creative thinking and problem solving, and
these skills use executive functioning.

Equally important to cognition is physical and social/emotional development. As you read about
in[crossref:4] Chapter 4[/crossref], physical development includes fine and gross motor skills as well
as movement. When children use materials and toys in play, they use fine and gross motor skills and in
some forms of play engage in movement and physical activity. Physical development begins before
birth as babies move their bodies in the womb and continues throughout childhood (Carlson, 2011).
Infants engage in sensorimotor activity, such as waving a rattle and watching it. This type of play is
physical and interrelated to cognition and future development (Dewey, 1913; Erikson, 1963; Piaget,
1962; Vygotsky, 1978). Sensorimotor play continues in toddlers with increased mobility as children
learn to walk and are continually in motion (Carlson, 2011). There is interest and motivation to move
oneself and objects (Dewey, 1913), and at times it can take a lot of effort and/or is sustained for a
length of time. This can be observed when watching a one-year-old move objects around the room
such as pushing a chair or box, and the primary interest in this play is to move. Preschoolers gain
coordination and increasing competence with physical activity (Carlson, 2011). As fine and gross
motor skills are refined, it is demonstrated in the way they play with toys that connect, sensory
materials such as play dough and clay, and writing/drawing materials. They also use large motor skills
such as running, jumping, and climbing. As children get older, they have the motor ability to build with
materials such as Legos and can play games like hopscotch.

Social/emotional development is also important for children. Children play with adults and with each
other, therefore they engage in social interaction. There is an intrinsic, emotional aspect to play. The
previous description of play as involving choice, wonder, and delight (Mardell, 2019) provides a
summary of the emotional aspects of play. Each word—choice, wonder, and delight—involves
emotions. Children choose based on interests and motivation (Dewey, 1913). Wonder involves
curiosity and is usually related to positive emotional interest. Delight is a word to describe pleasure
and joy. Imagine three children playing outside where there are rocks that are large enough to stay in
place but small enough for a child to move. One child turns a rock over. The children find bugs and
worms that were underneath the rock, and one exclaims, “Wow, look at that!” Another says: “He is
moving, look, he is crawling really fast!” The third says: “Where is he going?” A debate starts about
whether or not the bug is scared, hungry, or looking for a new home. In this example, the children
decided to play with the rock and move it, were excited about what they found under it, and
wondered about what the creatures were doing. Take a minute to think about your emotions when
you can make choices, in what you wonder about, and how you feel when you hear the word delight.

Play involves all of the developmental domains. There is a developmental aspect to play. The play of
very young children—infants—is quite different from the play of older children. These differences are
a result of development and life experiences. As children get older, their play becomes more
187 | CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY
sophisticated. Developmental progression is a basis for some theories and authors, such as Piaget
(1962, 1973) and Parten (1932). Play is complex, and there are many ways in which to examine
children’s play, the benefits of it, and it can be helpful to use the domains as a framework for
understanding play and development. Reading about the types of play brings further clarification of
play and its role in children’s development and early learning.

7.2.1 Types of Play

As established at the beginning of this chapter, play is complex. For the purposes of studying and
understanding play, it is often divided into types of play (Luckenbill et al., 2019; Smith, 2010). Similar
to describing play, the categories are complex, and they overlap (Smith, 2010). Nevertheless,
categorizing play into differing types aids in understanding it. This section is categorized into six
types: sensorimotor , physical , exploratory , constructive , dramatic , and outdoor/nature play .
Risky play , which could be classified as its own type of play, is included with nature play because
outdoor experiences create good opportunities for risk-taking.

Sensorimotor play begins early in life (Luckenbill et al., 2019; Piaget, 1962, 1973; Smith, 2010). In
sensorimotor play, children engage with physical movement and input from the senses. The play
actions can include materials, the child’s own body, other people, and sensory action and exploration.
Actions may be repetitive. They also can build and expand from the repetitions (Piaget, 1962).
Sensorimotor play is common in Infants and toddlers.

Infants and toddlers often engage in exploratory play, although older children will explore new
materials (Smith, 2010). Exploratory play is exploration. When engaged in exploratory play, children
are learning about the materials. Think about when you get a new item, such a new stove, car, type of
yarn, sewing machine, or power tool. You take time to get to know the new features and if
appropriate, how it feels to use the new item. You explore the new item. Similarly, in exploratory play,
that is what children do to get to know the materials. Exploratory play may be referred to as practice
play (Piaget, 1962) or functional play (Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990). In this chapter, the term
“exploratory” is used because it is descriptive of what children do when engaged in this type of play.

When children have an understanding of materials, they can use them in a purposeful manner. If they
are not familiar with the materials, they explore and learn about how the materials work rather than
intentionally create. Constructive play can be described as using open-ended materials to create
things (Luckenbill, et al., 2019; Smith, 2010). Think about children playing with blocks. They use the
blocks with purpose to build roads, ships, airplanes, castles, beds, etc. Through exploratory play, they
learned they can stack the blocks and this knowledge leads to purposeful use of the materials to
create. Another example is with sticks. Exploration may include waving and breaking sticks. Some
sticks are not as easy to wave or break. Such sticks might be used to build or stir.
 CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY | 188

Four children put

together a
construction toy
pyramid with
commercially made
toy straw. Photo
credit: mrjohn5,
Pixabay License

Constructive play can lead to and be used with dramatic play. Dramatic play is known by other names
such as pretend and fantasy play. In dramatic play, children take on roles and act out scenarios.
Imitation, such as with the child acting as a firefighter, can be a part of dramatic play (Erikson, 1963;
Piaget, 1962; TEDxTalks, 2013). Children may build a fire station with blocks and other materials,
perhaps sticks as hoses, and once built, it emerges into dramatic play because they become
firefighters.

When dramatic play involves others, it is socio-dramatic play (Smilansky & Shefatya, 1990). Socio-
dramatic play most often begins when children are three. Toddlers usually engage in dramatic play
alone. Older children, even beyond preschool years, engage in socio-dramatic play, although it is not
inappropriate for them to play alone, in any type of play.

Children engage in dramatic play in differing ways. Parten (1932) identified six ways children
participate in socio-dramatic play, which can be called engagement strategies. The six engagement
strategies are on a continuum ranging from not involved to active participation. The engagement
strategies are as follows: unoccupied, solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, cooperative. Unoccupied
play is not playing or doing anything in particular; solitary is playing alone; onlooker is watching
others play, usually showing interest but not getting involved; parallel is playing next to another but
not together; associative is playing next to, at times talking and/or looking at the other person, but
not playing the same thing; and cooperative is children playing together, doing the same thing, and
creating one storyline.

Unoccupied and solitary can be classified under dramatic play, onlooker, parallel, associative, and
cooperative fit into socio-dramatic play. Furthermore, Parten’s study (1932) revealed that the
189 | CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY
engagement strategies can be considered as progressive stages because the findings indicated that
older preschoolers used cooperative play, but younger children did not. My observations as a
preschool teacher for over 20 years, as an on-site trainer for early childhood programs, and as a
college instructor have been consistent with Parten’s findings that the stages show a developmental
continuum. Children will engage in “earlier” stages, but until developmentally ready to do so do not
use later stages such as cooperative play. It may be helpful to add that I found socio-dramatic play to
be fascinating, informative, and complex to observe as well as useful in the teaching and learning
process.

An example of constructive play used in conjunction with dramatic/socio-dramatic play may illustrate
the complexity and value of play as part of the teaching and learning. It is possible that a child may be
involved in a socio-dramatic play situation but primarily engaging in constructive play, such as in
building a boat or an airplane for others to use in the cooperative play story line. Nevertheless, the
social involvement is significant because the child is participating with others and must construct in
accordance with the play topic. Each child who is playing must follow the storyline and contribute,
which requires knowledge, language skills to comprehend and add to the storyline, and self-
regulation.

For example, if the play topic is taking a trip and traveling on an airplane, it would not be appropriate
to construct a boat. If a child has built boats and has no experience with airplanes but is interested in
playing with the others, an airplane must be constructed. A boat will not work for air travel. The child
must now expand thinking and self-regulate to stay on task to build an airplane. The child may or may
not have information about airplanes. Lack of knowledge and/or other skills creates opportunities for
learning as well as demonstrates the sophistication and complexity of children’s play.

This example illustrates that there are implicit (not stated) rules in socio-dramatic play (Bodrova &
Leong, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978). It also brings to light Vygostky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
(1978). The ZPD is a range of functioning and/or completing a task independently to doing so with
assistance. A child can function at a higher level with assistance from others. In this case, if the builder
has minimal information about airplanes and has never been on one, the peers can provide the
needed information for constructing the plane that includes the inside accommodations for travelers.

Additionally, according to Vygotsky’s theory (1978), preschool children function at their highest level
when engaged in socio-dramatic play. Socio-dramatic play requires self-regulation and executive
functioning (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). It is also important to note that children’s
interests can provide motivation for trying new things (Dewey, 1913).

Children also engage in physical play. Physical play is active and robust in which children are engaged
in gross motor movement (Smith, 2010; Pellegrini, 2011). Children of all ages engage in physical play,
but it looks different in infants and usually involves such actions as kicking legs and waving arms
(Pellegrini, 2011). Physical play has also been referred to as big body play (Carlson, 2011); although
adults can be uncomfortable with this type of play, it is beneficial for children’s physical development.
 CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY | 190
Rough and tumble play is a form of physical play that is done with others (Carlson, 2011; Smith, 2010).
Rough and tumble play is different from fighting. In rough and tumble play, the goal is to play together
rather than to harm or work against one another (Carlson, 2011). It occurs at all ages. It may be hard
to imagine infants in rough and tumble play, but the examples given by Luckenbill et al. (2019) provide
a good illustration: “infants crawling over other infants” and “pulling opposite each other on a length
of fabric” (p. 9).

Physical play often occurs outdoors. Outdoor and nature play has been gaining attention in recent
years and it has been shown that children’s outdoor experiences, especially with nature, have been
decreasing, which may be contributing to developmental issues (Louv, 2005). In this chapter, outdoor
and nature play are considered one category. Nature is present outdoors, including places such as
sidewalks, manufactured playgrounds, or concrete surfaces such as parking lots which seem to be
devoid of natural elements. Weather, worms, insects, leaves, trees, weeds, etc. are part of nature, and
these are just a few examples of things that can be found in most any outdoor environment that
children visit on a regular basis.

Elementary
Students Play on
Playground/ Photo
credit: Allison
Shelley for
EDUimages, CC
BY-NC 4.0

One way to think about outdoor/nature play is through thinking about outdoor spaces in early
childhood programs as outdoor learning environments (OLE) (Cooper, 2015; Falk, 2018; Nature
Explore Program). The OLE affords opportunities that are different from what is found indoors. It is
not surprising that children’s play is different outdoors (Engelen et al., 2018). Nature provides loose
parts (Nicholson, 1971,) such as sticks, rocks, and logs that can be moved around and used in many
differing ways. Children tend to be active in the OLE because there is more space for running and
other large motor activities such as playing on manufactured playground equipment or using natural
elements. A log or tree, if permitted, can promote physical play, including climbing. Additionally, early
191 | CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY
childhood teachers allow more physical activity outdoors (Storli & Sandseter, 2019). The OLE also
affords opportunities for risky play. Risky play is children taking on risks. This often causes adults
concerns over safety even though children have the capability to negotiate risks (Keeler, 2020).
Children may see a risky situation and do one of the following: engage, change it so it is less risky, or
choose not to engage (Lavrysen et al., 2017). A child may see a large rock and choose to try to climb it,
get a block to stand on to assist with climbing, or do nothing with the rock. Engaging with risk, with or
without changing it, is beneficial for children’s physical, social/emotional, and cognitive development
(Bento & Costa, 2018; Keeler, 2020; Lavrysen et al., 2017; McClain & Vandermaas-Peeler, 2016).

The six categories of play provide a framework for understanding play. All types of play are a part of
DAP (NAEYC, 2020). Each play type has been described separately but is not exclusive. The play types
can be combined and often overlap when children are playing.

7.3 Play in the Early Childhood Classroom

Thus far in this chapter, play and its value for children has been described. Developmentally
appropriate classrooms contain physical spaces with daily schedules that incorporate blocks of time
for play (NAEYC, 2020). This includes time for indoor and outdoor play. A well-designed environment
can be used by a skillful teacher for play experiences as a priority for supporting children’s learning. It
is a teacher’s responsibility and a core teaching practice to support children’s learning from play. This
includes observing and intervening to facilitate and extend children’s actions, interactions, and
thinking. A few key aspects regarding the environment that relate to play are described in this
section.

Indoors, children need time to get involved and fully engage in play, with a minimum of 45 minutes is
needed (Hanscom, 2016). In a well-run classroom, children can engage in free play for up to one and
half hours. This gives children time to choose what they want to do and fully engage in play (Koepp et
al., 2022). It also allows for the opportunity for children to create through constructive play and use
the creation in dramatic play. Imagine how disappointing it would be to create an elaborate castle but
not have time to dress up and play in it! Additionally, children need the materials and space to create
the castle. Lack of open-ended materials and not enough space can result in missed opportunities for
creative play, which also means they are not benefiting from such experiences.

As previously mentioned, the OLE provides opportunities for differing types of play, especially
vigorous physical activity (Engelen et al., 2018) and risky play (Keeler, 2020; Storli & Sandseter, 2019).
Outside time is typically not considered recess and a “break” because young children are learning all
the time. Instead of recess, play and engagement in the OLE can be considered additional
opportunities and enhancement of indoor learning (Mustapa et al., 2015).

Weather is often given as a reason for not playing outdoors. Not going outside when it is raining or
snowing can contribute to missed opportunities, similar to what happened with the castle example
above. Although at first it can appear as a daunting task to get children to put on outdoor gear such
 CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY | 192
raincoats, hats, mittens, and boots, it becomes part of the routine as well as presents opportunities
for practicing fine motor and self-help skills. The rain that is often present here in the Pacific
Northwest is a wonderful resource for play! Water makes mud, which can be used in making pies and
soups, and especially for children who enjoy sensory activities and pretend play.

Allowing children to use the environment, especially outdoors, is also a challenge for teachers (Cheng
et al., 2023). This can relate to weather, such as playing in puddles, as well as with using items from
the environment. Loose parts such as sticks, rocks, and wood chips can be added to soups and pies
(perhaps made with water and mud) and can be used in other ways. Children use items in the
environment for dramatic play. One teacher described the children using wood chips as food for
playing restaurant, specifically Happy Meals at the McDonald’s drive-through. The outdoor
playhouse was the building; children served the wood chips to other children (and teachers) as they
walked or rode bikes to the drive through (M. Naw, personal communication, January 15, 2021).
Another teacher described how the children would organize themselves to re-enact the story of the
Three Billy Goats Gruff using a log as a bridge for the troll (T. Sy, personal communication, December
28, 2020). Both teachers said the children played these storylines many times and each time the play
included more than one child and was done outdoors, but not indoors. Additionally, stationary items
such as large rocks and logs can be used for physical and risky play.

The early childhood classroom, indoors and out, should be an environment that is rich with
opportunities for play. [crossref:8]Chapter 8[/crossref] will address the environment. As you read the
chapter, you can think about how environmental design creates opportunities for the different types
of play.

7.3.1 Issues and Challenges with Play

Although children all over the world play (TEDxTalks, 2013), some face challenges in doing so. Take a
moment to think about what play involves, especially constructive and dramatic/socio-dramatic play.
To construct, children need to know about the materials and how to put them together, have the
physical development to work with the materials, use creative thinking, and stay on task. To engage in
dramatic play, they need to have a topic to play (cooking, airplane, boat, family, etc.), use creative
thinking, and if socio-dramatic, they need to be able to follow the storyline, self-regulate, and
sometimes the skills needed to enter a group. An additional type of play that has been gaining
attention is risky play that involves understanding one’s own skills and the emotional willingness to
try something challenging (Keeler, 2020). This list of skills and abilities is a general list, and it is
lengthy! You can imagine what it takes to engage in play and how some children face challenges.

Some of the common challenges and issues children face with play can be grouped into three
categories: materials, language, and other. These categories were created as a way of explaining the
challenges. The descriptions in each category are not comprehensive. The purpose is to give the
reader a general idea of reasons children may struggle with play, especially in an early childhood
classroom.
193 | CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY
Often children use materials and toys when they play. As you have read about in this chapter, during
exploratory play, children explore and gain an understanding of materials and in constructive play the
materials are used purposefully. As infants and toddlers, they look at, move around, and try to work
the materials. One issue that can arise is when infants and toddlers do not take initiative and explore
with materials.

Sometimes older children have difficulty using materials. This may be because they have limited
experience with the materials, therefore they need time to engage in exploratory play. It also could be
that a child needs support to learn to use the materials purposefully. Most children gain a sense of
using materials through exploratory play, but some do not. An example is a four-year-old who would
touch pieces together, but never connect or build. The child did this with any type of toy that had
connecting pieces. “Play” with the materials lasted about two minutes, and then this child would
throw the toys. This frustrated peers. Often, this child would engage in inappropriate behaviors to
gain attention. The situation was resolved when the teachers took time to play with this child and
demonstrate how to work the materials. With the knowledge of what to do with the materials, this
child could purposefully engage. This child needed the support of the teachers to gain an
understanding of and skills for using the materials.

Language, the second category listed above, may not be as easy to see as the challenges with
materials. When children play with peers, in constructive or socio-dramatic play, they communicate
and most often do so through words. Children need to be able to talk to and understand what peers
are saying. Expressive language is talking so a person knows what is said being and saying it in a
manner that makes sense. Receptive language is understanding what is being said. Both expressive
and receptive language are a part of play with others, especially socio-dramatic play (Hà, 2022).

Children usually start to engage in cooperative play at about three years (Parten, 1932) and have the
speech and language to communicate effectively. Some children do not have this level of speech and
language. If a child struggles with saying words, doing so in a way that others can understand, and/or
following what is being said, it makes it difficult and frustrating for the child. Children can be very
accepting of one another, but the child who is struggling knows that peers are not understanding
what is being said or feels confused by what is going on. This area is one of the more challenging areas
for teachers because it can be difficult to intervene. When adults enter, children’s play often changes
(Rymanowicz, 2015). There is a fine line between interrupting and changing the play versus
supporting it and a child who may be struggling. It is not within the scope of this chapter to address
interventions; rather, the point is to bring awareness that children can struggle with play and that
teachers’ support is needed.

In addition to materials and language, there is the “other” category. This category is broad and
includes physical challenges, such as sitting in a wheelchair with limited access to the play area, not
being able to see or hear, or other motor challenges that get in the way of playing. A child may not fit
into an area or may have coordination difficulties and knock over what is being built. Some
interventions for physical challenges can be addressed with environmental design. As you read
[crossref:8]Chapter 8[/crossref], you can keep physical challenges in play in your mind. You may start
 CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY | 194
to see the significance of intentionally designed environments and the complexities teachers face in
doing so.

The other category also includes not playing for various reasons such as: wandering, flitting about
rather than sustaining play, staying in the onlooker stage (Parten, 1932) rather than eventually
joining, and being rejected from play. This is a list of common challenges, but it is not comprehensive.
With each of these reasons, teacher support targeted to help the child gain the needed skills, is
beneficial. Once again, it is beyond the scope of this chapter to fully address challenges in play and
how to foster and support children; rather, this chapter will give the reader an idea of play in an early
childhood classroom.

Rejection is worth a special mention because it happens and it can be overlooked in a busy early
childhood classroom, especially at full-day programs in which children are there for eight or more
hours. In kindergarten through third grade classrooms where children go outside for recess and often
play with peers, it can easily go unnoticed. Play, especially cooperative play (Parten, 1932), takes a lot
of work. It can be quite difficult when there are more players, which means more roles and more
ideas. It also means more personalities and more negotiation. A well-known author, Vivian Gussin
Paley, wrote about children’s play and pondered inclusion, and specifically stated, “the rejected
children know who they are, whether or not they tell us” (1993, p. 15). From years of experience, I
agree. I have a vivid memory, from 17 years ago, of a mother reporting that her child was upset about
a peer moving to a new school. Her child rarely interacted with the one who moved, so she asked why
he was so concerned. His reply: “Because he is the mean kid, just like me. We both have no friends to
play with.” I think this underscores the importance of teacher observation, assessment, and support
during children’s play.

Rejection and the other challenges children face with play are a concern. Not only is it sad to hear
about rejection, but the result is also—as with any other reason a child does not play—that a child is
not fully participating in the classroom. Play is a part of the curriculum (NAEYC, 2020), and all
children need classrooms that allow for full participation and engagement.

Summary

Play is a key activity for young children and it supports development in all domains. There are differing
types of play, some of which are more sophisticated than others such as cooperative play. Most children
progress through differing stages and types of play, including exploratory to constructive, however, some
need support because they face challenges. Children’s play may be entertaining and amusing, but an
195 | CHAPTER 7: THE VALUE OF PLAY

understanding of it allows teachers to see the value and role of it in the early childhood classroom.
Supporting children’s learning through play is a core teaching practice and includes observing and
intervening to extend children’s engagement. A well-designed environment allows for play and is the
topic of the next chapter.

Review Questions

1. What are the three key components of play as described in Chapter 7?

2. What are the six types of play described in Chapter 7?
3. For each type of play listed in #2, give a brief description or example of it.
4. In the opening scenario, what is one example of children engaging in social interactions?
5. In the opening scenario, what is one example of children using language and literacy?
6. In the opening scenario, what is one example of children using physical skills? (Consider fine
motor such as writing and putting together small pieces as well as gross motor)
7. What are two specific challenges some children may experience during play?
8. Imagine you are a teacher in a preschool classroom. A prospective parent walks in during free
play while on tour of the facility. She asks: “I can see children are just playing. When does the
teacher do the learning activities?” If you had to answer that question, what would you say?

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199 | CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

Classroom for
young children with
short table, storage
shelves, soft
climbing todays,
crib, and windows
in background./
Photo credit: U.S.
Army Corp of
Engineers Europe
District, CC BY 2.0

Overview
Imagine you are visiting a preschool classroom at a child care center that serves children birth
through five years. You arrive at 8:30 am, and someone in the office tells you to go down the hall to
the classroom labeled “Rainbows.” As you walk down the corridor, you notice there is nothing on the
walls and you hear adult voices, some of which sound stressed or in a hurry.

At the preschool classroom, you see some children sitting on a large rug, some playing with toys, and
three children who are with adults dropping them off at the center. One teacher is sitting with the
children on the rug and looking around the room, periodically calling children’s names to put the toys
down and join their friends on the rug. Another teacher is at a table and appears to be setting up a
painting activity. No one seems to notice you are there. The children who are being dropped off find a
place to hang up their coats and put their belongings, however one is crying and saying “Mommy,
don’t go. I don’t want you to leave.” You hear the teacher setting up the activity say: “The art project is
set up. Let’s skip circle time.” The teacher on the rug looks confused and comments: “But I have a story
picked out.”
 CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS | 200
As you are standing in the entrance trying to figure out what to do, you look around. There is a
bulletin board labeled “Parent Information” with outdated flyers. You also see a poster labeled “Daily
Schedule” with “Center Time” listed from 8:30-9:00.

In the room you see bulletin boards with what appears to be sun-faded cartoon-type of pictures, each
with a border that does not match the items on the board. You see two paintings that appear to be
done by children, both of which have corners bent and are hung crookedly under the bulletin boards.
The furniture is child-sized and with shelves lining the walls. Some have material over the shelf so you
cannot see what is on the shelf.

The air is stuffy and smells stale. Some children leave the rug and go to the art project. Two of the
children in the entryway finished putting away their belongings, said goodbye to the adult dropping
them off, and are looking into the classroom. The other is still crying. The mother says, “I am sorry, I
need to go to work now. I will be back this afternoon and we can go to the park.” As the mother walks
out the door, the child cries a little louder, but no one seems to notice.

How would you feel in this environment? How do you think the children feel? Think about the
teachers—what are their feelings and thoughts about their working environment and supporting
young children’s development? In Chapter 8 you will read about how the ECE classroom is designed
to support children’s learning and is welcoming for all of those who use it.

Objectives

• Students will describe how the early learning environment fits into the teaching and learning
process.
• Students will identify the key elements of a well-designed indoor early learning environment,
as described in Chapter 8 Early Learning Environments.
• Students will identify key elements of a well-designed outdoor early learning environment.
• Students will describe a developmentally appropriate schedule and routine for infant/toddlers
and preschool classrooms.
201 | CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

Key Terms

• Outdoor Learning Environment (OLE)

• Physical Environment
• Temporal Environment
• Social Environment
• Interest Area
• Manufactured Items
• Natural Items
• Stationary Items
• Moveable Items
• Loose Parts

8.1 Teaching and Learning in the Early Childhood Classroom

There are differing types of early childhood education (ECE) programs. Center-based, family homes,
Head Start are a few types of ECE programs, each of which promotes learning and development for
young children. Although all promote children’s learning and development, the setting, hours of
operation, and other factors are different. Each of the settings is similar in that there are indoor and
outdoor areas in which children spend their time. An outdoor space with both manufactured (play
structures) and natural elements can be referred to as the outdoor learning environment (OLE)
(Cooper, 2015).

Head Start Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center (ECLKC) described learning
environments as “nurturing spaces that support the development of all young children” (n.d., para.1),
which is all physical spaces in which children spend time, including those are used for caregiving such
as diapering and where children eat meals and snacks. A well-designed learning environment is a
welcoming place for all children and adults in which they can focus, engage, learn, and grow (Carter &
Curtis, 2014).

Environments affect our mood, our ability to form relationships, our effectiveness in work and play as
well as our health (Bullard, 2013; Carter & Curtis, 2014). If a child enters care as an infant, the total
time spent in an early learning environment may far exceed the time spent in elementary or
secondary school combined (Isbell & Exelby, 2001). Therefore, the learning environment is an
 CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS | 202
essential element to a quality ECE program and can have a tremendous influence on children’s
development.

When considering the ECE classroom, many people think of the physical environment , but there are
two additional parts to consider. First is what can be referred to as the temporal environment , which
relates to time, such as the daily schedule. The other is the atmosphere, sometimes referred to as the
social environment . Each of these things works together to create a learning environment that is
equitable and inviting for all children and conducive to their development in all domains (National
Association for the Education of Young Children, 2022). (See [crossref:4]Chapter 4[/crossref] for
more information on developmental domains.)

The teaching and learning process is complex and exciting, for all ages! The phrase “teaching and
learning process” is used because the act of teaching and of learning is closely linked. The teacher is
intentional about “teaching” something, while at the same time learning about the students.
Additionally, learning occurs from peers and others in the environment (Vygotsky, 1978). In the ECE
environment children explore, interact, and engage with materials and teachers carefully observe and
scaffolds to promote learning in a manner that fits with each child’s developmental level, culture, and
context in which they live (Bullard, 2013; Head Start ECLKC, n.d.; Kaplan, 2014; NAEYC, 2022).

In a well-designed ECE environment, there are teaching and learning opportunities throughout the
whole day—from the time children arrive until when they leave for home. The interactions with adults
and peers, engagement with materials, participation in teacher-led activities, and daily experiences
provide teaching and learning opportunities. Young children are observant and continually learning.
They are also curious and seek to understand the world, therefore a welcoming atmosphere with
responsive adults, a purposeful schedule, and intentional room arrangement provides many
opportunities for growth and learning.

One example is arrival. A teacher greeting children and adults creates a welcoming atmosphere as
well as promotes language and social/emotional development. Talking with the family member who is
dropping the child off contributes to building a positive relationship between teachers and families
and is an opportunity to discuss any pertinent information that may impact a child’s day. When
toddlers and older children put away their belongings, hang up their coat, etc. they are learning self-
help skills, sequencing (example: put things away before trying to take off coat), and if their names are
on a cubby or where they hang their coat, literacy skills. In many programs, after finishing greetings,
taking care of belongings, and saying goodbye, children wash their hands, which is more self-help and
sequencing and possibly literacy if the handwashing steps are displayed. When these things are done,
they join their peers in doing whatever happens first. Most often it will be free play, a group time, or
breakfast.

As you read about in [crossref:7]Chapter 7[crossref], children learn from play, so you are familiar with
the many opportunities for teaching and learning during free play. Children also learn during group
times and mealtimes. Large and small group times are for preschool aged children and older. They can
include stories, large motor activities, songs, games, all of which should be purposefully designed to
203 | CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
promote learning and/or practice skills (Bullard, 2013). Mealtimes are more than just eating. At
mealtimes children develop self-help skills, socialize, and practice language skills by listening and if
old enough, talking.

The ECE environment is rich with opportunities for teaching and learning. The three key
parts—physical, social, and temporal work together to provide a space that welcomes and promotes
learning. All ECE program models (e.g. Creative Curriculum and Montessori) include planning and
consideration for the environment. The next section will address design of the physical indoor
learning environment.

8.2 Indoor Learning Environment Design

The indoor learning environment reflects the teacher’s thoughts about children, how they learn and
play in the environment as well as the values of the program and the community. Additionally,
children should see themselves reflected in the environment through the materials, photos, artwork,
and other items within the classroom (Bullard, 2013; Carter & Curtis, 2014). Questions to consider
are: Do they see pictures of their families? Are there books with children that look like them? Are
there places to feel safe and places they can explore and be loud? Are the materials accessible with
just the right amount of challenge without being too difficult to use? When the children see
themselves reflected in the environment and the atmosphere, materials, and room arrangement allow
them to engage and play, they are likely to experience a sense of belonging and community (Carter &
Curtis, 2014; McKee & Friedlander, 2017; NAEYC, 2022).

This section of the chapter will describe aspects of designing an indoor learning environment. It is
important to keep in mind that learning environments are designed with knowledge of child
development, therefore environments for infants/toddlers, preschoolers, and K-3rd grades are
different from one another. This chapter will address the general guiding principles for designing
environments for young children, as an overview. Other sources can provide detailed information
regarding environments for each age group.

The key elements in a well-designed indoor environment are: 1) room arrangement that is conducive
to play and all the activities in the daily schedule; 2) materials that are appropriate for the
developmental level of the children and allow for all children to use them including those who have
disabilities; and 3) materials and other items (items displayed on walls and elsewhere) that are
culturally diverse and do not perpetuate stereotypes (Bullard, 2013; Carter & Curtis, 2014; Head
Start ECLKC, n.d.; NAEYC, 2022).

The design and layout of the indoor environment can have an impact on children’s learning and
behavior as well as on the teacher’s ability to do their jobs effectively. Effective indoor environments
support children’s interactions and play with clear organization around space, materials, and people.
When a classroom is set up effectively, children have the freedom to move around safely, engage in
 CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS | 204
the interest areas, and socialize. These environments also help both children and adults feel invited
and welcomed.

Each space within a classroom should be defined with boundaries made clear. In addition, the teacher
should be able to see children easily to supervise and interact with them (Gartrell, 2014; National
Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, 2012). Thoughtful room arrangement helps to keep order
to the space, reduces the possibility of crowding in any given area, and can support children in their
choice making. This can be achieved by using existing walls or furniture like toy shelves. An area rug
or a cloth draped from the ceiling can give the illusion of separation.

Create spaces for children to engage in quiet play such as puzzles or books. Such spaces can be made
cozy with carpet, pillows, or child-sized couches which also absorb sound. Also provide space for
indoor active play, paying close attention to movement patterns so as not to interrupt the different
types of play in a classroom.

8.2.1 Interest Areas

Interest areas , sometimes also referred to as learning centers or activity zones, are spaces in a
learning environment that have a targeted purpose. Typical interest areas include art, blocks,
dramatic play, math (manipulative, table toys), sensory, science, language arts (literacy), and library
(quiet corner, books). Interest areas should be open to children during free play. Children will explore
interest areas on their own or with peers. During free play, teachers observe, assess, and interact with
children to support their learning in all domains and doing so promotes positive behavior (Bullard,
2013; Gartrell, 2014). Interest areas should be equipped with materials that support children’s
natural tendency to play and learn and provide opportunities to take social/emotional, cognitive, and
physical risks (NAEYC, 2022). Descriptions of common interest areas found in early learning
environments are listed below.

Art: Encouraging children’s creative thinking is essential throughout the early years. Art is a tool for
thinking and inquiry, allowing children to make their theories and ideas visible, take new perspectives,
represent, and explore emotions, and to study the properties of the physical world. Art, which also
can be referred to as creative expression, should be open-ended, child-directed, and process-
oriented. Open-ended activities and materials allow children to explore and to express their ideas.
Art areas can help children to develop coordination and fine motor skills which are needed for
emergent writing. Materials may include different kinds of paint, paint brushes, easels, collage
materials, scissors, clay and playdough, colored paper, magazines, popsicle sticks, cotton balls and a
large selection of loose parts. Art areas are best supported with plenty of light, close to handwashing
sinks, and easy to clean floors.

Blocks: Blocks are wonderful, open-ended learning materials with no right or wrong way to represent
children’s ideas. Many skills and concepts are developed and enhanced through block play. Children
think critically, explore, manipulate, experiment, represent, problem-solve, and make decisions in the
205 | CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
block area. The block area is best located in an area of the room where the noise level can be louder
and away from traffic, so structures are not disturbed. This area can include wooden, cardboard, or
foam blocks as well as small figures and architectural items that will promote creative building. This is
where children can learn about sizes and shapes, spatial relationships, and math concepts as well as
learn how to make decisions and solve problems.

Tower of small
stacked blocks with
child in
background./ Photo
credit: Marcus
Spiske, Pexels
License

Dramatic Play: In this area, children’s thoughts become visible through play. According to Roskos,
Christie, and Richgels, “children may operate at more advanced cognitive levels than they do in non-
 CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS | 206
pretend situations, including staying on task for extended lengths of time” (as cited in Hatcher, 2005,
para. 6). This area provides opportunities for children to pretend and use their imagination, role play,
and act out real and imaginary experiences in a playful context. Although “housekeeping” is a common
theme for the dramatic play area, other themes can be explored in this area such as grocery stores,
doctor offices, restaurants, and veterinary clinics. Through this type of play, children will practice
social skills, learn to solve problems, and work cooperatively.

Language and Literacy/Writing Center: Literacy skills are critical in laying the foundation for current
and future success in oral and written language. Literacy skills often play a crucial role in learning
content in other areas. The space should be well lit with comfortable seating and tables with paper
and writing utensils. Puppets and props are also ideal for this area. Many teachers chose to create
unique writing centers in literacy areas where children can explore print materials as well as create
their own.

Library (quiet corner, books): Library areas support children in a lifelong habit that promotes literacy
and an appreciation for the written word. The space should be a comfortable area where children are
encouraged to read books. Teachers can create an area that includes a variety of books that support
diversity, culture, and life. Literacy and library can be next to each other but should be separate areas,
because children may prefer not to have distractions when reading alone. Through the literacy and
library interest areas in the classroom, children will begin to recognize the connection between
spoken language and the written word.

Math (manipulatives): This space can also be referred to as manipulatives. In this area children build
knowledge about math concepts such as understanding numbers and number operations (e.g.
addition, subtraction, division), shape/spatial relations, and measurement. The ideal location has
accessible materials, shelves near tables, in a medium traffic area. To promote engagement, rotate
toys and keep the area organized. In addition to math manipulatives such as geo blocks, shapes,
counting items, dice, and beads, include measurement tools, graphing paper, scales, calculators, bins
of loose parts, counting and matching games and puzzles. Rotate items, keeping them accessible to
children and organized with labeled bins.

Music and Movement: Music and movement helps children synthesize experiences, transition into
new activities, calm down, share culture, build self-esteem, and build a sense of community. There are
also academic benefits to music and movement such as boosting memory, improving spatial-
perception, and cognitive development. When setting up the music and movement area, the location
should be away from where quiet activities are located and it is best to reduce clutter so children
have space to move. Include a variety of authentic instruments.

Sensory: When children are engaged in sensory related activities, they are doing the following:

• Developing questions throughout the sensory experience.

• Investigating by touching, smelling, rubbing, etc.
• Collecting data through their senses.
207 | CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
• Learning to communicate their findings/experiences.
• Participating in scientific inquiry.

When it comes to the sensory environment there are a few critical elements to think about. Make
sure sensory tables are near a sink. It is important for children to wash their hands before and after
interacting with materials in the sensory table. An easy-to-clean floor is best; however, if the floor is
not easy to clean, having access to a tarp that can be placed on the floor will also work. Children may
have allergies, and it is best to carefully consider what to add to the sensory area.

Science: Children are scientists! They are naturally curious and biologically primed to learn about the
world around them. They use information they gain through their everyday experiences to develop
theories about how the world works. The science area should support “what if” statements, be
enticing and inviting, and have adequate workspace. The area is best in a quiet area of the class that is
uninterrupted so children can work and concentrate. This is a good place to include natural elements
such as leaves, sticks, rocks, pinecones, magnets, kaleidoscopes, oil and water bottles, seashells,
magnifying glasses, flashlights, and color wants to peak children’s interests.

8.2.2 Selection and Placement of Materials

Setting up the physical environment includes the selection and placement of materials. Materials that
are selected for classroom environments need to be developmentally appropriate as well as culturally
relevant for the age of children using the classroom (Bullard, 2013; Head Start ECLKC, n.d.; McKee &
Friedlander, 2017; NAEYC, 2022). Teachers also need to consider how the materials will be organized
and accessed by the children. There are tips to keep in mind when choosing appropriate materials for
early learning classrooms in the bullet point list below.

• Organizing the materials should take into consideration the developmental level of the children
in the classroom.
• Put materials in appropriate places (art materials in the art center, books in the library) but allow
for the crossing of materials during play from one area into another.
• Provide enough materials for all children to be engaged in the activity.
• Rotate materials to promote children’s interests.
• Include personal storage areas (such as cubbies) for both children and teachers.
• Remove materials that are broken, contain missing pieces, or worn out.

Labeling shelves with print and pictures where materials are to be placed will helip children to
become more self-sufficient during clean up. It also contributes to literacy development. Some
teachers will use color coding of materials to keep organized.
 CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS | 208

8.2.3 Environmental Aesthetics

When designing a space—any space, creating an attractive and pleasing environment includes
thinking about the aesthetics of the space (Carter & Curtis, 2014). When creating an early learning
space that will foster learning, inspire creativity, and support social relationships, consider
environmental characteristics such as lighting, color, crowding, noise levels, and clutter. Questions
you can ask yourself about the environment: Does the space look inviting? Is the area clean? Are age-
appropriate materials at the children’s level clear of clutter?

A poorly organized space with too much clutter will prevent a classroom from functioning effectively.
One way to assess the level of clutter is to take pictures of the space while standing, sitting in a child
chair, and sitting on the floor. If you would not want to show a parent or coworker the photo because
the space looks untidy, then there may be an issue with clutter or disorganization.

Over crowding and noise levels in a classroom add to student and teacher stress and have a negative
impact on learning. Sometimes less in a space is best. Less items keep children from being
overwhelmed by too many choices. Rugs, hanging tapestries, and other noise absorbing items reduce
noise levels and distraction. Lighting is something to consider in the physical environment. Ideally,
natural light is preferred. Large fluorescent lighting often found in early childhood classrooms can
interact with the brain and can cause problems like headaches and irritability. When additional light is
needed lamps, string lights, or similar items can be used, however it is important that placement of
such materials is safe and follows regulations. The director of the program should be able to provide
guidance regarding setting up additional lighting.

Children are more likely to feel more comfortable in an environment that contains similar elements to
those in homes (Obaki, 2017). Soft furnishings, nontoxic plants, natural or soft lighting, decorative
touches such as area rugs, family photos of children and staff, and neutral paint colors help to create a
space that everyone in the environment can enjoy.

This section addressed the elements of a well-designed indoor environment. The topics addressed in
this section included creating a welcoming, inclusive environment based on the children’s
developmental levels, room arrangement, materials section, and aesthetics. The next section will be
about the OLE.

8.3 Outdoor Learning Environment Design

A high quality, developmentally appropriate ECE classroom has spaces for indoor and outdoor play
(Bullard, 2013). A fully outdoor program is one in which children are outside all of the time and often
such programs are in natural settings such as wooded areas. For the purposes of Chapter 8, OLE
design will refer to programs that use indoor and outdoor spaces rather than those that are fully
outdoors.
209 | CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
As previously mentioned, the outdoor space will be referred to as the OLE. It is referred to as such
because young children are always learning, including when they are outdoors! The OLE is an
extension of what happens inside and it provides differing learning opportunities than the indoor
environment (Karshna, 2021). Children develop language and literacy, math, social, and problem
solving skills in the OLE, just as they do inside the classroom, when the OLE is created and used with
intention and purpose. Children’s learning in the OLE is enhanced if the teacher is aware and
intentional in supporting development in these areas while outside with the children. Additionally, the
OLE provides opportunities that are different from indoors (Kleppe, 2018). The OLE has more space
for gross motor/physical activity, differing sensory experiences (think of the feeling of different
temperatures and the wind or of sounds such as birds), more opportunity for risk-taking, and the
experiences that lead to developing an appreciation for the natural world (Beery & Jørgensen, 2018;
Bento & Costa, 2018).

In many programs, the outdoor space design is predetermined by where things such as a
manufactured play structure or natural elements such as trees are placed. Nevertheless, teachers can
make enhancements to the OLE in order to enhance children’s learning. Key elements of a well-
designed OLE are: 1) a combination of manufactured and natural items ; 2) a combination of
stationary and moveable items; 3) boundaries and visibility for safety; and 4) ensuring opportunities
for risk-taking and physical activity.

Young child wearing

red hat using a
shovel to scoop
sand./ Photo credit:
Administration for
Children and
Families, Office of
Childcare, Public
Domain

It has been shown that a combination of manufactured and natural items contributes to children’s
learning (Olsen & Smith, 2017). This pertains to programs that use indoor and outdoor spaces and
likely would not work in a fully outdoor program. Manufactured items are things such as climbing
structures, wheeled toys, balance beams, buckets, shovels, play stove and sink, and anything that is
made. This includes items made of wood as well as plastic and other materials. Natural items are
those found in nature: sticks, rocks, trees, puddles, etc. Including both manufactured and natural
items can lead to a variation of children’s play and engagement in the OLE (Kleppe, 2018; Olsen &
Smith, 2017; Zamani, 2016).
 CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS | 210
Another combination that is beneficial in OLE design is including both stationary and movable items
(Goodenough et al., 2021; Olsen & Smith, 2017). Stationary items are things that cannot be moved
such as a play structure, rock, or tree. Moveable items are portable. People can move them from one
place to another. Moveable items are often referred to as loose parts (Nicholson, 1971). Both fixed
and moveable items can be either manufactured (made) or natural. Although many natural moveable
items can be present in the OLE, teachers may remove them with the intention of promoting safety.
One example is the use of sticks. Some adults are uncomfortable with children using sticks because
they feel someone could get hurt. An injury could occur; however, children can also play safely with
items such as sticks and rocks, especially if they are three years and older and do not mouth things. As
needed, teachers can provide supervision and guidance for use of sticks and rocks, and they should
assess the appropriateness for the age level. Big rocks and sticks that do not fit into toddlers’ mouths
are likely safe for use. They may or may not be able to move them; however, they may find them
interesting and use them for something such as climbing.

Supervision and safety are important both indoors and out. It was previously mentioned that
teachers need to arrange the indoor environment so they can see children. Visibility is important
outdoors as well as inside, however it may be a bit more challenging outside. Setting boundaries of
where children can play is a safety strategy that can help with visual supervision. Many ECE programs
have self-contained OLEs with fences surrounding them, so there is a boundary around the perimeter.
Such boundaries may help with visibility, and teachers can also decide where to stand, strategically
placing themselves so that all areas of the OLE are visible. If that is not possible, teachers can move
around so that the areas in which children are playing are visible. Supervision and safety are very
important and should never be overlooked; however, it is also teachers’ responsibility to interact and
support children’s learning, therefore working, as best one can, with the OLE design can help with
both supervision and teaching (McClintic & Petty, 2015).

Allowing children’s risk-taking and physical activity are aspects of how teachers support learning and
development in the OLE. Play and engagement in the OLE provides opportunities for both risk-taking
and physical activity, however teachers can assess the environment and often enhance what is
already there. For example, a large stick/small log can be moved, which would likely require a lot of
physical effort for children, especially very young ones. A larger log might serve as a balance beam.
Such items can be brought into the OLE without requiring a major redesign. These are a couple of
examples to illustrate the point of OLE design and including opportunities for risk-taking and physical
activity. The key is to keep in mind that children tend to engage in more risk-taking and physical
activity in the OLE and because of this the teacher can take advantage of this and ensure there are
many opportunities for children to do so.

This section addressed some of the key elements in a well-designed OLE, which are combinations of
manufactured and natural items, a combination of stationary and movable items, boundaries and
ensuring safety, and ensuring there are opportunities for risk-taking and physical activity. Each OLE is
unique, as are the children and teachers who use it. The purpose of this section was to provide
information about using the OLE for teaching and learning and to share ideas that may spark thinking
211 | CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
about ways to enhance OLEs as an extension of and different from the indoor learning environment.
The next section will address the temporal environment.

8.4 The Temporal Environment: Daily Schedules and Routines

The temporal environment refers to time. This includes the daily schedule, (the times of day things
happen), transitions, and the sequence in which these things occur. A well-planned temporal
environment creates the conditions for children to focus on engaging in activities and interacting with
their peers and teachers. Adults can spend time interacting with children and supporting their
learning. Additionally, it provides any visitors such as observers or practicum students with a sense of
when things happen in the classroom.

A consistent daily schedule provides predictability. Children and adults know what will happen and
when to expect transitions. Predictability reduces behavior issues (Gartrell, 2014). Predictability also
contributes to children’s feelings of safety, especially for those who experience chaotic lives outside
of the ECE program (Gartrell, 2014; Schwartz-Henderson, 2016). In the opening scenario for Chapter
8, the teachers’ discussion about holding group time or the art activity indicates that this classroom
does not follow a well-planned, daily schedule. The teachers are not sure what to do! Because the
teachers are uncertain about the next activity, they become preoccupied with planning in front of the
children. Additionally, the children may be confused and/or may not feel safe.

An effective classroom schedule is responsive to the ages and developmental levels of the children as
well as works within the program requirements and constraints (Bullard, 2013). Program constraints
are limitations or boundaries within which programs must operate. It refers to things such as when
outdoor space is available for each classroom and/or other requirements such as being served meals
at a specific time. These can be physical (the square footage available for an outdoor space) or
abstract (the times that children are arriving or sleeping) and they have direct effects on the
classroom schedule. The daily schedule consists of the activities and transitions that happen
throughout the day. Activities include things such as free play, small group, large group, self-care/
bathroom/diapering, clean up, meals, and outdoor play. In-between the activities are transitions.

Transitions are changes or shifts from one activity to another. One example is going from breakfast to
free play. Another example is going from inside to outside. Transitions tend to be a difficult time of day
for children (Gartrell, 2014). It is critical to pay attention to the importance of planning for transitions.
Sometimes transitions are overlooked when setting up the daily schedule, however doing so can
reduce behavior issues (Hemmeter et al., 2008) and it can be quite helpful for the teachers and other
adults such as volunteers and practicum students to see the transitions in the daily written schedule.
It is best to minimize the number of transitions in the daily schedule.

Infants, toddlers and preschoolers require different daily schedules. Infants and toddlers need a more
individualized schedule with no planned group times. Preschool daily schedules should include short
group times, and the total number of large group activities should be minimal (Bullard, 2013).
 CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS | 212
Preschool group time can be effective if it is purposeful and active, however it is important to keep in
mind that young children’s attention spans are short (Gartrell, 2014). It is recommended to keep
group activity to 10-15 minutes (New Jersey Early Childhood Education, 2019).

An additional consideration with daily schedules is the ratio of teacher-directed to child-initiated

activities. Teacher-directed activities are those in which the teacher decides what the children will do.
Group times are teacher-directed activities. Mealtimes and self-care such as handwashing or
bathroom/diapering are also teacher-directed times because the adult is choosing what is happening.
Child-initiated activities are those that the children choose what to do. Common child-initiated
activities on the daily schedule are free play and outdoor time. The ratio should be more child-
initiated activity than teacher-directed activity (NAEYC, 2022).

Daily schedules should be written and posted for both children and adults to see. Because children do
not read, a picture schedule is needed. The picture schedule often has a calming effect on children,
especially those that may have disabilities or engage in challenging behavior (Gartrell, 2014; Jiron et
al., 2018). Although there may be a picture schedule posted for all children to see, it may be beneficial
for some children to have a smaller picture schedule. There are many ideas for creating picture
schedules. An internet search will likely bring up valuable ideas that can be used to create a picture
schedule that works for the classroom and/or meets individual children’s needs.

Because there are many things, such as mealtimes and self-care that cannot be skipped and usually
need to be done at specific times, it takes careful planning to develop a daily schedule. An effective
daily schedule promotes engagement and reducing behavioral issues (Bullard, 2013; Gartrell, 2014).
Planning a developmentally appropriate, effective schedule is well-worth the effort—the days tend to
move along smoothly and all in the classroom (children, teachers, volunteers, families) benefit
because they can enjoy the delightful and interesting experience of being in an early childhood
classroom.

Summary

The three aspects of ECE environments—physical, temporal, and social—are integrated to allow for
teaching and learning in a welcoming, inclusive atmosphere. Let’s consider the opening scenario and how
it would be different if the teachers were intentional about planning for and using the environment.
Imagine walking into the child care center and being greeted with “Good morning, I heard you were
visiting the program. Welcome to the preschool classroom. It is arrival time so the children are putting
213 | CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

away their belongings, saying goodbye to their family member(s), washing their hands, and joining their
peers who are playing. You are welcome to look around and observe.”

You enter the classroom and hear children greeting one another and see them finding something to do. A
group of three children seem excited to see a friend and say “Estelle is here! Let’s ask Estelle if we should
build a castle like we did yesterday.” You notice children’s artwork on the walls and photos of children, at
their eye level. The room is arranged in areas with similar items such as blocks in one area, shelves are
neat and organized, and you can see a painting activity set up in the art area. You look over to the cubby
area where a child is crying.

You hear the teacher talking in a soothing voice saying “It is hard to say goodbye, but your mother will
pick you up later. You can play with your friends, have lunch, and your mother comes when we are
outside after naptime. Remember yesterday when you put together the fire truck puzzle? Would you like
to start today by doing a puzzle or looking at a book?” The child looks up reluctantly and says “Can my
mom help me with the puzzle?” The teacher asks the mother about this, who says there is time to stay for
a few minutes. The mother and child walk into the classroom.

How does this environment compare to the one in the opening scenario? Can you see the difference in
the physical, temporal, and social aspects of the environment? In this environment, how would you feel
as a visitor? As a teacher?

An effective ECE environment is well-thought out, planned for developmental levels of children, and
includes the indoor and outdoor spaces. It also includes an effective daily schedule. Such environments
are places that are nurturing, joyful, and promote learning and well-being for both children and adults.

Review Questions

How would you describe the role of the ECE environment as part of the teaching and learning
process?

What are the key elements of a well-designed indoor learning environment, as described in Chapter
8?

What are three interest areas that are commonly included in the ECE classroom?

For each of the interest areas identified in #3, provide a brief description.

What is one way teachers can avoid clutter in the indoor learning environment?
 CHAPTER 8: EARLY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS | 214

What are the elements of a well-designed OLE, as described in Chapter 8?

Many ECE programs include group times in the daily schedule. For which age group of children are
group times most appropriate?

Describe the difference between teacher-directed and child-initiated activities.

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imagination sparks out there”: Exploring young children’s cognitive play opportunities in
natural, manufactured and mixed outdoor preschool zones. Journal of Adventure Education
and Outdoor Learning, 16(2), 172-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2015.1122538
217 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

A Person Walking
Down the Street
With a Backpack/
Photo credit:
Braden Collum,
Unsplash License

Overview
It is likely that you have heard the saying “the family is a child’s first and best teacher.” There are many
studies that show that the most crucial years of learning take place at home, before a child is old
enough to enter school (Dewey, 2018). We also know that teaching and learning in a school setting
cannot compare to the impact that parents and families impart every day through words and
examples (modeling and coaching) at home. Additionally, the phrase carries with it our professional
obligation to honor, value, and include the families with whom we work in early childhood education.

The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) states through the Power to
the Profession work that:

We need to be clear that recognizing families as the experts on their children and supporting
them in their role as their children’s ‘first and most important’ teachers does not undermine
the professional responsibilities of early childhood educators. Rather, it underscores the
breadth and depth of professional knowledge early childhood educators need to carry out
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 218
their formal responsibilities to fully support each child’s cognitive, social, emotional, physical,
language, and literacy development. (Allvin, 2018, para. 2)

In your role as an early childhood professional, you will have a variety of responsibilities. In addition
to teaching and sharing knowledge; you are a caregiver, mentor, nurturer, and sometimes even the
first significant non-family influence in a child’s life. With that in mind, it is important to recognize that
building strong relationships with families is a core part of an early childhood educator’s role. This
starts with communicating openly and working closely with parents to ensure a cohesive approach to
the child’s development. It is also essential to become a team with your colleagues, and focus on each
and every individual child’s success in school and in life.

Chapter 9 of this OER textbook provides insight into family partnerships and how responsive and
respectful relationships with families impact the child, family, teacher, and ECE program. The content
of the chapter is presented using a positive, strengths-based approach to support children as they
grow, develop, and learn. Using a strengths-based approach centers our lens on looking for and
identifying a family’s strengths as a starting point for our work in partnership with the family.

Keep reading and intentionally engage with the content in this chapter to learn more!

Objectives

• Define family
• Discuss various influences that affect the family.
• Explain strategies for building respectful relationships with families.
• Summarize the importance of professionalism in our work with children and families.
• Outline meaningful ways to engage with families.
• Create a plan to address conflict with families.
• List community resources to engage and support families.
219 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

Key Terms

• Barrier
• Community
• Connection
• Culturally Responsive
• Equality
• Equitable
• Equity
• Family
• Family Engagement
• Family Involvement
• Influences
• Mutual
• Partnership
• Reciprocal
• Relationship
• Reflect
• Responsive
• Strategy
• Strengths-based
• Stressors
• Unintended consequence

9.1 Families Today

Figure 9.1

Word Cloud of Terms Related to Family

 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 220

Word Cloud of
Terms Related to
Family/ Photo
credit: Ardene
Niemer, CC BY 4.0

To understand, respect, and be responsive to the families and children we serve, we must first look at
what each of us defines as family. We all probably have an image in our minds of what a family is, but
often, we do not stop and think about how the families in our programs may have different
characteristics. We need to learn about the diversity in the cultures of our families as well as the
diversity in family structure. These perspectives are important considerations for success for the
child and family and provide critical information about how to design and deliver program content. It
will also guide how we work with families in creating goals and even choosing learning materials.

The foundation for family connections is developed by first creating a shared definition of family. We
know that all children are part of a family, but “family” does not fit a single idea or concept of what a
family is. Families are made in many ways: different sizes and compositions. Some examples include
single-parent families, two-parent families, and extended families with more than one generation
living together. Families are also blended, stepfamilies, biracial/multi-racial families, families from the
LGBTQ+ community, straight families, families that have immigrated to the U.S., transnational
families that live in two countries, and families who migrate to follow work availability. Children may
221 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
have been born into a family or may become part of a family through foster care, adoption, or kinship
arrangements.

We also know that some children in our programs live in more than one home and are members of
more than one family. We also need to be aware that not all the families we serve have stable
residences. There are many unhoused families with young children in our communities.

Reflection

Take a moment to reflect and describe your family or a family that you know well:

1. Categorize the family experience:

• It was a larger family.

• It was a smaller family.
• It was a medium-sized family.

2. Apply your knowledge

• What is your concept of small, medium, and large families?

• Do you think there could be a difference between your view of family size and that of your
classmates?
• How did you count or include members of your family?
• How do you think your answers and those of your classmates are influenced by race, ethnicity,
and culture?
• What do you need to take away from this reflection to implement into your practice with
children and families?

9.1.2 Stresses of Family Life

In addition to the stresses of daily life that we all face, including finding work, paying bills,
relationships with friends and family, taking care of our health, etc., parents with young children face
even greater burdens. Parents with young children are often at the beginning of their careers and
make less money in addition to having to pay all the costs related to child-rearing. We know from
research and parent reports that there is a clear lack of affordable, quality childcare and financial
subsidies to help with costs (Improving Child Care Access, 2024; Washington Department of
Commerce, 2019), leading to more young families living in poverty. Families often need greater
access to healthcare for themselves, their children, and often their own parents, which is lacking in
many communities. Many families may work in positions where family leave is not even available.
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 222
Other families struggle with the additional responsibilities if their child happens to have special needs
or is struggling academically.

Working with therapists and teachers can often feel like a second job for many families. Families
often report that the result of the lower income, little to no paid time off work, and higher costs mean
that most feel like they have no safety net (Lankachandra et al., 2022); one injury, illness, car repair, or
other such expense would be devastating. Overall, family life is stressful and leaves many families
feeling overwhelmed much of the time. Family stress can also lead to relationship challenges for the
adults of the family, which only compounds the stress that the children feel.

9.1.3 Influences on Families

Think back for a moment to what you know and have learned about child development philosophers
and theorists. It is appropriate here to recall Urie Bronfenbrenner and the ecological systems theory.
According to Bronfenbrenner, everything in a child’s environment affects how he or she grows and
develops (as cited in Guy-Evans, 2024). Within the child’s microsystem (the small, immediate
environment in which the child lives) of home and school, Broffenbrenner’s research shows that the
more encouraging and nurturing the relationship between the people in these two places are, the
greater the benefit the child will receive from each environment. In turn, this can positively influence
how strong and successful the child will likely grow to be.

Relationships between the adults in the family are a significant influence on children, and so are the
relationships the family has with the people with whom the child spends time.

Reflection

What does “relationship” mean to you as an early learning professional?

How will you work to build a strong relationship with the children and families you serve?

9.1.3. Racism

In [crossref:5]Chapter 5[/crossref] you learned about diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging within
the field of early learning. In Chapter 9 it is important to revisit racism and the impact on families, as
racism is another factor that impacts families, parents, and children. Families of color often struggle
to have equitable access to meaningful work, high-quality childcare, appropriate medical care, etc.
Racism can also have an impact on how a parent interacts with their children (Center on the
Developing Child, n.d.).

Dealing with racism during daily experiences can place an unfair burden on people of color.
223 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
Microaggressions can be intentional or unintentional, and delivered as verbal, behavioral or
environmental insults. The impact of microaggressions is delivery of a message that is hostile,
derogatory in nature, or that embodies negative attitudes that are aimed toward stigmatized or
culturally marginalized groups (Sue, 2010). Microaggressions then compound to cause exhaustion
and depression. This has been found to impact children’s development (Essien & Wood, 2024). These
daily experiences of racism have a cumulative effect and can erode emotional, physical, and even
spiritual resources for the parent. Race-related stress may decrease the likelihood that the parent
engages in self-care, which may result in reduced emotional availability for the children (American
Psychological Association [APA], 2019). This is particularly likely for families whose race-related
stress is significant and/or involves traumatic experiences.

In general, stressors vary across families, but some of the more common stressors for families
include:

• Being unhoused
• The inability to find work
• Recovering from the pandemic
• Making minimum wage and financial issues
• Working multiple jobs
• Conflicts with extended family
• Death and/or grief
• Physical illness of self or child
• Family estrangement
• Arguments
• Missed commitments

In addition to general stressors, there are other stressors related to race and racism. While racism is
a major and consistent and compounding stressor, there are other stressors that racism sits up
under. The pressure from all of the general stressors can be overwhelming when you include racism.
Some potential reactions to racial stress and trauma to be aware of in your work with children and
families include:

• Insecure feelings or feelings of shame and lack of confidence

• Triggers or reminders of traumatic events
• Lack of trust
• Difficulty controlling emotions

For many, there is a “frantic nature” to parenting, with the compounding effect of all the stressors,
responsibilities, and demands on parental time. Families can feel overwhelmed and unsupported.
Some families face an extraordinary level of parental guilt over not being able to handle all these
stressors with ease or families struggling with concerns about the judgments of others. This stress
can result in parents not taking care of themselves or in parents engaging in unhealthy behaviors as
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 224
they try to cope with their problems (drinking, recreational drugs, etc.) (Nomaguchi & Milkie, 2020).
The result of all these situational factors and systemic factors is that many families are struggling to
get by while caring for their children. Did you know that having a positive cultural identity and being
involved in advocacy efforts are considered protective factors against racism (APA, 2019)? A
protective factor is the presence of something that can help to reduce the effects of the stressors
discussed in this section.

Understanding the negative effects of racism on families is part of what we can and should do in
partnership with all families to build strong programs. Understanding the presence of stressors and
protective factors may help us to help our families deal more effectively with overall stress as well as
traumatic events. This is true for working with families as well as working for the health of the whole
community.

9.2 Family Relationships with Programs, Schools, and Teachers

“It’s our responsibility to design a system that helps all children

and families to thrive.”

Ross Hunter, Washington State Department of Children, Youth & Families (2018, para. 3)

Research has shown that when families are actively engaged in their children’s education, it leads to
positive outcomes for students (Durisic & Bunijevac, 2017). By strengthening communication
between parents, teachers and students, we can improve academic performance, promote good
behavior, and create a welcoming school environment. Let’s work together to ensure that every child
has the support and resources they need to succeed.

A family’s involvement in their child’s school and communication with their educators is crucial to
understanding the child’s personality and learning style (Alvin,2018). Parents can provide invaluable
insights to you as the child’s teacher, supporting them to be more effective in their work. Parents are
an indispensable asset to the instructional program and their engagement can make all the
difference in their child’s education.

9.2.1 Family Expectations and Culture

All families care about their children and their children’s success in school. There are, however, often
cultural differences and expectations at play. Families have shared that in many cultures around the
world, teachers are held in high regard and respected as experts in their field (Walker, 2019). In some
cultures, teachers have a higher status and are believed to always be right in what they say and how
they teach. It is critical that we remember that for many families, it would be seen as disrespectful to
question a teacher or get involved in their classroom teaching in any way. Therefore, we need to
remember that for many families, it would be very uncommon for the family to visit their children’s
225 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
schools or talk with or ask questions of their teachers. This is a primary reason that immigrant
families often find their new role as the teacher’s “partner” confusing (Breiseth et al., 2015).

The reasons why some families may not engage with a school or program in traditional involvement
activities vary. Some families may feel teachers know better than the family about how to educate
their children. Culturally defined roles of parenting and teaching may differ for families who were
raised in other countries, or in various US communities with more defined educational roles. Still
other families may have work or family responsibilities that make engaging with volunteer or other
family-teacher conferences difficult or impossible (IRIS Center, n.d.).

The connections and relationships that an ECE professional builds with families will support the
children in understanding the importance of rapport, especially when it comes to interactions that
could be tense or emotional. An example of a tool that can be used to enhance opportunities to build
relationships with teachers is use of the ASQ (Ages and Stages Questionnaire) to discuss child
development and developmental milestones (Muthusamy et al., 2022). The way in which an ECE
professional might interact with a family member in this shared discussion, carried out in a caring
way is highly important to the work we do.

Reflection

Communicating with families and building relationships can be intimidating. What worries do
you have about interacting with different families as part of your support of young children?

Many cultures are relationship-oriented, and for them, it is important to take time to develop trust
before sharing information or discussing concerns or challenges. Some refugee parents have
suggested that the development of informal relationships with their children’s teachers should be in
place before the teacher shares any developmental or behavioral challenges that the child is
experiencing (Warsi, 2017).

Families have expectations and fears when they send their children to school, which are often
influenced by their own educational experiences, cultural expectations, and beliefs. We need to
remember that “parentinvolvement” has been defined largely by dominant culture American-born
K-12 educators, administrators, and researchers (Calzada et al., 2015).

In general, this term includes things like volunteering, communicating with the school, participating
in school activities, and helping with homework. The reasons why some families may not engage with
a school or program in traditional involvement activities vary (Ðurišic & Bunijevac, 2017). Some
families may feel teachers know better than the family about how to educate their children.
Culturally defined roles of parenting and teaching may differ for families who were raised in other
countries, or in various U.S. communities with more defined educational roles. Still other families
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 226
may have work or family responsibilities that make engaging with volunteer opportunities or teacher
conferences difficult or impossible.

Family fears may also arise when a parent themselves has not had a successful experience in school
(Ðurišic & Bunijevac, 2017). This parent may have struggled academically, or socially, may have been
bullied, or found eligible for special education services. These parents may believe that their child’s
experience will mirror their own and be fearful or hesitant about their child attending school.
Parents also fear school violence and may have stress and anxiety about school safety.

Our families face stressors that are significant and often systemic in our culture. There are no simple
solutions. However, awareness of the challenges and barriers that families face can help educators
create effective relationships with parents because they understand the realities of daily life for
many families. They also respect that each family has its own culture and that we can, over time,
come to understand it is a professional obligation to have respect for all families and realize the rich
diversity within those families (NAEYC, n.d.) .

Understanding and respect for families is the foundation on which we will build a partnership. This
partnership approach will support teachers and programs to individualize their approach for
connecting with families, free from ideas of what an “ideal family” should look like. This will provide
equitable access and service for all families we serve.

Reflection

If you were to be asked to create a “bumper sticker” or banner for the side of a bus to convey a key
concept that has stood out to you so far in your reading of this chapter, what would your message
say?
227 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

Four Children
Standing on Dirt
During Daytime/
Photo credit: Ben
Wicks, Unsplash
License

9.2.2 Connecting with Families by Building Relationships: Valuing who

families are and what they bring

For teachers, building and maintaining positive relationships with families will free your time to focus
more on teaching children (American Federation of Teachers [AFT], 2010). Because you have more
positive contact with parents you will learn more about the child’s needs and their home
environment. You can use this information to enhance strategies to better meet the child’s needs.
For the children, seeing positive and supportive relationships between their teacher(s) and family
supports their well-being, safety, and social development.

Finally, when parents are involved and have a positive relationship with you as the child’s teacher,
they will tend to see you in a more positive way, and this improves your own morale and motivation to
be the best teacher for this child.

You might ask the question, “Why should I connect with families? What’s in it for me?” There are many
benefits of positive, healthy connections with families.

These include (but are not limited to) increased positive behaviors of the children, improved child
health, academic and social skills, increased parenting skills and positive parent-child interactions,
and family satisfaction with the early learning program in general (AFT, 2010).

It is essential to remember that all families come to us and to our programs with prior knowledge, and
this knowledge should be valued. Luis Moll refers to this as “funds of knowledge.” Moll’s concept of
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 228
“funds of knowledge” is based on a simple premise: people are competent and have knowledge, and
their life experiences have given them that knowledge (González et al., 2005).

You can think of this in terms of a savings account, and each new experience and each new piece of
knowledge is a deposit into the account. These funds can remain deposited and grow or be accessed
and shared for the benefit of the child and family.

Each family brings something different to the classroom, and understanding that all families
contribute in different ways helps us be respectful and responsive{/GL] in our work with families. Not
all families can, or prefer to attend parent/teacher conferences, and not all families are able to do
nightly homework with children. Having teachers who understand this allows families to contribute in
a way that values the knowledge and the capacity they have (Ðurišic & Bunijevac, 2017).

Parent knowledge may look like a parent sharing knowledge and insight about their child with the
teacher. It might look like a parent using their skills at home to support the child and family. It might
also be a parent who builds strong attitudes in their child about school and learning. It might be a
parent who wants to share how to weave, paint, or plant a vegetable garden. We need to respect and
value this unique knowledge parents bring in order to holistically know and understand the child and
build a reciprocal partnership with the family.

In her work with Moll and Amanti, Norma González (2005) shared that children bring with them the
funds of knowledge from their homes and communities that can be used for concept and skill
development. There are ten categories of funds of knowledge that teachers should consider in
developing classroom practices. With this information, teachers would be less likely to underestimate
or constrain what children are learning. Using the funds of knowledge, teachers can focus on
supporting students to find meaning connected to their home lives and background, which can be
represented in the activities and materials provided in the classroom.

The 10 categories of Funds of Knowledge (González et al., 2005) include:

1. Home Language
2. Family Values and Traditions
3. Caregiving
4. Friends and Family
5. Family Outings
6. Household Chores
7. Educational Activities
8. Favorite TV Shows
9. Family Occupations
10. Scientific Knowledge

There are many examples of building positive relationships between families and ECE professionals in
the Head Start model of early learning programs (Head Start ECLKC, n.d.) . Program structure is
229 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
another area to consider for change to increase family engagement and positive relationships.
Examples include home visiting, cooperative designs in programs (i.e. Co-Ops), parenting support
groups, etc.

We know from engaging with the content included in this section and Chapter 9 as a whole that
teachers have strengths and expectations, and families have strengths and expectations. What if they
do not match? For the success and support of the children, it is essential that we work to build bridges
to work together so that children are safe and healthy and can learn optimally. Working together with
the family, it is our goal to create a safe, rich, and supportive environment for learning.

9.2.3 Strengths-Based Relationships

Approaching our work from a position of strength will help us scaffold learning for children and
families by identifying opportunities and possibilities for growth. This is called a strengths-based
approach (Dweck, 2016) . With this approach, we meet the child and/or family where they are and
build!

Focus on what I CAN do and the possibilities, and not what I am not yet able to do, or the “deficits.”

Conversely, a deficit approach begins with identifying “problems, issues, and difficulties.” The deficit
approach emphasizes or focuses on the child’s perceived weakness. It also blames the child or
attributes the child’s challenges to the “failures” or bad choices of their family or community. By
leading with problems, we are more likely to get stuck and only see the negatives and are likely not
being open to the innate potential of the child and family (Kasprisin, 2015).

Think about the following three strategies to build and strengthen your connection for optimal
strengths-based relationships:

• Your partnership should be based on reciprocity. Each of us, school, family, and community, has
overlapping responsibilities for the child’s learning. Each person involved in the partnership
needs the help of the others to build a reciprocal relationship that is supported by both formal
and informal attitudes and actions. All parties working together with overlapping responsibilities
make it more likely that the child will thrive.
• Effective partnerships are developed within a democratic process. We must recognize the
diversity within our classroom (different races, cultures, interests, and abilities) of participants,
and we need to prepare ourselves to resolve conflicts using a respectful and positive approach
that includes open conversation and compromise and sometimes benefits from mediation and
negotiation to reach shared goals.
• Opportunities for partnership should be plentiful and varied. A mix of possibilities might include
options such as:
◦ Having parents come to school to share interests.
◦ Inviting parents to come to see what children are doing regularly.
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 230
◦ Offering opportunities to volunteer in the classroom.
◦ Providing information and resources for family support.
◦ Creating a “place at the table” for decision-making.
◦ Attending parenting education events with topics chosen by the parents.
◦ Become a part of their community or learn about their community.
◦ Providing strategies and tools that support children to learn at home and in the
[GL]community.

Remember, to do these things, you will need to know about the families you serve. It is important to
ask families if and how they want to be involved. Ask them what a meaningful experience would look
like for them and when might be the best time for them to be involved.

Do not make assumptions about how a family could help you, but identify their strengths and offer
appropriate opportunities. For example, just because you need a bulletin board completed does not
mean a parent would find the volunteer opportunity of cutting out a border meaningful. At the same
time, donning gloves and giving cleaning tools to clean an empty room may not be respectful or
inclusive to a parent who wants to volunteer in the classroom to spend more time with their own
child. An inventory of actions and activities that families could choose from would be one way to
approach the list of what needs to be accomplished.

A robust interview, orientation to the program, questionnaires, and surveys about the family will help
you to gather information. Remember that not all families may feel comfortable reading and writing
in English, so be sure to arrange for translators or engage with other strategies based on individual
family needs (Breiseth, 2020). Invite families to engage with the program through newsletters, flyers,
or an actual invitation from the children in the classroom. Be creative! Engage the children in the
process as appropriate, remember the cultural considerations your families identify while you are
building your partnerships and focus on creating positive, strengths-based relationships. You will all
benefit, but in the end, it is about the benefit for the children.

Building a sense of community goes beyond a simple partnership with families. In a classroom, we are
connected by the common interest or purpose of quality education and services for young children.
This is our community of learners. To enhance the educational experience of the young children we
serve, we work to make each child and family feel valued and connected and that they belong.

Reflection
231 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

It is important to plan ahead in our work with families. In doing so, this reflection will help you
identify where here to start with building relationships with families:

STEP ONE: Prioritize the suggestions from the list above (item 3 shares eight initial strategies/
suggestions) and identify your priorities for engaging families in your program or classroom.

STEP TWO: Add your own ideas to the list to ensure the opportunities are plentiful and varied in the
approach, are culturally responsive, and are respectful of the families you serve :

9.3 The Importance of Professionalism in ECE as We Relate to

Families
As you will learn in Chapter 11, you should note that included in the NAEYC Power to the Profession
(P2P) Unifying Framework for the Early Childhood Education Profession document is guidance that
supports us in striving to build this profession (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020). P2P guides
us to engage in professionalism in a way that elevates the knowledge and skills of families and
communities. NAEYC expects that ECE professionals respect the professional and ethical obligation
to develop relationship with all families and the communities we serve, paying particular attention to
those from diverse cultures, languages, and experiences that are often marginalized.

To do this, it is essential in our work to create opportunities with families that value their experiences,
views, beliefs, and current world views. When we actively integrate this knowledge of our families in
the curriculum and the classroom, it ensures that we are more able to respect, learn about,
understand, and embrace families’ cultures and communities; and supports us in building stronger
[GL]partnership and connections with families and communities with the end goal of supporting all
children.

According to NAEYC’s P2P (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020), the guidelines for early
childhood educators that relate to our connections with families include: (a) identify and participate
as members of the early childhood profession. They serve as informed advocates for young children,
for the families of the children in their care, and for the early childhood profession, and

(c) have professional communication skills that effectively support their relationship and work with
young children, families, and colleagues.

Building a sense of community goes beyond a simple partnership with families. In a classroom, we are
connected by the common interest or purpose of quality education and services for young children.
This is our community of learners. To enhance the educational experience of the young children we
serve, we work to make each child and family feel valued, and connected, and that they “belong.”
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 232
Here are some thoughts about questions to get you started:

Sometimes teachers, providers and ECE professionals are challenged with cultural differences
between themselves and the families we serve, viewing cultural differences as challenges to
overcome when working with families. To address this belief, it is important to focus on the potential
resources available in the community.

We’ve included some questions to ask yourself before you talk with families. It is essential to your
success in building relationships with families that are positive and supportive:

• What are your beliefs and practices related to working with culturally and ethnically diverse
children and families?
• What resources do you need to support your growth in learning about what culture is, and how
to work with diverse families?
• In addition to learning from the families in your program, where in your community will you find
support and resources to learn to build positive and strong relationships?

Here are some examples of questions you might ask families. Make time and space to discuss cultural
differences in a positive, respectful way.

• Tell me about your cultural beliefs related to parenting.

• How do you approach child independence in daily routines?
• Do you have family beliefs and practices about displaying photos of the children and families?
• Would you be willing to work with me to create classroom labels, dictations, and signs reflecting
the children’s first languages?
• Is there anything you would like to share with us about touch and personal space?
• How can we best communicate with you about your child?

What questions you would add to the list as a teacher or as a parent:

Reflection

Working with families within an anti-bias approach is not just doing “occasional activities about
diversity and fairness topics. To be effective, anti-bias [and antiracism] education works as an
underpinning perspective… including our interactions with children, families, and coworkers”
(Mackey, 2023, para. 6), and places a positive value on differences with a goal to treat all people
with respect, and without prejudice or bias.

Reflect on what you believe would be the benefit of building a strong relationship with a child’s
233 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

family. Reflect on a strong relationship with a family that has a different cultural or ethnic
background from yourself.

Mother and Baby

Girl Reading a
Book/ Photo credit:
William Fortunato,
Pexels License
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 234

9.3.1 Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) and Our Work with

Families

“Knowledge from families is essential to developmentally appropriate practice.” Rhian Evans Allvin
(2018, para. 5)

Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) is an early childhood teaching approach from NAEYC
that states “each and every child, birth through age 8, has the right to equitable learning
opportunities… that fully support their optimal development and learning across all domains and
content areas” (NAEYC, 2020, p. 1). In a DAP approach, the teacher supports the child’s development
(socially, emotionally, physically, and cognitively) based on their knowledge of each child. This
knowledge is used to make appropriate decisions about classroom materials, appropriate
interactions, and learning experiences that are most likely to be effective and support the
development and learning of the group and each individual child.

The DAP position statement from NAEYC also guides expectations for our work with families. DAP
Guideline #2 is Engaging in Reciprocal Partnerships with Families and Fostering Community
Connections. This Guideline states:

Developmentally appropriate practice requires deep knowledge about each child, including
the context within which each child is living. Educators acquire much of this knowledge
through respectful, [GL]reciprocal relationships with children’s families. Across all ages,
families’ expertise about their own children is sought out and valued. (NAEYC, 2020, p. 18)

The DAP statement also discusses the expectation for early childhood professionals to “take
responsibility for forming and maintaining strong relationships with families and communities”
(NAEYC, 2020, p. 18). It is believed that these professional relationships act to support the
individual needs and experiences that each child requires for success in the classroom and in life.
Additionally, it is through respectful and reciprocal relationship with families that programs and
teachers build a foundation of collaboration, mutual respect, and shared responsibility that will help
families achieve their goals. This is a critical consideration that helps to build opportunities for
regular communication and interactions with the family and provides a structure for families to
share preferences and concerns about their child(ren).

When we build partnership with families that are responsive, respectful, and reciprocal{/GL], we
need to remember that this begins with strengths and abilities, seeing possibilities and opportunities
before we identify difficulties and challenges that a child or family is facing.

This chapter will close by discussing resources for children and families. When you intentionally
involve families in your program, utilize each family as a source of information about their child, and
know your community, you will be better able to provide appropriate resources related to the
family’s priorities and concerns.
235 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

Reflection

1. How has your thinking changed about the role of families and how you connect with them in
your classroom?
2. What is your first goal related to connecting with families as you move forward in your
professional practice?
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 236

9.4 Engaging Families in Meaningful Ways

Children Playing
During a Lesson/
Photo credit: Pavel
Danilyuk, Pexels
License

9.4.1 Connecting with Families to Create a Sense of Community

The connection between a child’s home and early learning program is an important connection for
the growth and well-being of the child. In a quality program, the family and program would function
237 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
as a partnership, sharing and planning together. This requires the family to be fully engaged with the
program.

In a high-quality early learning program, connecting with families in a meaningful way involves a
cooperative and asset-based approach where early childhood professionals, families, and children
work together to establish positive and purposeful connections. It is a partnership between both
families and the program staff which requires the recognition and appreciation of each other’s roles
and abilities. Family engagement emphasizes the development of culturally and linguistically
responsive relationships with significant family members in a child’s existence.

9.4.2 Building Community

To build community with families, and function in effective and meaningful ways, we must be able to
communicate effectively and inclusively (Epstein et al., 2002). Inclusive communication refers to an
approach aimed at establishing communication using all available means to understand and to be
understood. We need to broaden the options for communication so that we can be sure that the
family receives and understands our messages and that we receive and understand what they want
us to know about them or their child. To be inclusive, we need to be aware of the challenges to
communication that children or their families face. There are families who speak languages other
than English and who have hearing, vision, or reading challenges or disabilities. Some families may
not have access to a car to come to school, and some families may not have a computer or internet
account to send and receive email. Effective and inclusive educators also understand that there is
diversity in culture and language use as well. People communicate differently, and a variety of
strategies may be needed to help smooth communication.

Some general examples of thoughtful strategies for inclusive communication to use with families
include:

• Ask families how they would like to receive information from you- whether it is best to email, call,
text, or meet in person.
• Ask what time of day is best and try to connect at that time.
• Be flexible! If one communication method does not work, try another.
• Be patient and allow time to respond or react. Try counting silently to allow for processing,
finishing a sentence, or answering your question.
• Engage as many senses as appropriate—hearing, sight, and touch.
• Limit background noise and music.
• Look and speak directly to the child or parent. Face the person and do not cover your face so that
they can read the cues on your face or read your lips.
• Make sure only one person is speaking at a time- do not talk over another.
• Speak slowly and clearly with shorter sentences, but do not talk down to the child or parent.
• Use visual supports (picture schedules, photos of daily routines, social stories) gestures, and
body language along with words.
• Use interpreters if a family is not comfortable speaking the same language as the teacher. (Do
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 238
not put a child in the position of translating, but ask for a family member, friend, or
[GL]community resource to translate the information.)

To build an effective community, it is essential that we focus on equity. Equity is the extermination of
privilege, oppression, inequalities, and disadvantage through fair and impartial treatment. Equity is
not equal or one-size-fits-all. Equity is working with each child and family to individualize and
differentiate strengths and areas for growth to create a plan that gives each what is needed to grow
and thrive (NAEYC, 2019) . In this intentional and meaningful engagement, equity-based
opportunities can also serve to help family members to be effective advocates for their child(ren). In
considering equity in your approach, remember translation, interpretation, working with cultural
groups as partners, and recognizing the importance of building (and even rebuilding) trust with
families who face discrimination and bias. For family engagement to be meaningful, it must be
equitable.

Family-teacher conferences and family events are common strategies for partnering with families in
classrooms and programs. We need to remember that the main and essential factor in family
engagement is to build strong, positive, and effective relationships with families that can help
children and families thrive. Family-teacher conferences also support the first NAEYC principle of
family engagement: “Programs invite families to participate in decision making and goal setting for
their child” (NAEYC, n.d., para. 4). These planned and intentional times to meet are opportunities to
share information about the child’s experiences, development, and learning. It is also the time to plan
what can be done at home and at school to support the child’s continuing progress.

Consider these things when planning and preparing for conferences and events:

• Accommodate different languages.

• Discuss different experiences.
• Learn about and consider cultural norms.
• Plan for varied schedules.
• Share different kinds of information.
• Let the family speak. They come to us with knowledge about their child and family.

Reflection

• How will you begin to create a meaningful and effective plan for communication for your
children and their families?
• What do you need to know and consider to partner with families to build a sense of
community?
239 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

Two Toddlers
Playing Letter
Cubes/ Photo
credit: Marisa
Howenstein,
Unsplash License

9.4.3 Family Involvement vs. Family Engagement

Take another look at the definitions for family involvement and family engagement, and notice how
they are the same and how they are different:

Family involvement is parent participation in educational systems and learning activities that foster
a child’s well-being. It involves conscious and intentional attempts to provide information to families
and to encourage them to participate in their child’s learning. This strategy simply involves families
in education in some way. The “unintended consequence” of this approach can be that parents are
seen basically as helpers who follow the teacher’s directions. They are not seen as valuable partners
in their child’s education.

Family engagement is a more holistic and intentional approach in which the responsibility for
supporting the child’s learning falls on the parents, siblings, relatives, teachers, friends, and the
community; all play a critical function in continuing and reciprocal engagement. Family engagement
involves the teacher building relationships with families, learning from the families how they would
prefer to be involved in their child’s learning, and working with families to understand and plan how
they choose to be engaged. This would include desired times and methods for sharing information
about the child’s experiences. Family engagement offers a broad variety of approaches and activities
that can be offered at home, in the community, or in the classroom or program.

In the pursuit of quality in our work, we strive for intentional family engagement. While doing this
work, it is important to consider family-sensitive environments. The concept of being family
sensitiverelationship implies that the teachers, providers, and other early learning professionals will
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 240
exhibit positive and respectful attitudes towards families. Knowledge about each individual family,
their strengths, the experiences in their lives, and the values and beliefs that influence their
decisions, along with responsive practices with families, are the foundation for supporting and
building positive parent and child outcomes. Included within this context is a specific focus on
supporting families by acting as a resource to empower them to promote their child(ren)’s healthy
development. These relationships with families also focus on reciprocal information sharing and
empowerment of families by building mutual respect.

Appreciating what families bring to the program is a significant construct of family engagement.
Because families are the experts on their children, each parent/family has specific expertise to
contribute. Parents know how a child interacts with others and how the child responds to new
people and situations. Parents know what a child is interested in and likes to play with. Parents also
know about and can share how a child expresses his or her wants and needs. Families also bring to
the program their individual pride in raising their children along with an understanding of the
challenges that are inherent in the job of parenting. Parents come into a program with their own
specific needs for support and information. An important element of our relationship-building
process with families is to identify and build upon the strengths of the individuals involved. This will
demonstrate respect, show appreciation, and value for the contributions of the family in support of
the child.

Reflection

List how you will support, mentor, and coach families in these areas:

• Family overall health, safety, and welfare:

• Families as lifelong learners:
• Family engagement to support the child’s school readiness:
• Positive relationships between parents and their children:
• Family[/GL connections to their community:
• Families acting as advocates for themselves and their children:
241 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

9.4.4 Equity

Equity and
Equality/ Photo
credit:Nisha0909,C
C BY-SA 4.0

We talked early in the chapter about stressors families face. Equity and equality are also considered
stressors that we need to understand and consider as we engage in our work with families.

Did you know that equality and equity have different definitions and meanings? It is important to
understand the differences as we engage in our work with children and families (Ferlazzo, 2023).
Embracing equity means that we engage in fair and impartial approaches to disregard privilege,
oppression, inequalities, and disadvantage. Equity is not equal or one-size-fits-all. Equity is working
with each child and family to individualize and differentiate strengths and areas for growth to create
a plan that gives each what is needed to grow and thrive. In this intentional and meaningful
engagement, equity-based opportunities can also serve to help family members to be effective
advocates for their child(ren). In considering equity in your approach, remember translation and
interpretation, work with cultural groups as partners, and recognize the importance of building (and
even rebuilding) trust with families who face discrimination and bias. For family engagement to be
meaningful, it must be equitable .

On the other hand, equality IS one-size-fits-all. It is equal and gives everyone the same thing. While
seemingly well-meaning, equality misses the mark in meeting the individual and unique needs of
children and/or their families.

To assist in your understanding of the difference between equality and equity, you are encouraged to
reflect on the following image:
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 242

Equity vs Equality/
Photo credit:
MPCA Photos, CC
BY-NC 2.0

The first panel shows three individuals, each standing on the same size (equal) boxes and reaching for
fruit on the tree branch. In this image, all 3 have the same size box,but not all individuals can reach the
fruit. In the second panel (equity), each individual is provided with the size box they require to reach
the fruit. We need to remember the importance of (equity) in providing all of our services to children
and families so that they can get what they need in order to thrive and succeed!

Let’s apply that concept of (equity) specifically for an ECE program. Family-teacher conferences and
family events are common strategies for engaging families in classrooms and programs. We need to
remember that the main and essential factor in family engagement is to build strong, positive, and
effective relationships with families that can help children and families thrive. Family-teacher
conferences also support the first NAEYC principle of family engagement[GL/]: “Programs invite
families to participate in decision making and goal setting for their child” (NAEYC, n.d., para. 4). These
planned and intentional times to meet are opportunities to share information about the child’s
experiences, development, and learning. It is also the time to plan what can be done at home and at
school to support the child’s continuing progress.

Going a step further is the concept of justice. Justice is not just about meeting requirements. It
demands proactive and transformative measures to create equitable structures and systems that
sustain justice. Only by taking these steps can we ensure fairness and equality for all. Taking that step
towards justice begins to address systemic attitudes and changes.

Reflection

Think about creating equitable opportunities for family engagement in your program or classroom:
243 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

How will you begin to create a meaningful engagement and communication plan to support
the children and their families that you serve?

How will you respond to families equitably?

What do you need to know and consider to engage families fully in their child’s education?

9.4.5 Overcoming Conflicts

“You and I are in a relationship which I value and want to keep. Yet each of us is a separate person with
our own unique values and needs and the right to meet those needs. So that we will better know and
understand what each of us values and needs, let us always be open and honest in our
communication.”

Thomas Gordon, an American philosopher and psychologist, 1964/1978 (as cited in Adams, 2021, para. 6)

When it comes to children, there are no two parties more invested than parents and teachers.
Unfortunately, these emotions can cause tensions to run high when there are many sources of
potential conflict in the school setting. Regardless of your good intentions and how carefully you plan,
conflicts might arise as you and the families you serve work to build relationships and create your
communication plans and strategies. Most commonly, conflicts are the result of a lack of
understanding of one (or all) of the following: background, culture, language, and/or beliefs (Mosier &
Nunamaker, 2019). When conflicts arise, we need to remember two general goals:

1. End the disagreement.

2. Preserve the relationship.

Partial Cover of
Children’s House,
Parent Handbook/
Photo credit: Minor
Avenue, Fair Use,
Screenshot excerpt
referring to full
report: “Children’s
House”.
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 244
Regardless of your goal, good communication will be a key strategy and is the best approach for a
positive outcome. Following the conflict resolution, it will be important for you and possibly your
team at the program or center to meet and review policies, rules, and assumptions that have been in
place. Discuss program expectations for families with your administrator and other staff, be open to
assessing what is necessary, what is in place because “it’s how we’ve always done it,” what is a
preferred practice or approach, and what is your own personal taste.

Reflection

Jani’s parents send you an email to say they will not attend the conference on Thursday because they
are unable to attend every school event or volunteer for every activity. They further state that it is
the job of the teacher (you) to teach Jani.

What is your solution/response?

Do you need resources or support? Who will you ask?

When rules and expectations are kept realistic, and to a minimum, the opportunity for conflict is also
minimized. This will lead to a more collaborative environment and allow for communication that
improves and increases family engagement. Stay positive and remember that reciprocal relationships
are more likely to involve the co-creation of a mutually healthy vs. those in which one role tries to set
the framework with extensive rules and consequences and expects the other to go along with their
plan.

For example, consider involving your families in developing or updating policies. This will show
families that you respect them and appreciate their presence, as well as convey a sense of respect and
belonging. This also will most likely encourage more acceptance of the policies and expectations that
have been developed together.

Reflection

Think about a community activity that you have been involved in and enjoyed. What prompted you to
participate?

How can you apply this insight to your work and create family engagement options?
245 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

9.5 Challenges and Barriers to Connecting with Families

Figure 9.9

Woman Holding
Baby While
Walking on Dock/
Photo credit:
Marcelo Silva,
Unsplash License
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 246

9.5.1 Identifying Barriers

We know that there are many benefits that are gained for a family and child when the family is
engaged and connected with the teacher and/or the school. At the same time, we also know that
there are barriers to family engagement, and many parents cannot or do not become engaged or
connected in their child’s schooling experiences. These barriers can be on the part of the school or the
family.

Some barriers result from limited resources but can also stem from the beliefs, perceptions, and
attitudes of families and school staff. Some common examples stem from a lack of teacher time
because of other responsibilities and teachers seeing family engagement as just another task to
complete (Baker et al., 2016). There are also teachers who do not understand or seek to understand a
parent’s communication style or work to build those relationships. This mismatch may be the result
of cultural or language differences, teachers’ misperceptions of the parents’ abilities, limited family
resources such as time or lack of transportation, parents’ lack of comfort, and not feeling welcome at
school. Some parents may have had negative school experiences that cloud their ability to make
positive connections, or they may be unfamiliar with American culture and expectations around
family engagement in schools. There also may be a belief from families that teachers only connect
with “bad news.” This one-way communication system does not allow for opportunities to share
information.

9.5.2 Teacher Perspective

From the teacher’s perspective, some teachers may not feel respected by a parent or may feel that a
family has challenged their authority or questioned decisions (Arce, 2019). Mobility in urban areas
can also challenge connections due to the more frequent movement of families. Finally, many families
may simply not see the value of being engaged with their child’s education and do not believe they
could have any meaningful role in their child’s schooling.

Each one of these barriers can be mediated through building an invested interest on both sides, clear
and intentional communication, relationship development, and an attitude of partnership. There are
barriers, however, that present a more complicated challenge. It is important to begin thinking about
building a collection of resources or a resource file that you can offer to families when barriers are
identified and/or disclosed. It is important to learn about safety and structure for children and
families and how to offer non-judgmental support.

9.5.3 Challenges to Making Connections

Parents and teachers benefit when families are involved in their child’s education. However, there are
barriers that prevent this. These barriers include limited resources, time constraints, cultural and
247 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
language differences, and negative past experiences, and more. You will find a template for a resource
list at the end of this text.

• Dysregulated children and/or dysregulated adults: The term dysregulation is used to describe a
limited, or lack of, ability to manage emotional responses to different situations and keep this
control within socially acceptable limits and expectations. This can include sadness, anger,
irritability, and frustration. We know that a parent who has emotional dysregulation will also
most likely struggle to teach their child how to regulate. Dysregulation can also be the result of
early childhood trauma, child neglect, or traumatic brain injury (McLean, 2018). A person might
also be biologically susceptible to react emotionally, which can be triggered by ongoing but low
levels of negativity or invalidation in their life circumstances.
• Families who are impacted by domestic violence, substance use disorder, mental health
challenges, and other difficulties. Recent statistics show that up to 12% of children under five
years old live with at least one parent with an alcohol or substance use disorder (Lipari & Van
Horn, 2017). When a parent has a substance use disorder, it can have negative effects on their
children and on overall family functioning. Families with a parent who has a substance use
disorder pose an increased risk to the children for experiencing other challenges, such as mental
illness, poverty, domestic violence, academic problems, abuse, and neglect.

Remember that in early learning and education, your role clearly states your responsibility as a
mandated reporter. According to Wash. Rev. Code § 26.44.030 (1965) in Washington state, this
means that you are legally obligated to report suspected child abuse or neglect to the appropriate
state child protection agency. The Washington State Division for Children, Youth, and Families
(DCYF) states that you are required to report incidents where there is a reasonable suspicion that
abuse or neglect has occurred or there is a substantial risk that abuse or neglect may occur, but you
must not investigate on your own (n.d.).

You should include a clear and detailed conversation about this mandate in your staff and parent
orientation processes. You want to create a culture of safety where you operate with shared
attitudes, values, goals, and practices with the intent of zero harm to children. It is important that
you review your goal of partnership and working together in family engagement and communicate
to families that you are not “out to get them.”

Tough decisions about inclusion in the program: Inclusion can be defined as children with and without
disabilities learning alongside each other, integrated into the same classrooms, and all receiving an
appropriate, high- quality education. The Individuals with Disabilities Education (IDEA) Act, originally
called the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975), mandates that students with
disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment – to the maximum extent appropriate.
There are many benefits to inclusion, such as resources to support individualized and differentiated
learning, teachers having the support of other teachers and specialists, children learning with other
children their age, and children learning to accept and value differences. in your orientation process.
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 248
The decision regarding inclusion needs to be made case-by-case to be successful for the child and
family. All children have different needs and there is always a variety of ways to meet those needs.

Reflection

What does inclusion mean to you?

Consider the following in working with the family to make the inclusion decision:

1. Is your learning environment structured for inclusion?

2. Can the child learn and make progress in a group setting?
3. Can the teacher provide appropriate instruction so that all children can
4. understand and be engaged?
5. Can the child tolerate an inclusive classroom without being over
6. stimulated or overwhelmed?
7. Does the list of pros outweigh the list of cons for the child’s best benefit?

9.6 Community Resources for Families

Word Cloud of
Terms/ Photo
Credit: Anne
Adrian, CC BY 2.0
249 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

9.6.1 Identifying Needs

We have mentioned that families need community support. There are a wide variety of ways that
communities can support families and their local school districts. Many school districts form
committees to reach out to local businesses for support (Epstein et al., 2002). For some, this might
look like donations for school events, but it can also be used in other ways. For example, if there is a
school district that has the children of a large factory or business in their catchment area and few
parents are coming to the school to volunteer or to attend events and conferences, the school might
work with the factory on how to make it possible for parents to be at the schools more often without
fear of losing their jobs.

Some factories could close one day for conferences, allow paid time off, or allow parents to request
release time from work for when they want or need to be at school events. There have also been
businesses that have events like a “Lunch and Learn,” in which the business brings in a qualified
community member to talk about how to prepare your child for kindergarten, how to engage in
enrichment activities on the weekends, how to find quality child care in the area, etc.

In identifying needs and supports we can look to Urie Broffenbrenner and the theory of ecological
systems. Brofennbrenner’s theory states that “human development unfolds in a nested set of
systems involving cultural, social, economic, and political elements, not merely psychological ones.
These systems and their interactions can nurture or stifle optimal development” (Bronfenbrenner
Center for Translational Research, n.d.). Taking this approach, we can help families create a visual
model of their existing supports and then identify gaps where support is needed. Your model might
look something like this:

Figure 9.11

Author-Created Image of an Eco Map

 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 250

Author-Created
Image of an Eco
Map/ Photo Credit:
Ardene Niemer, CC
BY 4.0

9.6.2 Community Supports for Families

Communities can also help families by providing new crosswalks with traffic lights on busy streets
for families who need to walk to school or maybe organizing walking school bus groups in
neighborhoods for those who live too close for bus service. There are also public health departments
that can arrange for vaccine days or dental health check days in schools. Social service workers can
be available to help families who may need to apply for nutrition assistance or state medical
insurance or help to pay utility bills, etc. When families, communities, businesses, and schools work
together; children benefit and the community thrives. The possibilities are endless when there is a
willingness for community entities to communicate and brainstorm ways to support children and
families.

As part of your ongoing work with families, building partnerships, and engaging them in their child’s
education, you may become aware of resources that the family could benefit from. What are the
resources available in your community or beyond that you could share contact information about
with families?

Consider these broad categories, to build a resource list for your use with children and their families:

a) Basic family needs such as food, shelter, and clothing. Where are your community food and/or
clothing banks? Where could you refer a family for housing support?

b) Cultural and language support for families. Our classrooms represent children and families
251 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
from multiple languages and multiple cultures. It is important to identify those in your
community whom you can turn to for information and support. Are there interpreters and
translators available? Is there a community organization that focuses on specific and individual
cultures for support?

c) Developmental support and referrals. Teachers monitor child development as part of an

ongoing curriculum and assessment cycle. When you identify possible concerns, or a parent
shares concerns with you, where can you refer for assessment?

d) Resources for medical needs and challenges. Families sometimes do not know where to access
medical help or insurance. What are the health care services and supports available nearby?

Now that you have explored the importance of family partnerships, what strengths do you bring to
building relationships with families List those here:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Holding Hands/
Photo credit: Aaron
Gilson, CC BY
NC-ND 2.0
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 252

9.7 Summary
A positive relationship with families, along with a program that is committed to family engagement,
is vital to a child’s success in school and life. This includes parents, teachers, schools, and the
community, and is uniquely important in the earliest years of a child’s education. We know that
children need support and guidance as they are developing skills across all domains: motor, social,
emotional, physical, and cognitive, both at home and school. Our work has also demonstrated the
essential need for educators to build relationships with families. These strong and nurtured
relationships will support parents in growing their understanding of how they can support their
child’s learning from the classroom and in their home.

Parent engagement and positive relationships between home and school support improvement in
children’s health, well-being, and cognitive, academic, and social skills. There is also a positive
influence that works to decrease challenging behaviors in children. Family engagement has also been
shown to increase parent satisfaction with early childhood services.

We have all heard the saying that it takes a village to raise a child. This includes the continued support
from that village to boost success as the child enters school. When there is a strong [GL]partnership
between family,school, and community, the child will benefit from a multi-faceted approach for
success. Additionally, when early care and education programs encourage parental participation in
learning activities, provide opportunities to advocate and guide policies, and form partnership with
local organizations, there are life-long benefits to children, families, programs, and communities.

A shared understanding and commitment between families and educators will create the conditions
where a love of learning can develop in our youngest students. Children gain the benefit of success
advocates when their families and community members are involved in their learning. Advocacy
supports children in improving their skills in all areas and gaining advocates that promote their
success, thus supporting their social, emotional, and cognitive skills and enhancing their ability to feel
more confident at school and in life.

Reflection

As you have progressed through Chapter 9 and learned about families, making connections with
families, and some of the struggles and challenges families face, it is important to be able to share
resources for support. With that in mind, you might think about creating a resource list or file so that
you can easily share information with a family or a colleague. As you are developing this list, think
about these categories, and add information(name, contact information, services offered) from your
local organizations and entities as appropriate:
253 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS

• Basic Family Needs

◦ Housing
◦ Childcare
◦ Food
◦ Legal issues

• Cultural and Language Supports

• Child Development Referrals and Supports
• Medical Concerns
• Mental Health Supports
• Parenting Supports
• Other Categories of Choice and Identified Need

Review Questions

1. What is a “family”?
2. What external and/or internal influences affect the family and how it functions?
3. Why is it important to build strong and supportive relationships with families?
4. What are some strategies you can use to build relationships with families?
5. What is family engagement as opposed to simply involving families in the child’s program?
6. List 4 ways you can engage meaningfully with a family.
7. What does it mean to be an ECE professional?
8. Why must we maintain professionalism and professional boundaries when we work with
children and families?
9. What can you do to address conflict if it arises with a family?
10. Explain the importance of professionalism and being a professional in early learning.
11. What are “funds of knowledge,” and how can you maximize families’ contributions to the
program?
12. What is the difference between equity and equality, and why should we focus on equity?
13. What should you do if conflict arises in your work with a family?
14. Why is it important to identify community resources to share with families?
15. List 2 ways you might share resource information with families?
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 254

References
Adams, M. (2021, December 20). A helpful guide to better relationships. Gordon Training
International. https://www.gordontraining.com/leadership/a-helpful-guide-to-better-
relationships/

Allvin, R. E. (2018). Making connections: The professional obligation to value families. Young Children,
73(4). https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/sep2018/professional-obligation-value-families

American Federation of Teachers. (2010). Building parent-teacher partnerships.

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED516935.pdf

American Psychological Association. (2019, October). Racial stress and self-care: Parent tip tool.
RESilience: Uplifting Youth Through Healthy Communication About Race. https://www.apa.org/
res/parent-resources/racial-stress

Arce, S. (2019). Exploring parent and teacher perceptions of family engagement. International
Journal of Teacher Leadership, 10(2), 82-94. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1244923.pdf

Baker, T. L., Wise, J., Kelley, G., & Skiba, R. J. (2016). Identifying barriers: Creating solutions to improve
family engagement. School Community Journal, 26(2), 161-184. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/
EJ1124003.pdf

Breiseth, L. (2020). Communicating with ELL families: 10 strategies for schools. Colorín Colorado,
WETA Public Broadcasting. https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/ells-families

Breiseth, L., Robertson, K., & Lafond, S. (2015). Introduction: Strategies for engaging ELL families.
Colorín Colorado, WETA Public Broadcasting. https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/
introduction-strategies-engaging-ell-families

Bronfenbrenner Center for Translational Research. (n.d.) Urie Bronfenbrenner. Cornell Human
Ecology, Cornell University. https://bctr.cornell.edu/about-us/urie-bronfenbrenner

Calzada, E. J., Huang, K. Y., Hernandez, M., Soriano, E., Acra, C. F., Dawson-McClure, S., Kamboukos, D.,
& Brotman, L. (2015). Family and teacher characteristics as predictors of parent involvement in
education during early childhood among Afro-Caribbean and Latino immigrant families. Urban
Education, 50(7), 870–896. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085914534862

Center on the Developing Child. (n.d.). How racism can affect child development. Harvard University.
https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/racism-and-ecd/

Dewey, R. A. (2018). Psychology: An introduction. Psych Web. https://www.psywww.com/intropsych/

Ðurišic, M., & Bunijevac, M. (2017). Parental involvement as a important factor for successful
255 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
education. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(3), 137-153.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1156936

Dweck, C. S. (2016). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.

Epstein, J. L., Sanders, M. G., Simon, B. S., Clark Salinas, K., Rodriguez Jansorn, N., & Van Voorhis, F. L.
(2002). School, family, and community partnerships: A handbook for action (2nd ed.). Corwin Press.
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/ERIC-ED467082/pdf/ERIC-ED467082.pdf

Essien, I., & Wood, J. L. (2024). “Treat them like human beings”: Black children’s experiences with
racial microaggressions in early childhood education during COVID-19. Early Childhood Education
Journal, 52, 825–836. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-023-01466-y

Ferlazzo, L. (2023, November 24). There’s a difference between equity and equality. Schools need to
understand that. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-theres-a-
difference-between-equity-and-equality-schools-need-to-understand-that/2023/11

González, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (Eds). (2005). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in
households, communities, and classrooms. Routledge.

Guy-Evans, O. (2024). Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. Simply Psychology.org. Retrieved

December 1, 2023, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/bronfenbrenner.html

Head Start Early Childhood Learning Knowledge Center (n.d.). Family engagement. Retrieved May
13, 2024, from https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/family-engagement

Hunter, R. (2018, June 20). Thinking about racial equity at DCYF. Washington State Department of
Children, Youth & Families. https://dcyf.wa.gov/node/496

IRIS Center. (n.d.) What should teachers understand in order to address student diversity in their
classrooms? Vanderbilt University. https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/div/cresource/q2/
p05/ CC BY NC ND.

Kasprisin, L. (2015). Challenging the deficit model and the pathologizing of children: Envisioning
alternative models. Journal of Educational Controversy, 9(1), 1-4. https://cedar.wwu.edu/jec/vol9/
iss1/1/

Lankachandra, D., Gomez, C., Leiwant, S., & Make, J. (2022, March). Sick without a safety net: Now is
the time to build on state successes with a federal paid sick time law. A Better Balance.
https://www.abetterbalance.org/sick-without-a-safety-net/

Lipari, R. N., & Van Horn, S. L. (2017, August 24). Children living with parents who have a substance
use disorder. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/report_3223/
ShortReport-3223.html
 CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS | 256
Mackey, C. (2023, March 13). The labyrinth of identity: An individual’s accounting of her journey
through the AMS ABAR course. Montessori Life, American Montessori Society. https://main-cd-
prod.amshq.org/Blog/2023-03-13-The-Labyrinth-of-Identity-An-Individuals-Accounting-of-the-
AMS-ABAR-Course

McLean, S. (2018, May). Developmental differences in children who have experienced adversity
(Practice Guide 1). Child Family Community Australia, Australian Institute of Family Studies.
https://aifs.gov.au/resources/practice-guides/developmental-differences-children-who-have-
experienced-adversity-guide-no1

Mosier, W., & Nunamaker, R. G. C. (2019). Handling difficult moments with demanding families.
Exchange. https://exchangepress.com/article/handling-difficult-moments-with-demanding-
families/5025061/

Muthusamy, S., Wagh, D., Tan, J., Bulsara, M., & Rao, S. (2022). Utility of the Ages and Stages
Questionnaire to identify developmental delay in children aged 12 to 60 months: A systematic
review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 176(10), 980–989. https://doi.org/10.1001/
jamapediatrics.2022.3079

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (n.d.). Principles of effective family
engagement. https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/family-engagement/principles

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2019, April). Advancing equity
in early childhood education. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/
downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/advancingequitypositionstatement.pdf

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2020). Developmentally appropriate
practice (DAP) position statement. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/
downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/dap-statement_0.pdf

Nomaguchi, K., & Milkie, M. A. (2020). Parenthood and well-being: A decade in review. Journal of
Marriage and Family, 82(1), 198-223. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12646

Power to the Profession Task Force. (2020, March). Unifying framework for the early childhood
education profession. Power to the Profession. https://powertotheprofession.org/wp-content/
uploads/2020/03/Power-to-Profession-Framework-03312020-web.pdf

Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. John Wiley
& Sons.

Walker, T. (2019, April). Where do teachers get the most respect? NEA Today. https://www.nea.org/
nea-today/all-news-articles/where-do-teachers-get-most-respect

Warsi, S. (2017). Welcoming refugee children into early childhood classrooms. Teaching Young
257 | CHAPTER 9 : FAMILY PARTNERSHIPS
Children, 10(5). https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/tyc/aug2017/welcoming-refugee-
children-into-classrooms

Washington Department of Commerce. (2019). Mounting costs of child care.

https://www.commerce.wa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/MountingCostsReport_FINAL.pdf

Washington State Department of Children, Youth & Families. (n.d.). Mandatory reporting of child
abuse and neglect. Retrieved May 13, 2024, from https://www.dcyf.wa.gov/safety/mandated-
reporter

Websites to explore for further information and learning:

The 8 P’s of Parent Engagement, National Education Association (NEA)

Developmentally Appropriate Practices (DAP), NAEYC

Head Start Early Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center (ECLKC)

How to Report Child Abuse or Neglect, Washington State Departmet of Children, Youth & Families
(DCYF)

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)

Parent Engagement in Schools, Adolescent and School Health, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC)

Parent to Parent USA (P2P)

Principles of Effective Family Engagement, NAEYC

Power to the Profession, NAEYC

Racial Stress and Self-care: Parent Tip Tool, APA

Raising the Bar for Parent Partnership and Engagement, U.S. Department of Education
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 258

CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

Young girl outside

blowing bubbles.
Photo indicates an
aspect of positive
behavior. Photo
Credit: geralt,
Pixabay License

Overview
This chapter provides insight into child behavior and what intentional and positive guidance is within
a developmentally appropriate context. The content of this chapter is presented in a positive or
strengths-based approach to support children as they grow, develop, and learn. This approach
centers on our lens looking for and identifying a child’s strengths as a starting point for our work
(Dweck, 2016).

The foundation begins with building a shared definition of what[GL]guidance is, as well as why it is
not. Throughout the chapter you will examine the basis of behaviors both seen and unseen. It is also
important to delve into some background and information about neurodiversity and trauma, and how
this relates to and impacts behavior. The chapter will also address how emotions, psychological state,
and social relationships influence child behavior. The final focus area is communication with families
along with mutual perspectives in guidance and the role of reflective practice.
259 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

Objectives

• Define behavior: what behavior is and is not.

• Explain the role of relationships in influencing a child’s behavior.
• Create a plan for communication with families- sharing and reflecting mutual perspectives.
• Describe the social and emotional connections to behavior, including:

◦ Social Emotional foundations of Early learning

◦ Classroom Climate
◦ Guiding Social Behaviors
◦ Trauma, and behavior: the role of neurodiversity in behavior and the relationship between
trauma and behavior.

Key Terms

• Affect
• Behavior
• Challenging Behavior
• Communication
• Compliance
• Effect
• Emotional Development
• Executive Function
• Guidance
• Intentional
• Interactions
• Outcome
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 260

• Planned Ignoring
• Relationship
• Self-regulation
• Social Development
• Strengths-Based Approach

“Adults who are respectful of children are not just modeling a skill or behavior, they are meeting the emotional
needs of those children, thereby helping to create the psychological conditions for children to treat others
respectfully.”
~Alfie Kohn (1997, para. 6)

10.1 What is Behavior?

According to Merriam-Webster, behavior is a noun, and used to describe “the way in which someone
conducts oneself or behaves,” “the manner of conducting oneself,” as in “anything that an organism
[like a child] does involving action and response to stimulation,” and “the response of an individual,
group, or species to its environment,” and finally, “the way in which something functions or operates”
(2024).

You learned in [crossref:4]Chapter 4[/crossref]about temperament. Temperament is a child’s regular

way of reacting with their environment, and is a developmental characteristic that intersects social,
emotional, and physical development. Because it has genetic underpinnings, it is important to note
that behavior includes not only the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, but especially how one
acts or interacts toward others. Likewise, behavior is the way a person acts in response to a particular
situation. Behavior has two purposes:

1. to get something or
2. to avoid something.

Children learn all behaviors. They learn from watching others and we learn from the reactions we get
in response to behavior. As behavior is learned, it can also be unlearned. When we stop and ask the
question “why is this behavior occurring?” we can identify the opportunity to teach new, more
appropriate behaviors as replacement.

All behavior is communication. This communication happens every moment of every day. This
important function is a signal that a child may not have the words or skills to tell you what they need,
261 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
so they communicate with behavior (Morin, n.d.). It can also be that a child does not even know what
they need! When we understand and acknowledge this communication that is the basis of unwanted
behavior or “misbehavior,” we can work to change that communication into a form that is socially
acceptable, safe, and healthy.

Behavior is observable. It is what we see and what we can hear, such as a child throwing a block,
standing up, speaking, whispering, yelling, or arguing with a classmate. On the reverse side, behavior
is how a feeling is expressed, not what the child is feeling. An example of expressing a feeling is that a
child may show anger by rolling her eyes, making a face, yelling, or crossing his arms, and turning away
from the adult. These are observable actions and are more descriptive than just stating that the child
looks anxious.

Behavior is measurable. This means that the early care and education professional can define and
describe the behavior in objective, concrete, fact-based terms. The adult can easily identify the
behavior when it occurs, including when the behavior begins, ends, and how often it occurs. An
example of this is taken from circle time and a child who is “interrupting all the time.” This behavior is
not measurable because it is not specific. However, stating that “Holly yells, ‘teacher!’ 4 times during
circle time” is specific, and we can measure and track the data each day at circle time. Using this
operational definition of objective data, anyone observing in the classroom would be able to identify
specifically which behavior the teacher is working to change.

Behavior does not occur in isolation (Delahooke, 2019). The process of behavior has three parts:

1. The action or event that comes first (the trigger)

2. The resulting behavior(s)
3. The consequences of or reaction to the behavior.

Behaviors are visible. This visibility is in terms of desired and undesired behaviors. Think for a
moment in terms of behavior being like a tree and its root system. Above the ground we see and
observe the behavior. What we do not see is the part of the tree and its root system that is below the
ground. It is the same with behavior. We see the actions and manifestations of the behavior. We do
not see the underlying characteristics of feelings, thinking and attitude(s).

Behavior falls under the domain of social and emotional development. Children are born with the
want and need to connect with those around them. When parents and teachers along with other
caregivers create positive relationships with children beginning at birth and continuing through the
early years, they support and are responsive to their diverse cultures and languages. Children who
have strong social and emotional skills are more likely to feel safe and secure in life. These children
also have the skills to create a base for strong and positive relationships and those relationships are
observed in how children experience the world, how they express themselves, manage their
emotions, and establish strong and meaningful relationships with others.
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 262
“Where did we ever get the crazy idea that to make children do better, first we have to make them
feel worse?” ~ Jane Nelsen et al. (2001, p. 49)

10.1.2 Observable (seen) and Unobservable (unseen) Behavior

Let’s begin this section with a visual. In the photo below you see a tree on the side of a cliff. Above the
ground, the leaves and branches represent what is seen or observable related to behavior(s).

Below the ground, the roots represent what is not seen and therefore unobservable related to
behavior(s).

It’s important to remember the concept of observable vs. non-observable as related to behaviors, as
we will not always be able to see the root cause of the behaviors. This chapter will help us to be better
prepared for many kinds of behaviors in the classroom and home.

Figure 10.1

Exposed gnarly roots in Fall River Park

263 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

Exposed gnarly
roots in Fall River
Park/ Photo Credit:
Martin LaBar, CC
BY-NC

Behaviors are an outcome (or result) that can be observed. Above the ground the behaviors we see
children say and do might include indicators adapted from Mona Delahooke’s work Beyond Behaviors
(2019):

• Saying nice things to others or nothing at all

• Asking the person to borrow their belonging before using it
• Follow directions the first time
• Working quietly while others finish their work
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 264
• Keeping hands and feet to self
• Raising hand and waiting quietly
• Respecting others
• Being agreeable
• Calling other students bad names
• Taking other students’ belongings without asking
• Arguing or refusing to comply with adult requests or directions
• Disturbing others while they are working
• Punching or kicking others
• Blurting out answers
• Bullying others
• Arguing

A child’s behavior may not be communicating what it seems outwardly. Every behavior has a
motivation or purpose. While we cannot assume that we know the motivation for the behavior, we
can observe the results of the motivations. Those observations must be objective, factual, and
descriptive to assist in identification of the motivation. Any of these motivations can be the reason for
behavior (Delahooke, 2019):

• I feel angry.
• I feel frustrated.
• I feel scared.
• I feel happy.
• I feel loved.
• I feel proud.
• I feel lonely.
• I feel worried.
• I feel embarrassed.
• I feel sad.
• I feel sick.
• I am tired.
• I am hungry.
• Am I safe?
• Do I belong?
• Am I respected?
• Am I understood?
• Am I accepted?
• Do I matter?
• Am I loved?
• Can I do things by myself?

Also “under the surface” that are not seen are (Delahooke, 2019):
265 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
• social skills
• basic needs
• ·physical safety
• need to belong
• security
• hunger
• Thoughts
• sadness
• [GL]executive functioning
• environmental stressors
• attention
• sleep
• attachment
• need for connection
• need for attention
• sensory needs
• emotions
• self-esteem
• developmental level
• fear
• anger
• power

The theory behind the tree and root provides a visual model of childhood behavior. In considering this
model we see that there are many things that influence the way that children act and react, and
include the skills, knowledge, experience, social role or values, self-image, traits, and motives. Under
the surface in the root system; it is essential to consider the importance of the unseen forces that can
shape and influence behaviors.

As adults, we need to take the time to understand behavior and the motivations or causes of behavior.
True behavior “problems” or challenges are those that are continuous and that get in the child’s way
of social relationships, communication, and learning. These misunderstood behaviors can potentially
cause harm to the child, the family, other children, and other adults.
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 266

Intent Vs. Impact/

Photo credit: Alex
Green, Pexels
License

Have you heard of the distinction between “intent” and “impact”? Intent refers to the motives driving
our actions or conversations, originating from our thoughts and emotions. On the other hand, impact
relates to how others feel in response to our words or deeds. It encompasses the emotional reaction
they experience. Recognizing this difference can facilitate better communication. By expressing our
intent, we can help both children and adults understand our perspective (ADL Education, 2022). And
by considering the impact of our actions and words, we can avoid unintentional harm. It’s essential to
keep in mind both intent and impact when interacting with others. It can truly make a significant
difference in the communication process.

Reflection

All behaviors are communication, all behaviors have meaning and purpose, and are both seen and
unseen. Think in terms of the tree presented above.

• The leaves and branches are seen, and we can observe changes and growth.
• The roots are below ground, hidden, and not easy to see or observe, yet they are a vital part of
the whole tree.
• The same can be said for behavior.
• Some aspects are easily seen or observed, while the “invisible” characteristics are equally
important to determining motivation and change.
267 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

Now, draw your own image of a tree and list behaviors you have seen or experienced on the leaves,
branches and roots of the tree.

10.2 The role of relationships: How relationships and behavior(s)

connect.

Playing Jenga With

Six Year Old/ Photo
credit: Michał
Parzuchowski, CC0
1.0

Now that we have a shared understanding of how behavior is defined, this section of the chapter will
support you to explore and reflect on the connection between relationships and behavior. Did you
know that relationships with others may influence behavior either positively or negatively?

Look closely for a moment on this photo of the young boy playing Jenga. As he moves and/or removes
the blocks, the structure becomes unbalanced and even unpredictable. A child’s behavior and the
relationships in his or her life can mirror this game of Jenga.

According to the National Scientific Council on the Developing Child (NSCDC) at Harvard University
(2004/2009), young children experience their world as an environment of relationships, and these
relationships affect practically every aspect of their development:

Stated simply, relationships are the “active ingredients” of the environment’s influence on
healthy human development. They incorporate the qualities that best promote competence
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 268
and well-being – individualized responsiveness, mutual action-and-interaction, and an
emotional connection to another human being, be it a parent, peer, grandparent, aunt, uncle,
neighbor, teacher, coach, or any other person who has an important impact on the child’s early
development. Relationships engage children in the human community in ways that help them
define who they are, what they can become, and how and why they are important to other
people. (p. 1)

When children have secure and stable relationships with caring adults, they tend to be more
proficient in developing warm and positive relationships with others. They are also “more excited
about learning, more positive about coming to school, more self-confident” (NSCDC, 2004/2009, p.
2), and have stronger skills getting along with others.

It is also important to understand that the relationships children have with other children also inform
and influence their behavior (Bandura, 1977). Young children learn from each other how to share,
how to participate in shared interactions such as, taking turns, the reciprocal acts of giving, and
receiving, how to respect and accept the needs and wants of others, and how to manage their own
impulses.

Simply being around other children, however, is not enough to build the skills for positive behaviors.
The development of friendships is critical, as children learn and play more competently in the
relationships created and nurtured with their friends rather than when they are struggling with the
social challenges that may occur when interacting with casual acquaintances or unfamiliar peers.
Positive relationships and positive behaviors all add to healthy brain development and depend upon
the relationships with individuals in the child’s close community as well as in the family (NSCDC,
2004/2009).

It is within that context of family that we must remember that “everything we think, say, and do is
processed through our own cultural backgrounds” and our individual lens (Kaiser & Rasminsky,
2019-2020, para. 1). Recognizing the diversity that exists in our communities, schools, and
classrooms will help us be more aware of influences on children’s behaviors and therefore develop
realistic expectations and interventions regarding behaviors.

We begin developing this understanding of culture by looking critically at ourselves. This includes a
close inspection of our beliefs, our values, and our practices. When thinking about behavior
specifically, it is important to identify our cultural expectations for:

• independence vs. interdependence,

• standing out in a group vs. being modest or less visible
• promoting self vs. group focus
• personal property vs. shared

Knowledge of ourselves then becomes the foundation to scaffold and build an understanding of how
the cultures of the families we work with impact their children’s behavior. We can only learn about
269 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
the cultures of others through conversations and interactions with them. This knowledge comes
directly from the families and is very personal and individual to the family.

Your culture and those of the children enrolled are the starting point for being culturally responsive.
Going further, it is important to remember that:

Every school and early childhood education program has a culture too. The cultures of most
American schools are based on White European American values. As the makeup of the U.S.
population becomes more diverse, there is more cultural dissonance—which impacts children’s
behavior. (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2019-2020, para. 17)

Think about this in terms of classroom practice. Children may not understand the classroom rules you
have set because they do not speak the language used at school. Did you know that some languages
have no words for I, me, or mine (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2019-2020)? It is because the way you respond
to children’s behavior and conflict is bound to your own culture, that it is common to get the wrong
idea about a child’s words or behaviors. When you observe a child’s behavior that appears to be
noncompliant, ask yourself if that behavior could be culturally influenced. Honest and open
conversations with the family will help you understand and respect their cultural beliefs and practices
regarding education and child development.

Engaging in informed practice on our part will influence equity in our approaches and expectations,
guiding us to support all children to succeed in our classrooms and programs. With growing diversity
in the U.S. population, children will find themselves more frequently in classroom environments that
may not match or reflect their home culture. It is our goal to support children to feel included and
understood, versus being “confused, isolated, alienated, conflicted, and less competent because what
they’ve learned so far in their home culture simply doesn’t apply” (Kaiser & Raminsky, 2019-2020,
para. 20).

“Affirm the child, not the behavior” Dan Gartrell (2020, p. 10)

10.2.3 Relationships and Responsive Teaching

In terms of relationships, when you as the teacher are responsive to the children’s culture, you are
better able to form genuine and caring relationships with the children and their families. You can
scaffold on this to build on what the child already knows and can do and identify their next steps for
learning. This information will help you choose and implement appropriate activities and strategies
that honor children’s cultures as well as life experiences and teach children what they need to know
and do to be successful in the world today (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2019-2020).

The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL) outlines the
fundamental importance of positive relationships in a handout by Gail Joseph and Phillip Strain
(2010). When adults invest time and effort in teaching proactively prior to behavior “events,” children
are more successful in achieving improved behavior change, even in situations that might lead to
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 270
escalating challenging behavior. The key is communicating non-contingent affection and
unquestioned valuing of children. The bottom line is that success is dependent on building a positive
relationship first. Adults need to invest the time and attention with children as a precedent to the
optimum use of sound behavior change strategies (Joseph & Strain, 2010).

The first step is to invest the time in relationship building, and the second is to understand that as
your relationships with the child become stronger, so does your potential influence on their behavior.
Children will “cue in” on the presence of you as a meaningful and caring adult and will attend
differentially and selectively to what you say and do, continuing to seek out ways to ensure even more
positive attention from the adult (Lally et al., 1988).

Joseph and Strain (2010) share these strategies for you to use as you work to build relationships with
children:

• Carefully analyzing each compliance task (e.g., “time to go paint”) and, where possible, shifting
that compliance task to a choice for children (e.g., “Do you want to paint or do puzzles?”);
• Carefully considering if some forms ofchallenging behavior can be ignored (e.g., loud voice)—this
is not “planned ignoring” for behavior designed to elicit attention but ignoring in the sense of
making wise and limited choices about when to pick battles over behavior; and
• Self-monitoring one’s own behaviors and setting behavioral goals accordingly. Some teachers
have easily done this by using wrist golf counters to self-record or by moving a plastic chip from
one pocket to the next. A strategically posted visual reminder can help teachers remember to
make numerous relationship deposits. (p. 3)

There will be times that you should and will need to give feedback to children that is in the form of
corrections and reminders. This will not hinder your relationship building. The important take-away is
that your positive interactions need to happen in a greater number and frequency. As you learn to do
this, you can begin to keep a tally of how many times you remind a child about an unwanted behavior.
Then, try to find at least twice the number of positive things to comment on and tally those also
(Joseph & Strain, 2010).

When children do not receive positive feedback, they are less likely to enter the positive cycle of
motivation and learning. The conclusion here is that when children have positive interactions with
teachers and other adults, they have fewer instances of challenging behavior. When children feel safe
and understood they can use those positive interactions to help build positive relationships. This will
build motivation and stimulate within the brain a cycle of repetition focused on motivation and
learning.
271 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

10.3 Social and emotional connections to behavior.

Children Working
Cooperatively/
Photo Credit:
LdreiT, CC BY-SA
2.0

As children grow and learn to be in the world, they learn the skills needed to take turns, help their
friends, play together, and cooperate with others. Generally, around the same time, children are
learning about their own feelings and emotions (Bovey & Strain, 2005).

Children are born with the need and desire to connect with those around them through (social
development). When teachers and care providers work to build strong, positive relationships with
children from birth through the early years, and value their diverse cultures and languages, children
are more likely to feel safe and secure. This, in turn, helps to lay a strong foundation for healthy social
and emotional development[/GL].

This process has anaffect on how children experience the world, express themselves, manage their
emotions, and establish positive relationships with others (emotional development[/GL]). Emotional
awareness is the ability to recognize and identify our own feelings and actions along with the feelings
and actions of other people and understand how our own feelings and actions affect ourselves and
others (Twombly et.al., 2018).

The following Venn diagram illustrates the independence and overlap of social development and
emotional development[/GL]; although they are often referred to as a single developmental domain
(Head Start ECLKC, 2021a), it is essential to understand the difference between the two areas:
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 272

Author-created
Venn Diagram
Showing Social and
Emotional
Development/
Photo credit:
Ardene Niemer, CC
BY 4.0

Here are some examples of social and emotional milestones as they relate to behavior: Please refer to
the milestones shared at CDC, UNICEF, March of Dimes, Head Start ECLKC, or other research-based
milestone document for more detailed information.

Table 10.1

Milestones
273 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

Age Examples of social and emotional milestones

Birth to
May briefly calm himself (may bring hands to mouth and suck on hand). Tries to make
2
eye contact with caregiver. Begins to smile at people.
Months

6 Reacts positively to familiar faces and begins to be wary of strangers. Likes to play with
Months others, especially parents and other caregivers. Responds to own name.

May show early signs of separation anxiety and may cry more often when separated
9 from caregivers and be clingy with familiar adults. May become attached to specific
Months toys or other comfort items. Child understands “no.” Copies sounds and gestures of
others.

May show fear in new situations. Repeats sounds or actions to get attention. May show
12
signs of independence and resist a caregiver’s attempt to help. Begins to follow simple
Months
directions.

May need help coping with temper tantrums. May begin to explore alone but with
18 parent close by. Engages in simple pretend or modeling behavior, such as feeding a doll
Months or talking on the phone. Demonstrates joint attention; for example, the child points to
an airplane in the sky and looks at caregiver to make sure the caregiver sees it too.

Copies others, especially adults and older children. Shows more and more
independence and may show defiant behavior. Mainly plays alongside other children
2 Years
(parallel play) but is beginning to include other children in play. Follow simple
instructions.

May start to understand the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers.” May feel uneasy or
anxious with major changes in routine. May begin to learn how to take turns in games
3 Years and follows directions with 2-3 steps. Names a friend and may show concern for a
friend who is sad or upset.

Cooperates with other children and may prefer to play with other children than by
herself. Often cannot tell what is real and what is make-believe. Enjoys new things and
4 Years
activities.

May want to please caregivers and peers. Is aware of gender. May start recognizing
5 Years
what is real and what is make-believe.

Measure his performance against others. Continue to develop her social skills by
6-7 playing with other children in a variety of situations. Be able to communicate with
Years others without adult help. Start to feel sensitive about how other children feel about
him.
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 274
Social development and emotional development[/GL] include development in skills related to social
interaction, emotional awareness, and self-regulation. Below are some important reminders as you
consider social and emotional development[/GL] for young children.

Social interaction is focused on the relationships we share with others. In our work with young
children it is important to remember that this includes the child’s relationships with adults as well as
peers. As children develop socially, they learn to take turns, help their friends, play together, share,
and cooperate with others.

Emotional awareness includes the ability to recognize and understand our own feelings and
emotions. It is important to learn to recognize our own actions and reactions as well as those of other
people. Our own feelings and actions can directly affect not only ourselves, but others as well.

Self-regulation is defined as the ability to express thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in socially
appropriate ways. Learning to calm down when angry or excited and persisting at difficult tasks are
examples of self-regulation.

Children who are socially and emotionally healthy tend to demonstrate, and continue to develop,
several important behaviors and skills (Blimes, 2012; McClellan & Katz, 2001). According to these
three authors, children:

• Are usually in a positive mood

• Listen and follow directions
• Have close relationships with caregivers and peers
• Recognize, label, and manage their own emotions
• Understand others’ emotions and show empathy
• Express wishes and preferences clearly
• Gain access to ongoing play and group activities
• Ability to play, negotiate, and compromise with others

Social and emotional development are both related to behavior, and include the areas of social
interaction, emotional awareness, and self-regulation. Social interaction spotlights the relationships
children share with others and includes relationships with adults and other children. As children
develop socially, they learn the skills needed to take turns, help their classmates, play together, and
cooperate with others.

Remember, social and emotional development[/GL] are both related to behavior, and include the
areas of social interaction, emotional awareness, andself-regulation. Social interaction spotlights the
relationships children share with others and includes relationships with adults and other children. As
children develop socially, they learn the skills needed to take turns, help their classmates, play
together, and cooperate with others.
275 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

Reflection

1. Define social development in your own words.

2. Now define emotional development.
3. How are they each different, and where do they overlap?

Create this reflection in a Venn Diagram.

Venn Diagram/
Photo credit:
Ardene Niemer, CC
BY 4.0

10.4 Behavior and Intentional Teaching

With behavior at the core of this chapter, we will use this section to look at teaching social and
emotional skills intentionally to support positive behaviors. Remember, we said in the beginning of
the chapter that all behavioral intervention is an opportunity to teach. When we teach intentionally,
we have a plan and a purpose, and ouroutcome[/GL (result) will be observable. We are approaching
this from a teaching perspective (Hoque, 2016), as that matches with our strengths-based focus and
moves away from a negative or punishing approach.

Cultural diversity is very evident in the multitude of effective and appropriate ways we as humans
care for and guide children. Social settings also require teachers and families to consider how they
want to advise their children to act based on their lived experiences and knowledge of what is
required to stay safe in specific situations.
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 276
Here are some strategies for teaching intentionally and building social and emotional skills in young
children (Epstein, 2014; Ho & Funk, 2018):

1. Coaching in real time: When we step into the role of coach it is our goal to help children to see
what they are doing, to begin to understand how their actions affect others, and how to choose
positive alternatives for the unwanted behavior. An example of this strategy can be seen when 2
children are struggling for the same toy in the block area. One child grabs the toy from another,
who in turn cries. As teacher/coach, you would get down to the child’s level to be able to engage
fully and establish eye contact. The next step is to calmly and warmly say to the children that,
“Michael is using the truck now. When you tried to take it away from him, he got upset. What do
you think that you might do to make him feel better?” At this point it is appropriate to model
saying “I am sorry that Julie took your truck, Michael,” but we don’t force children to say they are
sorry. It would also be appropriate to say “Next time if you want to play with the toy Michael is
using, you can ask him if he will share.” The teacher’s role is now to observe and provide positive
feedback on the interaction and demonstration of the desired behavior.
2. Giving effective praise: Meaningful feedback is directly related to the behavior in the moment,
and is provided in the form of effective praise. This is a powerful strategy for developing
children’s social and emotional development[/GL] (Kostelnik et al., 2015). Effective praise
requires teachers to describe specifically what they see—without generalizing, evaluating, or
making comparisons. What we want to teach is internal motivation, and not teach the child to
always seek validation from others. We can do this by describing what we observe that the child
has done:

◦ You worked really hard on this drawing. I see many different colors!
◦ I see how you stayed in the lines and colored very carefully!
◦ You found a great spot for all of the blocks when I asked for you to clean up.
◦ Wow! You did it! You put all of the pieces in that puzzle.
◦ Thank you for helping Hannah with her building. You showed her how to be a helpful friend.
◦ You didn’t give up! You found all of those pieces for the Lego building

3. Modeling appropriate behavior: We know from experience that children learn by observing
other people. They use this information to get ideas about appropriate/acceptable behavior, and
use the ideas to influence their actions. The strategy of modeling, also referred to as
demonstrating appropriate behaviors, gives teachers the opportunity to build and scaffold
children’s healthy and positive social and emotional skills. Modeling in a classroom can look like
this:

◦ Moving closer to children as needed, to provide a visual cue to the behaviors

◦ Modeling appropriate caring and respectful behavior with children and colleagues
throughout the day
◦ Using nonverbal gestures and contact (for example nodding, giving a thumbs up, gently
277 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
touching a shoulder, gently tugging on your own ear, or pointing to your own eye to send
messages
◦ Clearly state expectations for behavior (use walking feet, we use gentle hands, chairs are for
sitting, blocks are for building)
◦ Recognize kind acts of children towards others in the moment
◦ Offering effective praise for a group effort
◦ Gently touching a child’s hand to redirect attention and behavior

When children see teachers and other adults model these strategies that are non-threatening and do
not invade their space, the child’s response is typically a smile, they in turn use their gentle hands,
they say please and thank you, give hugs and high fives, and use appropriate words to label their
feelings (Katz & McClellan, 1997) .

As adults, we are not simply role models for the children, but we also use the child’s appropriate
behaviors to model social and emotional skills for them. You might choose to use puppets during
circle time to demonstrate children’s appropriate behaviors to help them use those skills in a
meaningful way. You might also use a strategy called “social stories” to teach important social and
emotional skills. Social stories are a tool created to help children learn routines, expectations, and
appropriate behaviors, and presented in a story format. These stories help children learn in another
way while at the same time reinforcing the behaviors that we as adults want to see (Katz & McClellan,
1997).

The Appreciative I-Message conveys positive feelings of appreciation, gratitude, relief or happiness to
others (Adams, 2022). Unlike praise which uses labels and judgments, Appreciative I-Messages focus
on the person’s behavior and can include the positive effects on you. A word about You-Messages and
praise. People often resent positive You-Messages because they feel they are being judged or talked
down to.

Appreciative I-Messages are a way of acknowledging others’ contributions (colleagues, families, and
children.)

1. “I appreciate that you helped clean up the art area. I felt that you listened and were a great
helper”.
2. “I got a lot out of the newsletter article you wrote this month. It really made me think.”
3. “I was impressed by how brave you were with that spider. Let’s scoop it into a cup together and
take it outside.”

It is important that Appreciative I-Messages not be used to manipulate or “shape” behavior. Such
ulterior motives invariably come through to the team member and make your sincerity suspect. The
Appreciative I-Message should be a “no-strings attached” expression of acceptance and
acknowledgement.
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 278

10.4.2 Classroom Climate

Preschool children
sitting and listening
to the teacher.
Photo Credit:
Allison Shelley for
EDUimages, CC
BY-NC 4.0

Behavior can be influenced by the classroom environment, beyond the physical layout of the space.
Every classroom environment in every program has a climate. This classroom climate includes all
aspects of the physical learning space and is influenced by attitudes, teacher tone, interactions
between teacher(s) and students as well as students with each other. Classroom climate is also
influenced by moods and messages that are shared openly or implied, as well as intentional or
unintentional actions.

The relationships built in positive classroom climates support children to feel safe, supported, and
279 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
valued. The result of this is that the children will participate more freely in taking risks and engaging
in deeper learning opportunities through exploration and experimentation. Behaviors in a positive
classroom climate tend to be more positive in nature as well.

You can recognize a positive classroom because you will see responsive teachers who manage
behavior and attention challenges as well as the social and emotional needs of individual children
(Riley et al., 2007).

You can build a positive classroom climate by practicing some of the strategies shared below (Katz &
McClellan, 1997).

• Use behavior-approving language in the form of verbal comments or facial expression

◦ “I see you are doing a great job sitting on your mat!” Or “Nice work concentrating on your
counting”
◦ Smiling, nodding, or giving a thumbs-up
• Give specific praise (“Seth, you are really keeping your hands to yourself during circle time. Way
to go!”)
• Maintain a positive attitude with the children and with colleagues
• Maintain a positive and pleasant tone and affect (what others see and hear from you)
• Provide frequent opportunities to develop self-regulation skills.
• Model making appropriate choices
• Reinforce children’s appropriate choice-making
• Guide children in developing strategies for themselves

A negative classroom climate has the opposite effect, in that it may feel hostile, uncomfortable, and
stressful. The classroom may appear chaotic and out of control. In addition to being an environment
that insufficiently supports active learning, a negative classroom climate can also influence unwanted
behaviors. In a negative classroom climate, you may also see open examples of inequality, inequitable
access to learning opportunities or materials, and obvious stereotypes and biases.

As you work to eliminate a negative classroom environment, it is important to do the following (IRIS
Center, n.d.):

• Eliminate damaging forms of behavior management (sarcasm, shaming, threats)

• Eliminate or strictly limit behavior disapproving language
◦ Using a child’s name multiple times, such as in “Use walking feet, Johnny!” or “That was not a
good choice, Sam.’
◦ Using facial expressions such as grimacing, frowning, gesturing, or shaking your head side-
to-side.

When children have opportunities to learn in positive classroom climates, with more positive peer
interactions, teachers who express a more positive emotional tone, and teachers who positively
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 280
reinforce behavior, they demonstrate significantly greater social competence and fewer unwanted
behaviors(Katz & McClellan, 1997).

Reflection

List 5 phrases you can use to positively reinforce behavior

Two girls outside on

a small bridge
holding hands. The
photo is included to
illustrate positive
social interactions./
Photo credit:
cherylholt, Pixabay
License

10.5 Teaching and Supporting Social Behaviors

Children are born wanting social interaction. They watch how family and others connect with them.
They watch and listen closely to facial expressions and tone of voice. Through these interactions and
observations babies develop the foundation for appropriate behavior based on what they see
(Committee on the Science of Children et al., 2015).

Social rules help to guide us in our interactions with others. Many children have a hard time
recognizing these rules. It takes time and practice to learn.

Thomas McIntyre (2006) wrote these suggestions in his “Teaching Social Skills to Kids Who Don’t Yet
Have Them” article:

1. Teach “belly breathing” as a calming technique. Take a deep breath in and count slowly blowing
281 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
air out. The first photo in this chapter shows a child blowing bubbles, a strategy that is also highly
effective here, as a child must take a deep breath to blow bubbles. You might also use the
strategy of “smell the flower and blow out the candle” for a visual image and use a silk flower and
unlit birthday candle for props.
2. Include a calm corner (not the book area/library) in your classroom. Include soft toys, pillows and
emotion posters and materials.
3. Teach social skills (making friends and getting along with others) and incorporate social stories
regularly in your ongoing curriculum. Social stories help teach children routines, expectations,
and behavioral standards in an alternative way. Search online for “social stories” for more
information.
4. Teach children how to identify their emotions and label feelings with them. Use photos and
prompts and keep materials about emotions available in the classroom.
5. Ensure you integrate plenty of movement activities throughout the day.
6. Include many opportunities for sensory play, including sand and water.
7. Model the social behaviors you want to see from the children.
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 282

10.6 The Relationship Between Trauma and Behavior

Preschool Girl Plays

Alone With Train/
Photo credit:
Allison Shelley for
EDUimages, CC
BY-NC 4.0
283 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
Many of our children have experienced trauma, and we may or may not be aware. For them, keeping
themselves safe becomes the primary motivator of behavior. Children may appear manipulative or
controlling when they may be attempting to just keep themselves safe. Safety is the most important
goal of a child experiencing trauma (National Child Traumatic Stress Network, n.d.).

Like the tree and root system we learned earlier in this chapter, we only see the small portion above
the surface. Look below the surface of the behavior, and you will see the feelings and emotions
driving the behavior. The unwanted or “misbehavior” we experience is often a child’s attempt to solve
another problem of which we are unaware.

Even minor stressors can act as triggers that fill children with emotion and can result in misbehavior.
When teachers and caregivers do not understand why a child is acting out, they are more likely to
focus on “managing” the behavior rather than meeting the child’s needs. This is not an effective
response to misbehavior, and may actually lead to the child being more unpredictable or even
explosive, making the process of calming down even more difficult.

According to the Mayo Clinic, Stress is an automatic physical, mental and emotional response to
challenging events. It’s a normal part of everyone’s life, including the lives of children (LaCore, 2022).
To understand unwanted or “misbehavior,” it is important to understand the body’s stress response.
Children who have experienced repeated trauma often have overactive alarms. They are powerfully
attentive to danger and may label non-threatening things as dangerous. False alarms can happen
when children hear, see, smell, or feel something that reminds them of frightening things from the
past. These reminders are called triggers.

Some common triggers of unwanted behavior include (Kahn, 2023):

• Changes in the schedule, routine or environment that are unexpected

• The sense a child feels of helplessness or fear
◦ Experiencing a situation that causes a child to feel threatened or attacked
◦ Overstimulation from the environment (can be many things including too many children/
people in the room, noise, light, or activity).

10.6.1 What Does a Triggered Child Look Like?

It is important to note that stress from trauma can show up in our children in their health
(physiologically), through their emotions (emotionally), through their thinking and processing of
information (cognitively), or behaviorally. In Chapter 10 we’re focusing on the behavioral aspect.

The National Institutes of Health (Chu et al., 2022) shares that behaviors resulting from a stress
response typically fall into one of three categories: flight, fight, or freeze. Let’s take a look at what you
might see in a classroom with these three categories:
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 284
Flight: Children who experience a flight response want to get away, to “flee” the situation or threat.
Their body is telling them to run. The goal is to avoid danger.

Shae, age 4, has experienced trauma in an environment of ongoing domestic violence. When Shae
hears raised voices (even in play) he tries to elope, or run from the classroom, or at the very least,
leave the area and hide in a perceived “safe” place.

Fight: Children who react to trauma in this way will tend to face the threat head-on. There may be no
hesitation, and this reaction may seem instantaneous, but the child is simply in a mindset of defense.
As teachers, we may see and label this as aggression. From the child’s view, it is defense.

Aloria is 6. She lives in a neighborhood surrounded by violence. She often hears gunshots and sirens
throughout the day and night. In the classroom, Susie grabbed a marker from Aloria that she was
using for her drawing. Immediately, Aloria responded with fists up and ready to take Susie on.

Freeze: This final category of “freeze” is just how it sounds. Children experiencing a freeze response
are stuck in place, frozen in the moment. This child is unable to physically move or react to the threat
(real or perceived.)

Chris was visiting extended family when a tornado alert appeared on the tv screen. Everyone in the
home proceeded to the home’s basement for safety, as the storm neared and strengthened. When
they emerged from the basement after the storm, the roof and many walls of the home had vanished.
Chris’s response now in the classroom is to freeze when loud noises are present.

An important takeaway from this information about trauma is that there is not one single way that a
child will react or behave. We cannot assume anything about a child’s behavior without considering
trauma—significant traumatic events, or an accumulation of smaller traumatic experiences.

Watch for these types of behaviors (Spokane Regional Health District, n.d.), and ask yourself “What is
the child communicating?”

• Being nervous or jumpy

• Being confused about what is dangerous or who to go to for safety
• Having broad mood swings between quiet or withdrawn and aggressive
• High need for attention, or trouble paying attention
• Loss of appetite
• Reverting to earlier (younger) behaviors such as bedwetting, wanting to be fed
• Re-enacting experiences in play
• Avoid friends or activities previously enjoyed
• Getting involved in fights, or provoking fights
285 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

10.6.2 What Can You Do?

The Pyramid Equity Project shares some insight on the most effective strategies for addressing
challenging behavior. Focused on prevention of challenging and unwanted behavior and promotion of
appropriate social behaviors, these strategies include environmental changes, providing positive
attention and feedback to children, and a focus on teaching social skills and emotional competencies.
It is important to remember that even when intervention and teaching practices are in place, some
young children may still engage in challenging or unwanted behavior. When responding to these
behaviors, always combine intentional teaching and prevention practices with the strategies for
specific behaviors. The use of these response strategies is intended to reduce the likelihood of
challenging behavior, but will not be effective without careful and intentional attention to teaching
social skills and emotional competencies (Strain et al., 2017).

• You, the adult, must stay calm, regardless of the behaviors demonstrated. An upset adult
interacting with a triggered child can worsen the behavior.
• Remember the tree and root system…try to identify the need below the surface that is
influencing the child’s behavior. Shift your focus on meeting the child’s needs rather than on
correcting the behavior.
• You might try the strategy of “belly breathing” or blowing bubbles to help the child breathe and
calm.
• Wait until the child is no longer triggered to talk about what happened. While triggered, a child is
not able to use the rational part of the brain, making reasoning ineffective.
• When the child is calm, talk about how to recognize triggers and what can be done to increase
awareness of emotions to prevent being triggered, or what can be done to calm down and
manage (or regulate) emotions.
• As difficult as it can be, try to remember that these behaviors are not a personal attack, and likely
have little to do with you.

Trauma, as it is fully defined and as it applies to behavior, has historically been absent from teacher
training curricula. This left a gap in understanding possible root causes and motivation for behavior,
and for teachers to rely on less effective means of teaching behavioral expectations and coaching
children towards wanted behaviors. It also left teachers less than fully prepared to plan strengths-
based, positive strategies and interventions that would support children to learn desired behaviors.

We tend to think of trauma as the result of a frightening and upsetting event. But many
children experience trauma through ongoing exposure, throughout their early development, to
abuse, neglect, homelessness, domestic violence, or violence in their communities. And it’s
clear that chronic trauma can cause serious problems with learning and behavior. Trauma is
particularly challenging for educators to address because kids often don’t express the distress
they’re feeling in a way that’s easily recognizable — and they may mask their pain with
behavior that’s aggressive or off-putting. (Miller, 2024, paras. 1-2)
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 286
Going forward, the challenge to you is to always think about effective practices, where the bigger
picture includes information on trauma-informed care. As early childhood educators we need to learn
the signs and symptoms of trauma in children to understand these confusing behaviors. Identification
of symptoms of trauma can also help avoid misdiagnosis, as these symptoms can mimic other learning
challenges, including ADHD and other behavior disorders (Minahan & Rappaport, 2012).

Some of the barriers to learning that are experienced by children impacted by trauma include trouble
forming relationships with teachers and other adults, poor self-regulation skills, negative thinking,
hypervigilance, and challenges with executive function (Center on the Developing Child. n.d.).

Children who have been neglected or abused often have many challenges in forming relationships.
This can also impact relationships with teachers (Miller, 2024), which in turn poses a barrier in the
first step to a successful classroom experience. Children who live with trauma may also have learned
to be wary of adults, since their experience includes having been ignored or betrayed by those they
have depended on. Often, children in trauma do not have the skills or the experience that would
support them to ask for help. Many have had little or no adult modeling for identifying and meeting
their needs.

Many children who have experienced trauma have not been able to develop secure attachments to
the adults in their lives. Children who have never developed that early attachment for trust and who
have not learned that they are lovable, and that people will take care of them, need extra support to
build those special relationships with their teachers and other staff (Sheldon-Dean, 2024).

One of the biggest challenges in the area of behavior and guidance that we see in classrooms and
programs is that when kids act out, the response is built on disciplinary systems that involve
withdrawing attention and support, rather than addressing their needs and challenges. Guidance is
teaching! We need to do the opposite and show extra patience for kids who provoke and push away
adults who try to help them. Instead of punishing, this is our opportunity to teach a child what to do!
We need to work with them on changing their behavior. When a child is acting up in class, we as
teachers need to recognize the powerful feelings they are expressing, even though they are
expressed inappropriately.

Here is an opportunity to be strengths-based in your approach. Begin by acknowledging the child’s

emotion and try to identify it. This is also where modeling plays a big role. By saying “I can see that you
are really angry that Anja took the marker you wanted!” If that statement is not correctly connected
to the feelings the child is experiencing, that child is highly likely to correct you. This will provide a
positive pathway to teaching desired behavior, rather than jumping to reprimands, a behavior plan,
deducting points or withdrawing privileges or suspending the child (Miller, 2024).

10.6.4 Materials and Classroom Strategies

Visuals and other materials can be used to teach children to label feelings and emotions should be an
ongoing part of the curriculum (Head Start ECLKC, 2021b) and be present in a “quiet corner” and in
287 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
accessible parts of the classroom environment. Acknowledging and naming an emotion helps children
be more able to express themselves in a more appropriate way. Think about creating a chart using
photos of the children in your classroom to depict common feelings, or use the link in the additional
websites to explore at the end of this chapter. Think about feelings such as:

• Bored
• Cheerful
• Curious
• Disappointed
• Excited
• Embarrassed
• Fearful
• Frustrated
• Happy
• Jealous
• Lonely
• Mad
• Nervous
• Sad
• Scared
• Overwhelmed

Effective communication is the cornerstone of a child’s ability to express themselves in a way that
doesn’t push others away. The first step towards achieving this is to show that you understand them.
What better way to do that than by using pictures to help them identify and describe different
emotions? You can also use these pictures to check in with the child throughout the day and
encourage them to use feeling faces to communicate their emotions. By gradually introducing new
feeling vocabulary words, starting with a few basic emotions and then moving onto more complex
ones, you can help them develop a deeper understanding of their feelings. Remember to teach a
balance of both positive and negative emotions. By doing so, you can help the child achieve emotional
maturity and better communicate their needs.

It is critical that we remember and respect that children who have experienced trauma (or are
experiencing ongoing trauma) often have a difficult time managing their strong emotions. Typically, as
very young children, we learn to calm and soothe ourselves by being calmed and soothed by the
adults in their lives. If a child has not had the opportunity to learn to self soothe because of neglect,
the lack of a secure attachment system contributes to persistent dysregulation. Emotional
dysregulation happens when a child is not able to control or regulate their emotional responses to
challenging input (Rouse, 2024). Dysregulation then impacts a child’s ability to learn, to engage with
others appropriately, and to be successful in the classroom

In the classroom, teachers need to engage in strategies to support and coach children in ways to calm
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 288
themselves and manage their emotions. This allows the adults to act as models and to be partners in
helping children to learn skills for managing their behavior. Remember that co-regulation (warm and
responsive interactions that a child needs to understand, express, and modulate their thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors) comes before self-regulation. We need to help them learn how to get the
control they need to change the output when they are upset. This also includes providing coaching
and practice at de-escalating when they feel overwhelmed (Strickland-Cohen et al., 2022).

Another challenge for children living with trauma is the belief that they develop that they are “bad,”
and that they are at fault for the trauma that has occurred. This can lead to a pattern of self-doubt and
dis-trust of others.

Children with trauma may also tend to develop the idea that everyone is out to get them. They might
hear directions and requests as exaggerated and angry and unfair. This leads the child to act out with
quick response quickly and in an irritable manner. A mistake that might seem trivial to us becomes
exaggerated if their experience has been that minor mistakes result in adult anger or punishment. For
these children, it is important to build on small steps towards success in the classroom, and to help
them see that in the classroom making a mistake is a necessary part of learning.

As teachers, or ECE professionals in any role responding to behavior, we must be cautious and always
base our observations on facts. It is important to look at the big picture of the situation, and not to
jump to conclusions (Miller, 2024). As we’ve seen in this chapter, trauma symptoms comprise a list of
possibilities, and can vary between children. If we make assumptions, and stray from fact, unintended
consequences may occur, as would be a possibility of missing a connection between trauma and
hyperactivity which could lead to a possible misdiagnosis of ADHD.

One consideration that we cannot skip is the need for the adult (teacher, director, assistant, etc.) to
calm themselves first, and then engage in strategies to support children to calm themselves. We
cannot be effective if we are not calm and thinking clearly. This is when we model the behavior we
want to see in the child and connect to their big feelings. Your strategy of belly breathing is one way to
begin. As child psychiatrist Dr. Rappaport states, “If you can connect with what they’re trying to tell
you, they may settle. It can work even if you just make a guess — you don’t have to be right, they can
correct you” (as cited in Miller, 2024, para. 23).

Do you believe that rewards are an effective way to motivate people? While tangible rewards and
points-based systems may seem like a good idea, they can have several drawbacks that are often
overlooked (Horner & Goodman, 2009). It is important here to take a moment and think more deeply
about this strategy of tangible rewards. Tangible rewards are stars, stickers, treats, charts, etc. used to
track behavior. This system may be used with some specific children, and even included on an IEP
(Individualized Education Plan, for children in Special Education ages 3-21 years) or IFSP
(Individualized Family Services Plan for Early Intervention, birth-3 years). However, it is important to
think about this type of technique, and ask yourself “what is the child learning by doing this?”
289 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
In a New York Times article in 1993, Alfie Kohn shared some thoughts in an article titled “For Best
Results, Forget the Bonus”. Those suggestions and thoughts are summarized here:

First, rewards can be seen as a form of punishment. Rather than promoting a genuine interest in a
task, rewards can be perceived as manipulative and may not inspire individuals to do their best work
(Kohn, 1993).

Second, rewards can damage teamwork and cooperation. To achieve excellence, people need to work
together, and rewards can create a competitive environment that can undermine cooperation.

Third, rewards can discourage risk-taking and exploration. When people are focused on achieving a
reward, they may be less likely to take risks or try new things, which can stifle creativity and
innovation.

Fourth, rewards can undermine interest and intrinsic motivation. When people are focused on
achieving a reward, they may feel that their work is not freely chosen or directed by them. This can
reduce their enjoyment of the task and their desire to pursue it further.

Finally, it is important to encourage children to find intrinsic motivation and rewards in their work,
rather than relying on external rewards. By doing so, they will be more likely to develop a genuine
interest in learning and will be more likely motivated by their goals and interests, instead of for a
reward.

“Do rewards motivate people? Absolutely. They motivate people to get rewards.” ~Alfie Kohn
(1993, p. 11)

Reflection

Highlight the topics presented in this chapter where information overlapped.

List strategies that you will implement in your curriculum to support positive behavior,
social and emotional skills growth.

Record the changes you can make to your environment to support social and emotional
skill development related to behavior.

10.7 Communication with Families: What, when and how to

communicate with families about behavior
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 290

Parent Talking With

Teacher/ Photo
Credit: SHVETS
production, Pexels
License

At this point in the chapter, we have built a shared definition of behavior, taken a deeper look at
behavior and motivation, and established an understanding that all behavior is a form of
communication. We have also reviewed how relationships (especially positive relationships) relate to
behavior and are needed to support positively guiding the behavior of children. This foundation was
built to support a mutual understanding of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and trauma
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). This critical piece of information is necessary to
understand the whole child and not simply react to the behavior(s) that are seen. We are closing
Chapter 10 with information about how to have conversations with families about behaviors
(challenging and/or unwanted). This communication requires an ability for you to be objective,
positive, and culturally aware in the information you share and the method by which you
communicate.

Successful work in the field of Early Learning depends on your ability to build positive, trusting, and
respectful relationships with families. No child comes to us alone or isolated, they come to us within
the context of a family. When we build and maintain trusting relationships with those families, we will
be able to engage in more opportunities for open communication and dialogue about children.

We know from experience that having a conversation about a child’s challenging behavior can be
stressful for them and for ourselves. Did you know that you can reduce your stress and gain more
positive results when you “invest” in relationships with families? You will need to be objective and
stick to facts, while at the same time maintain a focus on solutions. It is important that we understand
that in child development, there are cultural differences relating to beliefs about developmental
milestones (Maryville University, 2021). When communicating with families it is important to be
291 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
conscious of your own beliefs related to culture and your personal biases as you make choices about
what and how to communicate with families.

You might even feel intimidated in having conversations with families about a child’s behavior (Griffin,
n.d.). A key strategy in having difficult conversations is to begin with the positive. We start with
strengths, including describing what the child can do, and what he/she does well. Include positives
about behavior and times when you have noticed positive behaviors or interactions. We must always
avoid the impulse to blame the family for the child’s challenging behavior. This is an important
interaction to have with the family and cannot be avoided out of our fear of potential (real or
imagined) conflict. When we look at these extremes of blame and avoidance, we should realize that
neither approach is helpful for the child, and both only add to your own stress. This added stress could
even possibly increase the intensity of the behavioral situation of concern.

Did you know that our biases can significantly impact how we respond to children’s behavior in the
classroom (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2019)? It’s crucial to understand that what we expect from
children’s behavior in their early education may differ from what they learn at home. However, how
we react to their behavior is what counts. To eliminate these biases and guide children’s behavior
effectively, we must communicate our expectations clearly and consistently within the classroom. It is
essential to make a conscious effort to recognize and overcome our biases to create a positive and
nurturing learning environment for all children.

When the time comes to talk with a child’s family about challenging behavior, Webster-Stratton
(2012) shares some strategies to help create a productive interaction. Remember above where
“invest” in relationships was mentioned? Webster-Stratton talks about this process of relationship
building as a metaphor for a “piggy bank.” Webster-Stratton believes that we need to make deposits
regularly to this piggy bank, to have the ability to make withdrawals that support our difficult
conversations.

Try these three things in your relationship work with families:

1. Make sure you have plenty of investments in the “relationship bank” with the family,
2. Stick to data from your observations
3. Offer possible solutions and support.
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 292

Piggy Bank/ Photo

Credit: 401(K)
2012, CC BY-SA 2.0

Stratton (2012) also discusses how to fill your relationship bank. Each of us (both children and adults)
has an emotional “piggy bank.” It is built with positive relationships. Just like your real-life piggy bank,
you must have money in the bank to successfully make withdrawals without a negative outcome[/GL.
Also take a moment to go back and review the other suggestions for positive reinforcement offered in
this chapter.

We know from research (Webster-Stratton, 2012) that children need 5 positives such as:
293 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
• Great walking feet!
• High-5!
• You are working SO hard!
• You did it!
• I see that you know how to put that puzzle together!

Those 5 positives are needed for “balance” and to move forward in your positive relationship, for
every negative such as:

• No!
• Stop!
• Please do not do that!
• Add your own to this list

Reflection

Take a break and think about that for a minute to let this ratio sink in; you need to say to a child 5
positives for every negative:

1. Five (5) positives

2. Provide balance for 1 negative
3. Resulting in a more positive relationship and allowing the child opportunities for success.

Stop and practice this “formula” related to a specific behavior you have observed or can imagine.
Write your thoughts in the table below. Duplicate the table for more practice.

Table 10.2

Five Positives One Negative

 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 294

5 Positives Balance 1 negative

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Let’s do some math! Think about that child whose name you say 350 times a day (Danny, stop! Danny,
don’t do that! Danny, keep your hands to yourself! Danny, Mae is using that now. Danny! Quiet,
Danny! Time to wash, Danny. Clean up, Danny…) Imagine that child’s name and multiply that 350 x 5.
Did you calculate that answer to be 1750 positives? The child will need over 1700 positive comments
just to break even emotionally! This deposit strategy is not only for the child, but also the same for
families. That very first time you approach a family to discuss a child’s challenging or “unwanted”
behavior you are withdrawing a significant amount from the emotional piggy bank. Do you have
“enough” positive interactions and a strong relationship already in place to avoid a negative balance?
With sufficient balance in the piggy bank, you are ready to have challenging conversations and, as
Webster-Stratton (2012) found, families will still have emotional “money-in-the-bank” to work with
you on developing possible solutions.

The next point bulleted above was to stick to the facts. This is called being objective. We need to put
aside the emotional aspect of challenging behavior when you are communicating with the family.
Taking this emotion-free, positive approach you could share with a family, “Today Michael had a very
difficult time with sharing.” This is a much more useful statement that opens the possibility for a
conversation about problem-solving. The opposite can be said for using statements such as “Michael
was hitting ALL day.” This statement is not helpful and is definitely not helpful (it is also most likely not
accurate). The positive approach will lead to the strategy to support Brandon learning a new skill,
which he is. This also provides scaffolding to ask about behavior in the home, “Tell me about how
Michael shares at home with his siblings. What methods have you tried that I might try here at
school?” Remember that emotional piggy bank that was shared earlier? Our goal here is to build a
positive relationship and partnership with the family. We want to work together to make positive
connections between home-school. When we approach challenging behavior in a fact-based manner,
295 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
it will help to remove emotion and blame from the conversation and will be much more likely to help
open doors rather than create walls (Webster-Stratton, 2012).

The last bullet shared by Webster-Stratton (2012) is about problem solving. For every conversation,
we as the ECE professionals need to be ready to share some solutions. At the same time, it is of
benefit to the partnership to engage in give and take by asking for and offering ongoing partnership
with the family. Always get ideas and input from the family. You will have an opportunity to share
other strategies with the family after they communicate what they are currently doing at home to
support their child. This partner-based communication will work to build a bridge between home and
school that will support the child’s learning. You will also need to talk about going forward, and how
you will continue to communicate about the child’s skill building. This should include any information
you will be collecting from your ongoing classroom observations. Remember the importance of
sharing successes in all written and verbal conversations with the family to keep adding to the
family’s and child’s emotional piggy bank.

Here are some guiding thoughts for your conversation with the family:

1. Begin with strengths: “let’s talk about what Sarah is doing really well!” This will begin your
conversation with the positive and will focus on what the child can do so that you can build
(scaffold) from there.
2. Share your concern using facts: “I am concerned about Sarah and how she’s doing with her
frustration. Are you seeing similar challenges at home?” Remember that you are working to build
that positive relationship with the family, and you should always bring up concerns with
collaboration in your mind.
3. Together, define a clear and measurable goal. “I really want to work with you to help Sarah
develop her social skills to support positive behavior.”
4. Create a plan together. “What do you think we should include in the plan for Sarah, so that each
of us has strategies to follow that develop new skills for success.” Always focus on skill
development, not on behavior.
5. Finally, discuss next steps for moving forward. “The more we all work together, the more
successful Sarah will be.” Remember that consistency between home and school will support the
child to be more successful, and faster.
CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 296

Author-created
Image of the 5
Steps to Creating a
Cooperative Plan/
Photo Credit:
Ardene Niemer, CC
BY 4.0

Two young children

holding hands and
looking off into the
distance as the boy
points. Even
children need to
work together to
move forward for
success, even
though success may
be far in the
distance./ Photo
credit: Torsten
Dederichs,
Unsplash License
297 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

Summary

Chapter 10 focused on child behavior. The information was shared with the intent of building the
foundation for positive and intentional guidance within a developmentally appropriate framework. The
information was presented in a strengths-based approach, to support your work to build on what a child
knows and can do to build skills.

In defining behavior, we looked from two different perspectives: behavior that is seen and observed, and
behavior that is “below the surface” and unseen. It is important to know every child with whom you work
to be able to discover the “below the surface” experiences, skills and motivations that influence
behavior. Along with the development and teaching of social and emotional skills, we must remember
that all behavior is communication. Stop and ask yourself what a child is telling you through behavior
next time you are challenged. The other question we must ask is about the well-being of the whole child
and the possible presence of trauma in their life.

At the core of our work around behavior needs to be relationship building with the child’s family. Strong,
respectful relationships that are founded in partnership will support your work with the children and
model social skills for life.

As young children develop socially and emotionally, they learn self-control. At this time challenging
behavior is common and can be expected. It is important to identify the meaning behind challenging
behavior and work together with families to set age-appropriate expectations for the child.

Take a moment to reflect on these brief scenarios: As parents and teachers, we all want to help our
children develop socially and emotionally. There are many different ways to do this, and we have a range
of techniques and strategies at our disposal. What’s more, we all come from diverse cultural
backgrounds and have unique parenting styles, which means there is no one-size-fits-all approach to
effective child guidance. By drawing on our experiences and knowledge, we can help our children
navigate different social situations in a way that is safe and appropriate. Let’s work together to promote
positive social-emotional development in our children! The following scenarios come from the Virtual
Lab School (n.d.):

1. Two girls are fighting over a piece of purple construction paper in the art area. They begin to yell and rip
the paper from one another’s hands.

1. When facing a situation where two children are in a disagreement, it’s important to take a
moment to assess the root of the issue. In this case, two young girls are fighting over a piece
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 298

of purple construction paper in the art area. To find a resolution, it’s crucial to ask yourself
some questions:

▪ What steps can be taken to resolve the issue?

▪ Are there any relevant details about these children and their developmental needs
that should be taken into consideration?
▪ Seeking assistance from a colleague or supervisor can be helpful in finding a peaceful
and fair resolution.
▪ Remember, as a responsible adult, it’s your duty to ensure the safety and well-being
of the children in your care.

2. A child is crying and following the teacher around the room.

1. What might the behavior be communicating?

▪ He wants or needs the adult’s attention.

▪ He has an injury to his tear duct.
▪ He doesn’t like attending the program.
▪ He is socially immature.

2. What should the teacher’s response be, according to what you have learned in Chapter 10?

3. Two boys are pretending to fight and rough house on the carpet.

1. List 3 different activities to the children to redirect the behavior

4. Recently, a young child approached me with a tearful expression, repeating a message over and
over again. Sadly, I couldn’t understand the child’s language, which made me feel frustrated.
Later on, I saw the same child kicking over constructions made by other children in the block
area.

1. How can the teacher support this child?

▪ Provide visual support (picture schedules, social stories, etc.) or simple sign language/
gestures, giving the child a system for communication.
▪ Put the child in time out for whining and destroying the structures
▪ Ignore the child and move on to the other children
▪ Assume the child cannot hear and refer for testing

“Every child deserves a champion- an adult who will never give up on them, who understands the power of
connection, and insists that they become the best that they can possibly be.” ~ Rita Pierson (2013, 6:52)
299 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS

Review Questions

1. What is behavior?
2. Why are professional relationships important in our work in ECE?
3. How are relationships and behavior(s) connected?
4. How will you communicate with families in a way that shares and supports mutual
perspectives?
5. What, when, and how will you communicate to families about challenging or unwanted
behavior?
6. Define social development.
7. Define emotional development.
8. Why is it important to distinguish the difference between social development and emotional
development?
9. Explain why we need to understand childhood trauma and the connections to a child’s
behavior(s).
10. Describe the social and emotional connections to behavior, including:

1. Social Emotional foundations of Early learning

2. Classroom Climate
3. Guiding Social Behaviors
4. Trauma, and behavior: the role of neurodiversity in behavior and the relationship
between trauma and behavior.
5. What are the 5 steps to consider when having a conversation with a family?

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https://www.ldonline.org/ld-topics/behavior-social-skills/teaching-social-skills-kids-who-dont-yet-
have-them

Merriam-Webster. (2024, March 20). Behavior. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved

March 23, 2024, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/behavior

Miller, C. (2024, January 30). How trauma affects kids in school: Signs of trauma and tips for helping
kids who’ve been traumatized. Child Mind Institute. Retrieved March 23, 2024, from
https://childmind.org/article/how-trauma-affects-kids-school/

Minahan, J., & Rappaport, N. (2012). The behavior code: A practical guide to understanding and
teaching the most challenging students. Harvard Education Press.

Morin, A. (n.d.) Understanding behavior as communication: A teacher’s guide. Understood. Retrieved

May 14, 2024, from https://www.understood.org/en/articles/understanding-behavior-as-
communication-a-teachers-guide
303 | CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS
National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (n.d.) About child trauma. https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-
child-trauma/about-child-trauma

National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2009, October). Young children develop in an
environment of relationships (Working Paper No. 1). Center on the Developing Child, Harvard
University. (Original work published 2004). https://developingchild.harvard.edu/wp-content/
uploads/2004/04/Young-Children-Develop-in-an-Environment-of-Relationships.pdf

Nelsen, J., Escobar, L., Ortolano, K., Duffy, R., & Owen-Sohocki, D. (2001). Positive discipline: A
teacher’s A-Z guide: Hundreds of solutions for almost every classroom behavior problem! (2nd ed.).
Three Rivers Press.

Pierson, R. (2013, June). Every kid needs a champion [Video]. TED Talks Education.
https://www.ted.com/talks/rita_pierson_every_kid_needs_a_champion

Riley, D., San Juan, R. R., Klinkner, J., & Ramminger, A. (2007). Social & emotional development:
Connecting science and practice in early childhood settings. Redleaf Press.

Rouse, M. R. (2024, April 2). How can we help kids with self-regulation? Child Mind Institute.
Retrieved May 15, 2024, from https://childmind.org/article/can-help-kids-self-regulation/

Sheldon-Dean, H. (2024, February 6). What is complex trauma? Child Mind Institute. Retrieved May
15, 2024, from https://childmind.org/article/what-is-complex-trauma/

Spokane Regional Health District. (n.d.). 1-2-3 care toolkit: Behavior. https://srhd.org/media/
documents/Behavior1.pdf

Strain, P., Joseph, J., Hemmeter, M. L., Barton, E., & Fox, L. (2017, January). Tips for responding to
challenging behavior in young children. Pyramid Equity Project. https://challengingbehavior.org/
docs/PEP_Tips-responding-challenging-behavior.pdf

Strickland-Cohen, M. K, Newson, A., Meyer, K., Putnam, R., Kern, L., Meyer, B. C., & Flammini, A. (2022,
September). Strategies for de-escalating student behavior in the classroom. Center on Positive
Behavioral Interventions & Supports. https://www.pbis.org/resource/strategies-for-de-escalating-
student-behavior-in-the-classroom

Twombly, E., Munson, L. J., & Pribble, L. M. (2018). ASQ:SE-2 learning activities & more. Paul H.
Brookes Publishing.

Virtual Lab School. (n.d.). Responding to behavior that challenges. Retrieved April 21, 2024, from
https://www.virtuallabschool.org/preschool/child-abuse-prevention/lesson-4

Webster-Stratton, C. (2012). Incredible teachers: Nurturing children’s social, emotional, and

academic competence. Incredible Years.
 CHAPTER 10 : BEYOND BEHAVIORS | 304

Websites to explore for more information

CDC’s Developmental Milestones Tool, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning, Vanderbilt University

Classroom Implementation: Practical Strategies (Example of feelings visual aids), National Center for
Pyramid Model Innovations (NCPMI)

Considerations for Trauma-Informed Child Care and Early Education Systems, Administration for
Children & Families

Creating Trauma-Sensitive Classrooms, National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC)

Developmental Milestone Expectations in Early Head Start, Head Start Early Childhood Learning and
Knowledge Center

Family Engagement, NCPMI

Fostering Healthy Social and Emotional Development in Young Children: Tips for Early Childhood
Teachers and Providers, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

Interactive Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework: Ages Birth to Five, Head Start Early
Childhood Learning and Knowledge Center

Message in a Backpack, NAEYC

National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, Center on the Developing Child, Harvard
University

Promoting Young Children’s Social and Emotional Health, NAEYC

Strategies for De-escalating Student Behavior in the Classroom, Center on Positive Behavior
Intervention & Supports (PBIS)

Supporting Child and Student Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Mental Health Needs, U.S.
Department of Education

Trauma-Informed Supports for Early Childhood Professionals, Washington State Department of

Children, Youth & Families (DCYF)
305 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY

CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Preschool Teacher
Reads to Class/
Photo Credit:
Allison Shelley for
EDUimages, CC
BY-NC 4.0

Overview
In Chapter 1, we introduced the term teaching practice and referred to the “field” of early childhood
education (ECE). In the last two decades, much attention has been paid to the difference between a
“field” and a profession of ECE (Goffin & Washington, 2007). While the intensity of attention about
defining ECE as a profession has increased considerably, this attention is far from new. As early as the
mid-1960s, Bettye Caldwell wrote about the limited concern for defining the field (1967). In this
chapter, you will explore the definition of “profession” and consider whether ECE fits that definition.
You will learn about a recent effort by NAEYC and partners to position ECE to be recognized as a
profession. You will also become aware of the currently used and various systems of standards and
codes that define the professional behavior and conduct of the ECE practitioner. This chapter aims to
explicate the expectations of a professional early childhood educator as you prepare to move into
that role.
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 306

Objectives

• Define professionalism using widely accepted criteria.

• Describe the ways in which early childhood education meets the criteria of a profession.
• Describe the process undertaken in the Power to the Profession initiative and the intended goal of
the initiative.
• Describe the main issues the Power to the Profession initiative took on.
• Describe standards currently used to define and regulate the work of early childhood educators,
including

◦ The Washington Administrative Code

◦ Washington State Core Competencies
◦ NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies for Early Childhood Educators
◦ NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct

• Define advocacy and describe how this activity is part of professionalism in ECE.

Key Terms

• Advocacy
• Early Childhood Education
• Early Childhood Educator
• ECE Field
• Ethical conduct
• Ethical Dilemma
• Ethical Finesse
• Ethical Ideals
• Ethical Principles
307 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

• Ethical Responsibility
• Field of Practice
• NAEYC
• Personal Advocacy
• Profession
• Professional
• Public Advocacy
• Scope of Practice
• Stackable Certificates
• Unifying Framework
• WAC

11.1 Defining Terms: A Vocabulary for Discussing Professionalism

Understanding terminology is a helpful way to start an investigation of professionalism in ECE. The
terms profession and professional are used frequently in our everyday conversations. However, our
common usage of the term does not ensure that we understand what these terms mean as we apply
them to our work as educators.

In our work life, we may use the term professional to refer to the fact that we are committed to doing
our jobs well, that we are good employees (i.e., punctual, respectful to colleagues, dress
appropriately), that we provide reliable and competent service, or it may simply mean that we get
paid for what we do (Feeney, 2012). The term professional may be used as a compliment, indicating
that that person is good at their job.

While we may use the term professional to describe how we behave at our jobs, it is essential to note
that a body of scholarly literature exists in which academics from various disciplines have discussed
the meaning of these terms.

In this section, we will further define terms that assist in understanding the conversation about ECE
becoming a profession .

11.1.1 Field

It is not unusual to refer to the “ field of ECE .” We used that phrase in[crossref:1] chapter 1 [/crossref]
of this book. Calling ECE a field allows us to create a boundary around what we mean by ECE; it allows
for defining what fits into this category. Similarly, we often hear mention of those who work in the
business and medical “fields.” As Goffin and Washington (2019) suggest, the term ECE field describes
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 308
all of the programs, services, and occupations that currently reside within the boundary of what we
call ECE—childcare, either in centers or family childcare homes; preschool; and care for infants and
toddlers, for example.

11.1.2 Field of Practice

A field of practice refers to a specialization or a defined scope of work undertaken by an identified

group of practitioners. It is a term often used to describe medicine or social work specialties. Stacie
Goffin has also applied the term “field of practice” to ECE (Goffin, 2015; Goffin & Washington, 2019).
A field of practice, according to Goffin, indicates the roles that directly focus on the learning and
development of children. In other words, the ECE field of practice refers to those who educate and
facilitate child development. Calling ECE a field of practice allows for defining the focus—the learning
and development of young children. Naming it as a field of practice also highlights that the field’s main
objective is competent practice and suggests that we understand what it means to educate young
children competently. In sum, the ECE field of practice is populated by those who do the work of
direct service to children, which also assumes a level of competent practice to be successful.

11.1.3 Profession

The term profession is commonly accepted to mean an “occupation that serves the public welfare and
that requires specialized educational training in some branch of learning or science” (Feeney, 2012, p.
6). Thus, a profession requires specialized education not held by others and serves a public good
instead of serving one’s self-interest alone (i.e., simply getting a paycheck).

11.1.4 Professionals

If a profession is an occupation that serves a public good and requires education, a professional is the
inhabitant of a role in that occupation—the person who does the work of the profession. Applying the
definition of profession just shared, a professional is a person who has committed to serving the
public good related to that field and has achieved the educational requirement necessary to play that
role. In the field of ECE, it is not unusual to hear about efforts to professionalize the field, often
referring to incremental efforts to improve the practice of individuals rather than system-wide
efforts to meet the full definition of a profession.

A large body of academic literature has identified the defining features of a profession . Although
there is disagreement about which features are critical, some are commonly included and are
accepted as essential to the definition. Feeney (2012) identifies eight criteria regularly found in the
literature about professions. Table 11.1 describes them.

Table 11.1

Criteria For Defining a Professional

309 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Criteria Details of Criteria

Evidence-based knowledge (grounded in research

and scholarship)
Specialized body of knowledge and
expertise Skillful application of knowledge

Obligation to stay informed about new information

Acquisition of evidence-based knowledge through

Prolonged training training/education that occurs over time

Includes study and practical experience

Admission to training programs is competitive

Rigorous requirements for entry to
An exam may follow graduation from training
training and eligibility to practice
Background screening required for licensure

Follow standards to ensure competent practice

Standards of practice Make decisions based on standards (practice is not
“cookie-cutter”)

Dedicated to the public interest

Commitment to serve a significant
social value
Altruistic and service-oriented

Only those with credentials, training, and licensure

Recognition as the only group in society can play this role
that can perform a function
Only those who can competently complete the role

Self-governed
Autonomy
Internal control over the quality of services
provided–the national organization provides

Obligations to society spelled out

Moral behavior for practice codified

Code of Ethics
Instills confidence that the public good will be
prioritized

Note. This table, based on the work of Feeney (2012), includes eight criteria used to define a
profession and the definition of each criteria.
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 310

Reflection

How do you use the terms profession and [GL[ professional ? Do they mean different things to you? Do
you see yourself as a professional in your work with young children? Why is that?

Review the list of criteria in Table 11.1 and consider if ECE meets enough of these criteria to be
labeled a profession . If you are not sure that ECE meets enough of them, think about why that might
be the case, and imagine what ECE would look like if it met all or many of these criteria.

11.2 ECE as a Profession

Recently, many have questioned whether ECE meets the definition of a profession (Feeney, 2012;
Goffin, 2013, 2015). Some have concluded that it currently does not, and a review of the list in Table
11.1 provides evidence that this conclusion is accurate. While ECE has developed some of the
characteristics in Table 11.1, not all are currently in place. For example, a Code of Ethical Conduct , put
forth by the NAEYC (2011a), has existed for several years. However, there is no universal
requirement that ECE practitioners know or abide by this code.

Similarly, in terms of standards of practice, many states have adopted guidelines defining the skills
and knowledge necessary to provide quality childcare. However, each state can define these
guidelines as they see fit, and various licensing requirements can be found across the U.S. As
guidelines, they carry no authority over the continued practice of a practitioner who chooses not to
follow them.

Moreover, these competencies are often set by the state legislature and defined by the state agency
responsible for child care licensing rather than being defined and agreed to by the profession . This
fact points to the absence of autonomy. Having autonomy is another marker of a profession. Licensed
child care, a central mode of delivery in ECE, is heavily regulated by the state rather than by the
profession, providing notable evidence for the lack of autonomy in ECE, another critical feature in a
profession. Further, prolonged training with rigorous entry requirements must be more consistently
applied for entry into ECE to allow it to be considered a profession.

This analysis should clarify that ECE has work to do before it can claim the title of a profession and
before those engaged in this work can claim to be professionals . However, identifying this reality has
not made it easy for ECE to move toward the status of a profession. While numerous efforts have
aimed to solve the problem, large-scale success has yet to be achieved. The significance of the work of
early childhood educators remains unrecognized, and they remain under-compensated; the field of
early childhood education remains fragmented and siloed with no clear definition of its boundaries.
Little specialized knowledge is required for entry (Committee on the Science of Children et al., 2015).
311 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

11.2.1 NAEYC’s Efforts: Power to the Profession and the Unifying

Framework

Partial Cover of
“Unifying
Framework for the
Early Childhood
Education
Profession”/ Photo
Credit: National
Association for the
Education of Young
Children, Fair use,
Screenshot excerpt
referring to full
report: “Power to
the Profession,
National
Association for the
Education of Young
Children”.

A hopeful initiative has recently emerged. Beginning in 2017, NAEYC (the National Association for
the Education of Young Children), the leading professional association for those engaged in the work
of ECE, made a significant investment in achieving this goal. This initiative, titled Power to the
Profession, and carried out by a task force representing 15 national ECE-related organizations,
created a Unifying Framework for the Early Childhood Education Profession (2020). According to Power
to the Profession (n.d.), the framework is designed to “set a vision for how to drive the significant and
sustained public investment that will allow all children, birth through age 8, to benefit from high-
quality early education provided by well-prepared, diverse, supported and compensated
professionals” (para. 3). The title of the framework, including the term profession , as well as the focus
on preparation and support of the professionals illustrate the focus of moving ECE to this status,
while also recognizing the need for public funding to achieve this long-standing goal.

Power to the Profession was a multi-year process that involved eight “decision cycles” in which
decisions on the defining issues of the field were presented to stakeholders for feedback. At each
cycle, practitioners in the field responded in writing to the proposal, engaged in focus groups, and
other means of providing feedback. After this process, each proposal was revised and ultimately
finalized. The results of the eight decision cycles were presented in the Unifying Framework for the
Early Childhood Education Profession (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020). A summary of the
recommendations in the framework can be found in the [appendix]appendix 11[/appendix]. In
addition to summarizing the recommendations, the table includes how they addressed the eight
criteria of a profession identified earlier in this chapter. The recommendations that make up the
Framework are notable in their effort to address as many issues facing ECE as possible at one time.
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 312
11.2.2 Naming and Defining the Profession

The first issue addressed by the Task Force was what to call the profession (Power to the Profession
Task Force, 2020). Settling on what to call itself is a long-existent problem with ECE. Note that the
title “ early childhood education ” is the selected name throughout this chapter. Nevertheless, many
do not accept this and use other names, such as early care and education or early learning. The
difficulty was not just about agreeing to a single name but determining which practitioners working
with young children were part of the profession . A long-held aversion to exclusion has made it
difficult to draw a boundary around who is “in” and who is “out” of the profession. However, this
decision is necessary to define a field as a profession. After much deliberation, the Task Force chose to
call the profession Early Childhood Education, and the professionals are called Early Childhood
Educators . Further, the authors drew a boundary between the profession and the larger field of early
childhood, delineating the professionals from other allied practitioners who, while still engaged in
work that supports children and families, are not early childhood educators and not part of the
profession.

Early Childhood
Education
Profession within
the ECE Field/
Photo Credit:
National
Association for the
Education of Young
Children, AAR(c)
Used with
permission.
313 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
The image above presents the Unifying Framework (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020)
illustration that depicts the relationship between the field of ECE–everything outside of the
profession–and the profession designated by the orange section at the top of the circle. The
profession, as proposed, includes three roles:

1. Early Childhood Educators who provide direct service to children birth to age eight and on
whom the Unifying Framework is primarily focused
2. Professional Preparation Faculty and Trainers who instruct, observe, and monitor the practice
of aspiring ECEs
3. Pedagogical and Instructional Administrators who guide the practice of ECEs

In addition to defining the profession and the professionals , the Unifying Framework (Power to the
Profession Task Force, 2020) identifies three designations of early childhood educators: Early
Childhood Educator I, II, and III, as presented in Table 11.2. Creating these designations addresses a
confusing jumble of titles and roles in the current field, creating a uniform approach to defining
responsibilities ( scope of practice ) and preparation. The Task Force also recognized that the scope of
practice attached to a specific level of professional preparation differs by setting. For example, in
Birth to age five settings, a practitioner with an associate degree may be a lead teacher in a classroom.
That same level of education is tied to an assistant teacher position in a K to grade 3 setting.

Table 11.2

Designations of Early Childhood Educators (ECEs) Proposed in Unifying Framework

Scope of Practice (role in development and delivery of

Title Setting Educational Requirement
educational programming)

ECE Birth-3rd 120 clock hours of

Assist
I Grade professional preparation

Lead
Birth-Age
ECE 5 Guide ECE Is
ECE Associate Degree
II K-3rd Assist
Grade
Guide ECE Is

ECE Bachelor’s Degree

ECE Birth-3rd Lead
OR
III Grade Guide ECE Is and IIs
ECE Master’s Degree
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 314
Note: Source Generated by author based on info in source cited in text discussing this table (Power to
the Profession Task Force, 2020)

11.2.3 Defining Professional Standards and Professional Preparation Delivery

Partial Cover of
“Professional
Standards and
Competencies for
Early Childhood
Educators”/ Photo
Credit: National
Association for the
Education of Young
Children, Fair use,
Screenshot excerpt
referring to full
report:
“Professional
Standards and
Competencies for
Early Childhood
Educators”.

The Unifying Framework (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020) also addressed the need for a
unified system of professional preparation for EC Educators. The Unifying Framework recognizes the
role of higher education in professions, informing the content of professional preparation and
delivering high-quality preparation that successfully graduates competent professionals. The Task
Force selected the updated and revised NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies (NAEYC,
2019) as the standards for professional preparation. Given that a profession is defined partially by
the existence of standards for practice set and defined by the profession, choosing standards
developed by NAEYC rather than a state licensing entity is appropriate. These revised standards
were released shortly before the Unifying Framework and included a “leveling” of the standards,
further illuminating the distinction between the three Early Childhood Educator designations (See
Table 11.2). This “leveling” guides professional preparation programs to pitch coursework content
appropriately to the different designations and further underscores the differences in the scope of
practice .

This approach addresses the reality that many practitioners have worked in the field for some time
without college coursework. These individuals may not be willing to undertake a college education
but wish to remain employed in the newly named profession. These designations recognize the
contribution of all professionals regardless of the scope of practice. The Unifying Framework
additionally recommends that all early childhood educators complete a general early childhood
education program before specializing in, for example, a focus on an age group such as preschool or
toddler-aged children.
315 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
In addition to adopting professional preparation standards, the Unifying Framework calls on higher
education institutions to be accountable through accreditation by a governing body to ensure the
delivery of competently prepared early childhood educators. Moreover, the Unifying Framework calls
on higher education to work to ensure seamless transition across educational systems, access to
higher education by an ethnically, racially, and linguistically diverse population, and diversity in
faculty that prepares early childhood educators.

Finally, the Unifying Framework recommends that once all the requirements just described are in place
(i.e., higher education access to all who seek it, effective higher education that produces competent
educators, utilizing a uniform set of standards ), then early childhood educators should be licensed
upon completion of a program of professional preparation .

11.2.4 Professional Compensation

The Unifying Framework (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020) also addressed the requirement
for increased compensation for current and future ECE professionals. They recommend “public
school salary scales as a minimum benchmark for comparable compensation, assuming comparable
qualifications, experience, and job responsibilities” (p. 41). The compensation for an early childhood
educator should be comparable regardless of setting (i.e., private childcare, state-funded preschool,
public school kindergarten). The Unifying Framework also calls out the importance of a benefits
package for all EC educators regardless of setting. The Task Force stated that the other requirements
were only possible by instituting increased compensation. In other words, any increase in education
or responsibility resulting from the Unifying Framework would necessitate a matched increase in
salary. The Task Force also recognized that employers that hire early childhood educators should be
accountable for providing comparable compensation (salary and benefits). The Task Force indicates
that such accountability is only possible with a financial investment from the federal government,
which requires a recognition of ECE as a public good that serves all of society.

11.2.1.4 The Purpose of the Unifying Framework

As described here, the goal of the Unifying Framework (Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020) was
to address the issues that have kept early childhood education from claiming its status as an actual
profession . By formalizing ECE as a profession, those who do this work will be well-prepared and
well-compensated, finally receiving the status and recognition they have long deserved. While this is
accurate, it does not explain why doing so is essential.

Those who have argued for defining ECE as a profession have claimed effectively that the well-being
of children is what is at stake (Goffin, 2013; Power to the Profession Task Force, 2020). Suppose ECE
remains a fragmented, unrecognized, under-compensated occupation. In that case, many children will
not have access to the early education that research has consistently shown improves each child’s
developmental and learning outcomes. NAEYC , the association that initially called the 15
representative entities that made up the Task Force, has a vision. This vision, sometimes called an
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 316
audacious one, is to unify as a profession to argue for ECE as a public good that our tax dollars should
support. These efforts aim to ultimately have ECE recognized as a profession so that those who do
that work are well-prepared, well-compensated, and supported—doing so to ensure that the children
who receive their efforts will have positive future trajectories.

Reflection

Review the summary of the recommendations made in the Unifying Framework (found in the
[appendix]appendix to chapter 11[/appendix]). What seems most beneficial about these
recommendations? What will be most challenging to implement, in your opinion, and why? How
would the implementation of these recommendations affect your current work in ECE? Is the
Unifying Framework going to improve the lives of early childhood educators? The children they serve?

11.3 Standards Currently Defining Professional Performance

The work of the Power to the Profession Task Force is impressive. Adopting the Unifying Framework
across the country would dramatically change the face of ECE. This audacious vision would address
many, perhaps even all, of the defining issues the field has grappled with, especially in recent years.
However, the aspirational nature of the Unifying Framework should not lead one to believe that ECE as
we know it today has no established standards that could nudge it toward professionalizing. Such
standards do exist. This section of the chapter will introduce systems of standards that currently
define and regulate the work of early childhood educators in the US and specifically in Washington
state.

11.3.1 Washington Administrative Code

Early childhood education is not made up only of licensed child care. However, it does represent a
large portion of early childhood education programs across the country and in Washington state. The
term “licensed child care” should suggest that a state agency regulates these programs (licensed to
operate). Each state has its administrative agency that oversees childcare; in Washington state, it is
the Department of Children, Youth, and Families (DCYF). After the legislature passes laws, they
become part of the Revised Code of Washington (RCW), a compilation of all permanent laws now in
force. However, in the case of something as complicated as child care, the laws cannot be specific
enough to guide practice. Thus, an administrative agency, in this case, DCYF, writes administrative
codes or regulations that specify what is allowed in the operation of a licensed child care program.
One chapter of the Washington Administrative Code (WAC) addresses the requirements for the
operation of licensed child care programs (Wash. Admin. Code § 110-300, 2018). Note that these
317 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
regulations reflect foundational (or base) quality (sometimes called minimal quality) and that licensed
programs are called Early Learning Programs, not Early Childhood Education, as NAEYC recommends
(Power to the Profession Taskforce, 2020). This chapter in the Wash. Admin. Code § 110-300 (2018)
comprises several sections:

1. Intent and Authority

2. Child Outcomes
3. Family Engagement and Partnership
4. Professional Development, Training, and Requirements
5. Environment
6. Interactions and Curriculum
7. Program Administration and Oversight

Three of these seven sections of the Wash. Admin. Code § 110-300 (2018) have multiple subsections,
making for over 100 subsections of regulations, many of which are broken down even further into
numerous smaller subsections. This is a complicated document!

All sections guide childcare practice according to the state of Washington and could be considered
professional standards . We could conversely argue that a profession is viewed as an autonomous
body that self-governs and provides internal control of quality and thus does not need this level of
detailed regulation by an entity external to the profession.

Given the focus of this chapter on Professionalism in ECE, the section on Professional Development,
Training, and Requirements is of special note. This section of the Wash. Admin. Code § 110-300
(2018), revised as recently as 2023, addresses staff qualifications in licensed child care programs (§
0100), and the general staff qualifications for center lead teachers are listed below:

• Be at least 18 years of age

• Have a high school diploma or the equivalent
• Pre-service requirements (i.e. negative TB test, orientation training, background check)
• ECE Initial Certificate within 5 years of hire or promotion (or from the time of this section
becoming effective)
• ECE Short Certificate within 2 years of receiving ECE Initial Certificate
• Document completion of annual professional development

The ECE certificates referenced here are part of the Washington State Stackable Certificates . These
are certificates offered by many community and technical colleges in Washington and provide a
cumulative pathway with courses building on one another (Washington State DCYF, 2023). These
stackable certificates are meant to provide a manageable set of steps in moving to the goal of a
degree, initially at the associate level, and if a student continues in their education, at the bachelor’s
level. The three stackable certificates are described below:
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 318
Table 11.3

Washington State Stackable Certificates

Short ECE Certificate

Initial ECE ECE State Certificate
of Specialization
Certificate Total
27-32 quarter credits
8 quarter credits
12 quarter The Short ECE Cert + the 47-52 quarter credits
credits The initial ECE Cert +
following:
Child Development

And One of the

Following
Specialization:

3 Courses: ECE–General

Infant/Toddler Care 10 Credits of General

Intro to ECE
Education (Math and Builds Foundation for
Heath, Safety, School-Age Care English) Associate Degree
and, Nutrition
Family Child Care 17-22 quarter credits of ECE
Practicum
Administration

Home Visitor/Family
Engagement

Note: Source Author generated, based on source cited in text (Washington State DCYF, 2023)
319 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

11.3.2 Washington State Core Competencies for Early Care and Education
Professionals

Partial Cover of
“Core
Competencies for
Early Care and
Education
Professionals”/
Photo Credit:
Washington State
Department of
Early Learning, Fair
use, Screenshot
excerpt referring to
full report: “Core
Competencies for
Early Care and
Education
Professionals”.

In 2009, the former Department of Early Learning, at the direction of the state legislature, published
the Core Competencies for Early Care and Education Professionals developed out of a multi-year process
that engaged a broad consortium of professionals from across the state (Washington State DCYF,
2009). The competencies are meant to provide a framework of knowledge and skills necessary to
provide quality care for children.

The competencies are viewed as a tool that can be used in a variety of ways:

• Individual practitioners assess their knowledge and skills and plan for professional development
(PD)
• Directors develop PD plans or build job descriptions
• Trainers plan and organize PD
• Higher education faculty and administration, to guide course and program development

The competencies are divided into 8 content areas:

• Child Growth and Development (Washington State DCYF, 2009) contains statements that
present a skill or knowledge. The statements are organized by levels. The levels represent a
continuum of skill/knowledge from entry-level to advanced preparation. All but the first level is
associated with professional development or a college certificate or degree.

Table 11.4

Competency Levels
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 320

Basic knowledge and skills expected at entry-level

Level
1 No specialized training or education required

Level Level 1 + Knowledge and skills comparable to a CDA (Child Development Associate
2 Credential)

Level Level 1 + Level 2 + Knowledge and skills commensurate with an associate degree in ECE/
3 Child Development

Level Level 1 + Level 2 + Level 3 + Knowledge and skills commensurate with a bachelor’s degree
4 in ECE/Child Development

Level Level 1 + Level 2 + Level 3 + Level 4 + Knowledge and skills commensurate with an
5 advanced degree in ECE/Child Development

Note: Core Competencies for Early Care and Education Professionals, as defined by Washington
state’s Department of Children, Youth & Families (2009).

Each of the 8 content areas has between 2 and 17 skill/knowledge statements representing an
individual competency. The total number of competencies identified in this system is over 650,
making for a very complicated system of standards in Washington state (DCFY, 2009).

11.3.3 NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies

As described in the previous section of this chapter on the Unifying Framework , a new set of
professional standards , the Professional Standards and Competencies for Early Childhood Educators,
have been adopted by NAEYC (2019) and are proposed as the unifying standards of practice in the
profession of childhood education. This newly adopted position statement represents the core body
of knowledge, skills, dispositions, and values that early childhood educators must demonstrate to be
effective teachers of young children. The previous professional standards set by NAEYC were written
as expectations for higher education programs—what they must teach to prepare early childhood
educators successfully (NAEYC, 2012). The revised Professional Standards and Competencies (NAEYC,
2019) are written as expectations for the individual professional —what they must know and be able
to do as an effective educator.

The standards are organized into 6 core areas::

• Child Development and Learning in Context

• Family-Teacher Partnerships and Community Connections
• Child Observation, Documentation, and Assessment
• Developmentally, Culturally, and Linguistically Appropriate Teaching Practices
321 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
• Knowledge, Application, and Integration of Academic Content in the Early Childhood Curriculum
• Professionalism

Each standard (NAEYC, 2019) contains 3 to 5 key competencies that clarify the core with a total of 22
key competencies. Each standard has also been “leveled” to correspond with the three ECE
designations (ECE I, II, & III) described in the Unifying Framework (Power to the Profession Task Force,
2020). The leveling documentation is presented as a first attempt to identify the differences in the
breadth and depth of content in the programs that prepare professionals with differing scopes of
practice. A sample of the leveling descriptions for one of the key competencies (1a—Understand the
developmental period of early childhood from birth through age eight across physical, cognitive,
social/emotional, and linguistic domains including bilingual/multilingual development) is presented in
Table 11.5.

Table 11.5

Levels of Key Concept 1a

ECE I ECE II ECE III

Identify critical aspects of Describe brain development Describe brain development in

brain development, including in young children, including young children including
executive function, learning executive function, learning executive function, learning
motivation, and life skills motivation, and life skills motivation, and life skills

Evaluate, make decisions about,

Describe ways to learn about
and communicate effective ways
children (e.g., through
to learn about children (eg.,
observation, play, etc.)
through observation, play, etc.)

Note: Table depicting the NAEYC Key Concept 1a ((Understand the development of early childhood
from birth through age eight across all domains) by 3 levels of ECE Scope of Practice. Source Author
generated table based on source cited in text (NAEYC, 2019)
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 322

11.3.4 NAEYC Code of Ethics

A long winding road

with various traffic
postings/ Photo
Credit: Nicholas
Malara, for WA
Open ProfTech, ©
SBCTC, CC BY 4.0

A common characteristic of professions is that they have a document spelling out the moral
responsibilities to society and guiding principles for professional behavior. Because a profession is
viewed as a group that can uniquely fulfill an important social need, and because the service is often
provided to a vulnerable population, there must be a clear statement about how ethical behavior is
defined. Without that, the power in the professional role can potentially exploit the population being
served.
323 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Although the field of early childhood education is still striving to be viewed as a profession , it has
had a code of ethics since 1989 but began the work to develop a code at least 10 years before that
(Feeney & Freeman, 2018). Beginning in the mid-1970s, NAEYC leadership was advancing efforts to
develop a code, with a code of ethical conduct adopted in 1989. NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct was
updated in 2005 and most recently reaffirmed and updated in 2011. NAEYC leadership is currently
seeking feedback from practitioners to assist in updating the code.

The Code of Ethical Conduct (NAEYC, 2011a) exists as one of several position statements that NAEYC
has adopted. These position statements are guides to assist early childhood educators in making
informed decisions on issues facing the field/profession and promote dialogue on the issues using a
common language provided by the statement. All NAEYC position statements, including the Code of
Ethical Conduct, are available on the association’s website.

The Code of Ethical Conduct (NAEYC, 2011a) focuses on early childhood educators working directly
with children and families. Supplements have also been written to apply the code to the work of Early
Childhood Program Administrators (2011b) and Adult Educators (2004). Multiple articles in NAEYC’s
publication Young Children have addressed the use of the code, providing professionals with
numerous opportunities to practice applying the code to real situations faced in the work of early
childhood education.

It is important to note that many professions that have a code of ethics and also have the power to
sanction professionals who do not follow the code. For example, a physician that breaches the
medical ethics accepted by the profession may face the loss of the right to practice medicine. There is
currently no way for the ECE profession to sanction an early childhood educator who breaches the
NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2011a). The only legal rule applicable to early childhood educators
exists in the licensed child care setting. Educators who work in licensed child care are designated
“mandated reporters.” This designation indicates that they are, by law, required to report any instance
in which they have cause to believe a child has suffered abuse or neglect (Washington State DCYF,
n.d.).

11.3.4.1 Structure of the Code of Ethical Conduct

The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2011a) is organized by several components:

Core Values (p. 1):

• Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable state of the human life cycle
• Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn
• Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family
• Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of family, culture,
community, and society
• Respect the dignity, worth and uniqueness of each individual (child, family member, and
colleague)
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 324
• Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues
• Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships that
are based on trust and respect

Conceptual Framework (pp. 2-7):

The framework is an organizing structure for the code. It is divided into four sections that address
professional relationships: with children, with families, among colleagues, and with the community
and society. Each section includes an introduction to the primary responsibilities of the professional
in that setting. Each section also lists a set of ethical ideals and ethical principles .

Ethical ideals are aspirational. They represent what we strive for as we work with children and
families; they are our goals. Ethical principles are more concrete—they could be considered the
objectives that allow us to achieve our goals or aspirations (ideals). The principles guide conduct and
help professionals resolve ethical dilemmas . Ethical dilemmas are “moral conflicts that involve
determining how to act when an individual faces conflicting professional values and responsibilities”
(Feeney & Freeman, 2018, p. 19).

The four professional relationship areas explored in each section of the conceptual framework
(NAEYC, 2011a) are as follows:

• Ethical Responsibilities to Children (pp. 2-3):

◦ The first section focuses on the profession’s beliefs about the unique and valuable nature of
childhood and the vulnerability of this stage of development. Consequently, early childhood
educators are responsible for ensuring children’s safety, health, and emotional well-being.
Moreover, this section of the code addresses the profession’s commitment to respecting
individual differences, helping children learn to cooperate with peers, and promoting
children’s self-awareness, competence, self-worth, and physical well-being.
◦ The first section contains 12 ethical ideals and 11 ethical principles (note there is no 1 to 1
correspondence of ideals to principles). The first principle is identified as taking precedence
over all the others in the Code:
◦ “Above all, we shall not harm children. We shall not participate in practices that are
emotionally damaging, physically harmful, disrespectful, degrading, dangerous, exploitive, or
intimidating to children” (p. 3).
• Ethical Responsibilities to Families (pp. 3-4):
◦ The second section addresses the responsibility to the families served by early childhood
educators . Given the belief that the family is of primary importance and that the family and
the teacher have a common interest in the child’s well-being, educators are responsible for
communicating, cooperating, and collaborating with the child’s family. The second section
contains nine ethical ideals and 15 ethical principles .
• Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues (p. 5):
◦ The third section of the code addresses responsibilities to colleagues. This section is divided
325 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
into two subsections, one focused on responsibilities to co-workers and one on
responsibilities to employers. The responsibility to colleagues is to establish and maintain
relationships that support productive work and professional needs. The focus here is on
trust, confidentiality, collaboration, and respect for the dignity of each human. It also
includes holding co-workers and employers accountable for their professional ethical
conduct . The first subsection contains three ethical ideals and four ethical principles and
the second contains two ethical ideals and five ethical principles.
• Ethical Responsibility to Community and Society (pp. 6-7):
◦ The final section of the code recognizes the responsibility of the educator to provide
programs that meet the diverse needs of families, to assist families get access to needed
services, to work together with other agencies and professionals and to help with
developing programs needed, but not available. This section contains seven ethical ideals
and 11 ethical principles .

11.3.4.2 Using the Code of Ethical Conduct

The Code of Ethical Conduct (NAEYC, 2011a) provides a tool to use in various ways to ensure ethical
conduct and resolve ethical dilemmas that arise due to the complexity of early childhood education .
While the code of ethics is a guide, it is not a recipe for specific behaviors to be enacted in any
particular situation. However, the Code of Ethical Conduct (2011a) does identify several specific
responsibilities. These ethical responsibilities are either things we should not do or things that we
are required to do. Feeney and Freeman (2018) call these “mandates” (p. 17) and explain how these
mandated behaviors are spelled out in Principles of the Code; examples of Principles that illustrate
what educators must do include the following (pp. 129-133):

Principle 1.1: We shall not harm children. We shall not participate in practices that are
emotionally damaging, physically harmful, disrespectful, degrading, dangerous, exploitative or
intimidating to children.

Principle 2.13: We shall maintain confidentiality and shall respect the family’s right to privacy,
refraining from disclosure of confidential information and intrusion into family life….

Principle 3A.1: We shall recognize the contributions of colleagues to our program and not
participate in practices that diminish their reputations or impair their effectiveness in working
with children and families.

Principle 4.6: We shall be familiar with laws and regulations that serve to protect the children
in our programs and be vigilant in ensuring these laws and regulations are followed.

These ethical responsibilities are clear-cut. They communicate what must and must not be done. One
way the code serves your work is to provide clear-cut guidelines for behavior. In addition, the code is
meant to help navigate ethical dilemmas . In an ethical dilemma, a clear-cut ethical responsibility is
not evident. Instead, the professional is faced with two equally justifiable actions, which often include
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 326
a conflict between the interests of the two parties. For example, it may require placing the child’s
needs above that of the parents or a group over an individual. The code can help determine the best
course of action in a situation. Still, the process requires thoughtful consideration of the various
interests, needs, and priorities of one person or group over the interests, needs, and priorities of
another.

Reflection

Consider this ethical dilemma from Feeney and Freeman (2018, p. 52). Consider how you might
resolve this ethical dilemma, considering your professional obligations and the conflicting needs of
your clientele.

Kali, the mother of 4-year-old Chase, has asked his teacher, Sondra, to keep him from napping in the
afternoon. She tells Sondra, “Whenever Chase naps during the day, he stays up past 10:00 at night. I
have to get up at 5:00 in the morning to go to work, and I am not getting enough sleep.” Along with
all the other children, Chase takes a one-hour nap almost daily. Sondra feels he needs it to engage in
activities and stay in good spirits through the afternoon.

The authors of the Code of Ethical Conduct suggest a process for applying the code to ethical issues
and dilemmas (Feeney & Freeman, 2018). As you consider the steps, consider the situation described
in the above reflection. The suggested steps from Feeney and Freeman are described here:

1. Determine if the issue/problem involves ethics. Does it involve concerns about right and wrong,
rights and responsibilities, human welfare, or an individual’s best interests? If so, it is an ethical
issue.
2. Determine if the issue involves legal responsibility. If so, follow the law. Issues involving child
abuse are examples involving legal responsibilities.
3. Next determine if the issue involves an ethical responsibility . Recall that ethical responsibilities
are clear-cut expectations about how a professional early childhood educator behaves. There is
no question about what must be done (or not done).
4. Determine if the issue is a true ethical dilemma requiring hard choices between conflicting moral
obligations. Consider the needs of all involved and the professional obligations to each. Are there
conflicting obligations requiring one be prioritized over another? Are core values in conflict? If
so, there is an ethical dilemma to resolve. Here are some steps to decision-making about an
ethical dilemma:

Identify the conflicting responsibilities. Consider the people involved and determine their needs and
your obligations to them. Then turn to the Code for guidance. Review the Core Values and Ideals in
327 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
the related section of the Code. Gather more information if necessary for the full picture. It may also
be helpful to refer to program policies or community laws.

Brainstorm possible resolutions. Now that the issue is fully understood, and the conflicting values,
needs, and obligations identified, think about how to solve the problem. Do not yet reject any ideas
but generate as many ideas as possible. Then, go back and consider the equity and feasibility of these
ideas.

Consider ethical finesse . In some situations, it may be possible to solve the problem without
choosing between two options. This approach is called ethical finesse and is characterized by the
ability to amicably resolve the situation, delicately maneuvering without anyone feeling like they did
not have their needs addressed. For example, in the scenario in the reflection above, is it possible to
resolve the dilemma in a way that addresses both the needs of the child and the parent? Could the
teacher work with the parent to develop more effective bedtime routines, or could they experiment
with having the child go down for a nap a little later, sleeping less in the afternoon? Ethical finesse
should be used sparingly (Kipnis, 1987). If we rely too often on ethical finesse, we may avoid ethical
responsibility and not meet our obligations.

Look for guidance in the NAEYC Code. If ethical finesse does not result in a satisfactory resolution,
utilize the Code to determine the action you can defend morally and prepare to act. Look to the Core
values for guidance. Then review the Ideals and Principles to clarify your responsibilities. Make sure
you feel you have all the necessary information. Reviewing program policies or discussing the issue
with a trusted colleague may also be helpful.

Decide on a justifiable course of action. The next step is to make the choice between the alternatives,
basing the decision on the ethics presented in the Code. In the previous nap-time example, if the
attempts to help the parent with bedtime routines and/or a shorter nap did not solve the problem
(i.e., the child became sleepy at nap time and was grumpy in the afternoon without a full nap), then the
decision to reinstitute the nap procedure for this child is necessary. The responsibility to meet the
child’s physical needs outweighs the parent’s need for more sleep. It can be difficult to take such a
stand, but having the Code, and your knowledge of child development on your side of the decision can
be reassuring and affirming.

Implement your resolution and reflect. After making the decision and putting it into play, it is
important to reflect on the process to determine what you have learned. Did you learn something
about how you communicate with families? Did you learn something about how program policies are
set and shared with parents? Or did you mostly learn about your comfort level with these decisions?

The process of applying the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2011a) is not an easy one. Nonetheless,
this important marker of a profession is critical in the work of early childhood education . Given the
vulnerability of our “clients” and the inherent power we wield in that relationship, we must be aware
of our ethical obligations and become proficient in using tools to assist with carrying out our ethical
responsibility. Numerous resources for practicing the use of the Code are available from NAEYC.
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 328

11.4 Advocacy
The role of an advocate, both for the clientele [ GL] professionals serve and the profession itself, was
not included in the list of commonly accepted criteria of a profession presented at the beginning of
this chapter. Nonetheless, advocacy is important for many professions, including early childhood
education . Note that both the NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies (2019) and the
Washington State Core Competencies for Early Care and Education Professionals (2009) include
professionalism as a core standard area and advocacy as a competency area.

Advocacy is any action supporting or defending a specific cause or issue. Advocacy aims to cause
change and various activities can accomplish this goal. Often those of us in the early childhood
education field feel uncomfortable with the idea of advocacy. It may feel too political, too aggressive,
or require one to be able to speak eloquently about an issue. None of those characterizations need to
be true about advocacy. There are many ways for an early childhood educator to engage in advocacy
without experiencing any discomfort.

11.4.1 Advocating for children and families

Part of the advocacy obligation for early childhood educators is standing up for the rights of those
we serve—young children and their families. As members of a profession , we have access to
evidence-based information and have acquired first-hand knowledge about what children and their
families need to grow and develop successfully. Our professional responsibility is to speak out against
initiatives counter to this knowledge and not good for children or families.

11.4.2 Advocating for the Profession

Speaking out on behalf of the workforce that does the work of early childhood education is another
form of advocacy that early childhood educators are called to. Advocating for recognition,
compensation comparable to similar professions , and regulation not in opposition to what we know
to be good for children and families are all ways of advocating for the profession. When advocating
for the profession, it is important to recognize the difference between one’s personal interest and the
best interest of the entire profession. Sometimes what is important for the profession may result in
the imposition of requirements that may create hardships for the individual professional . For
example, advocating for inclusion in the early childhood education profession to require a certain
educational preparation may mean one must pursue additional education. As a part of the profession,
one is called to advocate for what is best for the profession, rather than what one wants to do as an
individual.
329 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

11.4.3 Methods of Advocacy

One way to organize the myriad advocacy methods is to divide them into personal and public
advocacy (Feeney, 2012), as detailed below.

11.4.3.1 Personal Advocacy

Personal advocacy happens during your workday and includes speaking up about what you know to
be the best practice for young children. When you share information with parents, co-workers, or
agencies you cooperate with, you are advocating for children’s rights. When you refer your families to
reliable agencies within your community or provide them with written resources, you are advocating.
Too often early childhood educators feel reluctant to respond to calls for advocacy. Advocacy does
not have to involve a public event; it can occur through the relationships you have built as an
educator.

11.4.3.2 Public Advocacy

Public advocacy occurs when you speak out to address issues of concern in the larger community. It
might surprise you how compelling it can be to hear the story of those working directly in the field.
Policymakers need data and statistics, but even more, they need to hear how people are affected by
the policies they set. They want to hear from the front-line workers about the reality of the days they
spend caring for and educating young children.

However, even public advocacy does not require a public display; it can include voting with early
childhood education in mind or writing to your congressional representatives at the state or federal
level. Public advocacy can, however, involve engagement that is more visible to others:

• Testifying at a legislative hearing

• Attending a public rally for an early childhood issue or during the state legislative session
• Participating in a community awareness event, such as Week of the Young Child
• Writing a letter to the editor of your local paper on some specific early childhood issue
• Visiting your state or federal representative or senator to share your perspective on the
importance of early childhood education

Early childhood practitioners can feel isolated and consequently limited in influencing policymakers
or the public. Luckily, at both the state and national levels, advocacy groups exist to support
individuals in their advocacy efforts. A list of such groups is listed below. Many of these agencies
maintain email lists for individual professionals to stay informed of current issues.

• Children’s Alliance
◦ Develops a legislative agenda each session with issues specifically related to early childhood
education
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 330
◦ Holds an annual advocacy camp to learn how to effectively engage in advocacy
• League of Education Voters
◦ Convenes informational events, advocacy days, and sponsors fundraising events
• Washington State Association for Head Start and ECEAP
◦ Advocates on behalf of Head Start and ECEAP programs
◦ Provides information about current issues on its web page
◦ Supports professionals in advocacy efforts
• MomsRising
◦ Campaigns for early care and education
◦ Provides information about current issues on its web page
• Child Care Aware of Washington
◦ Advocates on behalf of child care providers
◦ Presents data to support advocacy efforts
◦ Presents action plans for individuals
• National Association for the Education of Young Children
◦ Mobilizes members and other early childhood educators and allies to advocate on behalf of
professionals and the children they serve
◦ Presents legislative agendas
◦ Holds training events to empower educators to advocate on behalf of the profession
◦ Gathers professionals annually to visit federal representatives and senators
• Washington Association for the Education of Young Children
◦ Disseminates advocacy information from the NAEYC to membership and others
◦ Sponsors advocacy training
◦ Collects and disseminates information on state legislative issues and actions

Advocating on behalf of the profession and the children and families it serves is part of the role of the
professional early childhood educator . There are numerous ways to become involved in advocacy
efforts and opportunities abound for both the new professional and those with more experience .
Exploring these opportunities and considering how to begin or expand advocacy engagement is
essential.

Reflection

Think about how advocacy is described here. Were you surprised that you have been engaged in
advocacy without calling it that? What were those advocacy efforts? Do you feel encouraged to
investigate new ways you can engage in advocacy? What might more engagement look like for you?
331 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Summary

The current field of early childhood education has a long history of striving for recognition as a
profession . Your involvement in that ongoing effort requires you to understand what is necessary to
meet the definition of a profession and what that label means for your practice. Recognize that recent
efforts involve some of the most assertive and comprehensive steps ever taken to claim the title of
profession for the field of ECE. You can be a part of this effort that, when realized, will provide a bright
future for the profession of early childhood education. This future offers new and exciting opportunities
to change how the world understands the importance of early childhood and those that support the
development and learning of all young children. We sincerely hope you want to be a part of that future.

Review Questions

1. Describe what it means for an occupation to be defined as a profession. Use widely accepted
criteria to define the term profession.
2. Discuss why early childhood education does not entirely fit the definition of a profession,
relying on the widely accepted criteria used to define a profession.
3. Describe the initiative called “Power to the Profession.” Who called this group together? What
was the goal of the Power to the Profession Task Force?
4. What is the name of the final report presented by the Power to the Profession Task Force?
When was it published?
5. What did the Power to the Profession Task Force decide to call the profession of those
engaged in early learning?
6. What did the Power to the Profession Task Force decide to call the professional engaged in
early learning?
7. According to the Power to the Profession Task Force, what is the difference between the field
of early childhood education and the early childhood education profession? Who is in the field
and who is in the profession?
8. Describe the three levels of early childhood educators identified in the Unifying Framework.
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 332

How are they similar and different?

9. What professional standards did the Power to the Profession Task Force choose to provide
standards of practice and guide early childhood educators’ professional preparation?
10. What additional requirements would this Unifying Framework put on higher education
institutions?
11. How does the Unifying Framework address the need to improve the compensation of early
childhood educators? How does the framework suggest employers can afford this increased
cost?
12. What is the goal of the Unifying Framework?
13. What is WAC, and how does it relate to the operation of licensed child care?
14. Which Washington state agency writes and enforces the WAC related to childcare?
15. How is the WAC different from the NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies?
16. What are the Washington State Stackable Certificates? How do they relate to the WAC?
17. What are the Washington State Core Competencies for Early Care and Education
Professionals? How are they different from the WAC related to childcare?
18. What are the NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies? How are they different from the
WAC related to childcare?
19. What is the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct? How is it meant to be used by ECE professionals?
20. What are ethical ideals and principles in the Code of Ethical Conduct?
21. To whom does an early childhood educator have ethical responsibility?
22. Define ethical responsibility.
23. What is an ethical dilemma?
24. What is advocacy? For whom is an early childhood educator likely to advocate?
25. How are public and personal advocacy different?
26. What are some ways that an early childhood educator can engage in advocacy?

References
Caldwell, B. M. (1967). On reformulating the concept of early childhood education—Some
whys needing wherefores. Young Children, 22(6), 348–356. https://www.jstor.org/stable/
42720712

Committee on the Science of Children Birth to Age 8: Deepening and Broadening the
Foundation for Success, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Institute of Medicine, &
333 | CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
National Research Council. (2015, July 23). Transforming the workforce for children birth
through age 8: A unifying foundation. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/
19401

Feeney, S. (2012). Professionalism in early childhood education: Doing our best for young children.
Pearson.

Feeney, S., & Freeman, N. K. (2018). Ethics and the early childhood educator: Using the NAEYC
code (3rd ed.). National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Goffin, S. G. (2013). Early childhood education for a new era: Leading our profession. Teachers
College Press.

Goffin, S. G. (2015). Professionalizing early childhood education as a field of practice: A guide to the
next era. Red Leaf Press.

Goffin, S. G., & Washington, V. (2007). Ready or not: Leadership choices in early care and education.
Teachers College Press.

Goffin, S. G., & Washington, V. (2019). Ready or not: Early childhood care and education’s
leadership choices—12 years later (2nd ed.). Teachers College Press.

Kipnis, K. (1987). How to discuss professional ethics. Young Children, 42(4), 26–30.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2004, Spring). Code of ethical
conduct: Supplement for early childhood adult educators. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/
files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/
ethics04_09202013update.pdf

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2011a, May). Code of ethical conduct
and statement of commitment (1989, revised April 2005, reaffirmed and updated May 2011).
https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/
position-statements/Ethics%20Position%20Statement2011_09202013update.pdf

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2011b, May). Code of ethical
conduct: Supplement for early childhood program administrators (2006, reaffirmed and updated
May 2011). https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/
resources/position-statements/Supplement%20PS2011.pdf

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2012, September). 2010 NAEYC
standards for initial & advanced early childhood professional preparation programs.
https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/accreditation/
higher-ed/naeyc-higher-ed-accreditation-standards.pdf

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2019, November). Professional
 CHAPTER 11: PROFESSIONALISM IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION | 334
standards and competencies for early childhood educators. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/
default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/
professional_standards_and_competencies_for_early_childhood_educators.pdf

Power to the Profession. (n.d.) About. http://powertotheprofession.org/about/

Power to the Profession Task Force. (2020, March). Unifying framework for the early childhood
education profession. Power to the Profession. https://powertotheprofession.org/wp-
content/uploads/2020/03/Power-to-Profession-Framework-03312020-web.pdf

Washington State Department of Children, Youth & Families. (n.d.). Mandatory reporting of child
abuse and neglect. https://www.dcyf.wa.gov/safety/mandated-reporter

Washington State Department of Children, Youth & Families. (2009). Core

competencies for early care and education professionals. https://www.dcyf.wa.gov/sites/default/
files/pubs/EPS_0023.pdf

Washington State Department of Children, Youth & Families (2023, May). Washington State
stackable certificates: Early childhood education statewide certificates. https://dcyf.wa.gov/sites/
default/files/pubs/EPS_0026.pdf
335 | ABOUT THE AUTHORS

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Holly Lanoue, M.ED

Hello, my 25-year career in Early Childhood Education started back in 1999 when I decided to go
back to school and earn my AA degree at Olympic College. Once I finished my degree, I was hired at
the campus childcare center as an assistant teacher in the toddler classroom (which turned out to be
my favorite age group to work with). I worked for a year and was promoted to a lead teacher at the
campus Early Head Start. I worked for 5 years and decided to go back to school and earn my
undergraduate degree from Chapman University. I continued on and earned my Master’s degree in
Curriculum Instruction from Lesley University. While I was earning my degree, I was hired as an
adjunct faculty and ran the Early Achievers Grant for Olympic College. I am now a full-time tenured
faculty teaching Early Childhood Education classes and love every minute of it. For the past 14-years I
have loved helping new teachers navigate through their educational journey. Working on this OER
project has been an honor and I feel fortunate to have worked with such inspirational educators here
in Washington State. This is an amazing Intro book for any early childhood educator, hope you enjoy
reading it as much as we did writing it for you all.

Christine Moon, M.S.

I am in my 26th year as a tenured full time professor at South Puget Sound Community College in the
Early Learning and Education Program. I also serve as the Program Lead, overseeing both Early
Childhood and Parenting Education Programs. I am an active member of both the Washington state
groups Organization for Parenting Education Programs and Early Childhood Teacher Preparation
Program, serving as president for both groups at various times. I began my career in child care as an
after school teacher. Later I worked as a center supervisor, teacher, home visitor and mental health
consultant for Oregon State funded PreK and Head Start in WA. I also spent time as a preschool
teacher for children with exceptional needs. One of my favorite jobs was as a therapist for children
and families where I met my husband who is now an elementary school principal. I enjoy researching
how to help children and families thrive and passing on this information in my classes to adults who
are interested in working with kids and families in some capacity. I am especially interested in brain
development and diversity, equity, belonging and inclusion. I would envision a world where all
children feel valued, seen and cared for by loving adults and communities. I am excited to be part of
the group bringing OER to our field and the teachers who will use this information to care for our
most vulnerable citizens.
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS | 336

Angela Blums, PhD

My career working with children began 25 years ago, while working with toddlers in a child care
center. Since then, I have been fascinated with all things related to child development and early
childhood education. I have taught in a variety of zero to five settings, including traditional child care,
Montessori, and Waldorf programs in Minnesota, California, and Germany. Working with children has
been one of the greatest joys of my life. Outside of the classroom, I worked in child development
research, focusing on cognitive development in young children. I completed my B.A. in Child
Psychology at the University of Minnesota and my PhD in Child Development from the University of
California – Davis. I have been an Early Childhood Education professor at Pierce College since 2015.
In my free time, I enjoy spending time outdoors with my husband and children.

Brenda Boyd Brown, Ph.D.

337 | ABOUT THE AUTHORS
I am a retired associate professor of Human Development at Washington State University. I taught in
the early childhood education area for more than 30 years. I have directed laboratory preschools at
three major universities in the US and Canada, two of which included full-day child care serving
infants through school-aged children. I have conducted research evaluating efforts to improve the
professionalism of the early childhood education field and educated numerous teachers of young
children. I have held several positions on the governing board of the Washington Association for the
Education of Young Children, including president and vice president. My hope for this book is that it
will excite readers about the potential for the future of the early childhood education field. I am happy
to have had the opportunity to share what I’ve learned over the years spent working with children,
families, and colleagues. I hope it is a useful resource.

Ardene Niemer, M.Ed.

Working with children and families has been the focus of my entire career in Early Childhood
Education. I have served as an adjunct professor of ECE at Olympic College since 2017 building on my
over 40 years of experience in the field of early learning, family support, early literacy, and special
education. My degrees and experience have built a holistic foundation for working with children and
families and teaching adult learners. Before joining the OC team, I served as faculty at other colleges,
and as a disability and education consultant to Head Start and ECEAP programs. In a leadership
capacity, I served as president and co-president of the Early Childhood Teacher Preparation Council,
also working with a team to create the Common Courses for Early Learning in Washington, and other
state-wide special projects. I was the author of 2 chapters of Version 1.1 of this OER text and am
excited to be a part of the team to present this second, updated version of the OER. I hope that this
OER will play a part in creating a strong foundation for students newly entering the field so that they
can have a positive and informed impact on the lives of children and families. As I also teach the
course using the OER, I am eager to see students apply what they have learned to their professional
practices and continue to “master their craft” of teaching young children in partnership with families.

Gayle Julian
I have been in the field of Education all 38 years of my career having taught people ages 4 to 82! I
earned my undergraduate degree from the University of Wyoming in Home Economics Education
with an emphasis in Child Development and my Masters from San Francisco State University in
Curriculum and Instruction. For the past 23 years I have been the Early Childhood Program Director
and Faculty at Olympic College in Bremerton, Washington and during that time have been lucky
enough to work on the ECE State Stackable Certificates Project, the writing of the STARS 30 hour
Child Care Basics Course and Version 1 of this text. I have also served as President of the Early
Childhood Teacher Preparation Council. Personally, my husband John and I have a blended family of
five adult children ranging in ages 23 to 29 and I cannot wait to be a grandmother and support them in
raising happy and healthy young children. I love the field of early learning and am proud to be a writer
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS | 338
of this textbook–I believe that quality open educational resources benefit students who are our
future for the healthy growth and care of young children. I hope you enjoy this collaborative writing
project brought to you by some of the best early childhood professionals in the State of Washington!

Ninderjit Kaur Gill

I am an able-bodied, non-neurodiverse, heteronormative, cisgender woman of color. I use she/her
pronouns. My preferred language to speak and read is English and I am an American and Canadian
citizen whose ancestors come from Punjab, India. I am the daughter of an immigrant Punjabi- Sikh
mother who still holds their Indian nationality and does not speak English. I am a single mother of two
adult sons who are still navigating the impact of a public school system that assimilated and
acculturated them into dominant culture values and beliefs.

I am in my 6th year as a full time tenured faculty at North Seattle College. I teach in the Associate and
Bachelors of Early Childhood Teacher Education preparation programs. I was a teacher of young
children for 3 years and then a director of an early learning program for 7 years. Through my own
personal and professional experiences with discrimination, I was motivated to return to school to
complete my Masters in Education focusing on multicultural education in early childhood education. I
continue my studies as an education doctoral candidate with a focus on anti-bias and anti-racist
curriculum in teacher preparation programs.

I do my best to use the power and privilege I hold as an educator wisely and carefully. I believe in
sharing power with and being innovative in our educational work to ensure we disrupt racism, sexism,
classism and ableism in our education systems. I am also an advocate for language justice and
ensuring that in-service students/providers/teachers are able to learn in their preferred or home
language. I hope chapter 5 will provide you with a start to understanding the necessary and important
role the concept and ideals of diversity, equity and inclusion play in our work as teachers and
educators. We teach what we know and who we are. Therefore it is vital that we build our skills,
knowledge and efficacy in this work so we can begin to see, hear and engage with all the ways our
children, families and we show up in our work.

Jennifer Karshna, Ph.D.

I have been working with young children and their teachers for over 30 years. I received my
undergraduate and Master of Arts degrees from Antioch University and PhD from Walden University.
My graduate degree studies were focused on teacher education in early childhood. I have taught
young children in several types of settings (full day childcare, Head Start, part-day preschool), have
done on-site training and coaching at ECE programs, provided in-service training for ECE teachers,
and taught college courses. My current role is ECE Program Chair and full-time faculty at Tacoma
Community College. In addition to teaching, I have served on the Board of Directors for the following
organizations: Puget Sound Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington Association
for the Education of Young Children, Washington State Early Childhood Teacher Preparation Council,
339 | ABOUT THE AUTHORS
and the Pike Place Market ChildCare Center. My hobbies include gardening, reading, and enjoying the
company of my wonderful family members and friends.
 APPENDIX | 340

APPENDIX

Legal References

Chapter 1

Economic Opportunity Amendments of 1965, Pub. L. No. 89-253, 79 Stat. 973 (1965).
https://www.congress.gov/bill/89th-congress/house-bill/8283/text

Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, Pub. L. No. 103-3, 107 Stat. 6 (1993).
https://www.congress.gov/bill/103rd-congress/house-bill/1/text

Housing and Community Development Act of 1974, Pub. L. No. 93-383, 88 Stat. 633 (1974).
https://www.congress.gov/bill/93rd-congress/senate-bill/3066/text

Human Services Amendments of 1994, Pub. L. No. 103-252, 108 Stat. 623 (1994).
https://www.congress.gov/103/statute/STATUTE-108/STATUTE-108-Pg623.pdf

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981, Pub. L. No: 97-35, 95 Stat. 357 (1981).
https://www.congress.gov/bill/97th-congress/house-bill/3982

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, Pub. L. No.
104-193, 110 Stat. 2105 (1996). https://www.congress.gov/bill/104th-congress/house-bill/
3734/text

Chapter 6

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002).
https://www.congress.gov/bill/107th-congress/house-bill/1/text

Chapter 9

Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Pub. L. No. 94-142, 87 Stat. 773 (1975).
https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/STATUTE-89/STATUTE-89-Pg773

Improving Child Care Access, Affordability, and Stability in the Child Care and Development
Fund (CCDF), 89 F.R. 15366 (2024). https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/03/01/
2024-04139/improving-child-care-access-affordability-and-stability-in-the-child-care-and-
development-fund-ccdf
341 | APPENDIX
Wash. Rev. Code § 26.44.030 (1965). https://apps.leg.wa.gov/rcw/
default.aspx?Cite=26.44.030

Chapter 11

Wash. Admin. Code § 110-300 (2018). https://app.leg.wa.gov/wac/default.aspx?cite=110-300

 APPENDIX | 342

Recommendations for Defining the Profession: Power to the

Profession Unifying Framework (2020)
343 | APPENDIX

How ECE is
Issue Addressed Recommendations Moved to a
Profession

Distinguish between the Early Childhood

Education Profession and the Early Child
Education Field

Profession is Early Childhood Education

Professionals are Early Childhood Educators

Those in the Profession include early

childhood educators (ECEs), pedagogical and
instructional administrators (P&IAs), and
professional preparation faculty and trainers
(PPF&T)
Lack of agreement Created a
about a name (early ECEs include those who provide direct bounded field
care and education, service to children B-8 and who meet the of practice
early learning, etc.) guidelines for the profession that was not
all-inclusive
Difficulty defining who P&IAs include those who guide the practice of
was “in” the field and ECEs and who meet the guidelines for the Increased
who was not profession clarity

PPF&T are a subset of higher ed faculty and

professional development staff that instruct,
observe, and monitor the practice of aspiring
ECEs and who have met the guidelines

Those in the ECE Field are not in the

profession but are allies of and support the
profession (i.e., home visitors, policy or
advocacy specialists, children’s librarians, and
those who do not meet the professional
qualifications)
 APPENDIX | 344

Establish three designations of ECEs, each with a

distinct scope of practice

ECE 1 | Helps develop and sustain high-

quality child development and learning
environment | Requires 120 clock hours of
Defined the
professional preparation | Pay commensurate
necessary
with level preparation level of preparation
preparation by
and responsibility
position in the
Too many titles for, and ECE 2 | Assist or be responsible for profession
little clear delineation developing and sustaining high-quality child
Clarified
of positions and development and learning programs
compensation
required preparation (depending on program types) | Requires ECE
as
Associate degree | Pay commensurate with
commensurate
level of preparation and responsibility
with level of
ECE 3 | Responsible for independently education and
developing and sustaining high-quality responsibility
development and learning environment |
Requires ECE Bachelor’s degree | Pay
commensurate with level pararation and
responsibility; comparable to pay for public
school teachers

Unified standards put in place and enforced by

the profession

ECEs will hold necessary credential to

practice, meet standards and guidelines and
work only within their scope of practice

Professional preparation programs will Places

maintain accreditation by recognition body, authority for
Program standards and provide preparation programs aligned to professional
accountability lies with standards and competencies set by the standards with
the regulatory profession the profession:
body–not the autonomy
profession Employers/owners will hire and retain ECEs achieved
by providing compensation and working
ECE is not viewed as a conditions that support well-being, ensure Recognizes
public good requiring that workplace and employee’s practice is ECE as a public
public investment aligned with standards and competencies set good served
by the profession by a
profession
Federal government and agencies will focus
legislation, regulations, and funding on
implementing the Framework
recommendations, protect and invest in ECE
as a public good, engage with and be
responsive to members of the profession and
the public served by ECE
345 | APPENDIX

The Professional Standards and

Competencies for ECE will serve as the core
standards for the profession (revision of
Professional standards previous NAEYC standards for professional
and competencies development) Universal
No agreed upon set of standards for
Standards will be “leveled” for the three
standards that come practice set for the
levels of ECE positions (establish the depth
entire profession
with authority to and breadth of the competencies required at
remove ECEs who do (regardless of age
these different designations)
not practice within or setting)
standards ECEs will be licensed (following completion
of approved preparation program, passing
the national assessment, and gaining
licensure)

Professional
Compensation for ECEs will be at least
compensation
comparable to public school salaries and
Practitioners in the comparable across all settings Compensation
ECE field are recognizes
underpaid, not Compensation will include an adequate professional
benefits package status, required
recognized as doing
work that requires preparation, and
Increases compensation commensurate competency
preparation and
with increased preparation and
commensurate competency
compensation
 GLOSSARY | 346

GLOSSARY
347 | GLOSSARY

Term Definition

Activity action and being active

Adverse Childhood These include neglect, physical, sexual or emotional abuse, household violence or
Experiences (Aces) caregiver mental health.

Action that argues for an issue or course of action; support or defense of a group or
Advocacy
an idea.

What we can observe as a visual demonstration of the child’s own feelings and
Affect
empathy for others.

Amygdala structure that activates fight-flight-freeze responses

Anecdotal Note Or Short narrative record of a single incident illustrating significant developmental or
Record learning evidence

In education settings, the systematic collection, synthesis and use of data to make
Assessment
educational decisions about a child or group of children

Description of the relationship between mother (or primary caregiver) and child
Attachment Pattern
based on the behavior of the child.

Attention Deficit A diagnosable condition in which an individual has difficulty concentrating and
Hyperactivity Disorder inhibiting behaviors.

When a child does not develop in the way that is congruent with averages for a
Atypical Development
given age, causing a disturbance to everyday activities.
An assessment approach that involves a teacher observing and documenting a
Authentic Assessment
child’s skills, knowledge, and behavior during their everyday activities and routines
A diagnosable condition in which children have difficulty with social interactions
Autism
and communication, sometimes with rigid behaviors
Axon part of the neuron that sends information to other cells

Obstacles or obstructions to learning, including physical, technological, systemic,

Barriers
financial, or related to mental health and attitude

Bias as the attitudes that favor one group over another.

Boundaries how quickly a brain can develop myelin

Brainstem And Midbrain lower part of the brain concerned with survival
Burn Out Overwhelming occupational stress or workload

Cell Body genetic and energy producing part of cell

Cerebellum part of the brain concerned with coordination

Challenging Behavior Inappropriate behavior that children use and rely on to get their needs met.

Checklist A list of skills or developmental milestones for documenting achievements

The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through
Child Development
adolescence
 GLOSSARY | 348

Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes broad, national, or global aspects of
Chronosystem
society that influence a child’s development.

A set of guidelines for responsible behavior within the field. Sets forth a common
Code Of Ethics basis for resolving the principal ethical dilemmas encountered in the field of early
childhood education
A core skill in a child’s development based on the ability to understand and to be
Communication
understood,

A group of people living in a common geographical area or space. Community can

Community
also be a feeling or set of relationships between people based on common needs.

Compassion Fatigue Burn out from stress of taking on the emotional stress and trauma of others
The child’s ability or willingness to conform to the direction of others and follow
Compliance
rules.
Conditioning The idea that children are motivated by external cues which drive behavior.

The ability of the teacher and school to communicate with and provide support to
Connecting/ Connection
children and their families.
Constructive Play creating and building with open-ended materials

The idea that children create (or construct) their own knowledge through
Constructivism
experiences with the world.

Cortex outer part of the brain concerned with higher level thinking

Cortical Modulation ratio of function between the higher and lower brain areas
Cortisol hormone released during stress

Culturally Relevant
The practice of including ideas and artifacts that refer to a child’s individual culture.
Pedagogy
The ability to learn from and relate respectfully with people of your own culture as
Culturally Responsive
well as those from other cultures.
Department of Children, Youth and Families. A cabinet level agency focused on the
Dcyf
well-being of children in Washington State.
Dendrite part of the neuron that receives information from other cells

Developmental Domains Specific areas in which growth occurs – Physical, Cognitive, Emotional, and Social.
Developmentally Methods that promote each child’s optimal development and learning through a
Appropriate Practice strengths-based, play-based approach to joyful, engaged learning.
Differentiation The thoughtful practice of tailoring activities to meet children’s individual needs

Distress negative stress

s “a variation among individuals, as well as within and across groups of individuals,

in terms of their backgrounds and lived experiences. These experiences are related
Diversity to social identities, including race, ethnicity, language, sexual orientation, gender
identity and expression, social and economic status, religion, ability status, and
country of origin” (NAEYC, 2019, 17).

Documentation Written account of observed action

349 | GLOSSARY

Dramatic Play pretend and imaginative play; often involves creating a storyline

The title of the profession chosen by the Power to the Profession Task Force.
Early Childhood
Includes those that care for, teach and support the development of children from
Education
birth to age 8.

Early Childhood The title of the professionals chosen by the Power to the Profession Task Force:
Educator those who provide direct service to children, birth to age 8.

Early Childhood Period Ages birth through age eight

All programs, services and occupations that currently reside within the boundary of
Ece Field
what we call ECE.

A change or result that is produced by a particular action, event, or circumstance. It

Effect
is the outcome or consequence of something that has happened or been done.

Emotion Regulation A child’s ability to control or modify one’s own emotions

The child’s development of and identification of emotions and feelings, and includes
Emotional Development
the child’s experience, expression, and management of their emotions.

5 specific skills related to understanding feelings of self and others and using them
Emotional Intelligence
to make positive life decisions

Enriched Environment a stimulating, challenging, supportive and loving environment

An approach and/or practice of providing opportunities, resources and status to all

Equality
that are equal

“the state that would be achieved if individuals fared the same way in society
Equity regardless of race, gender, class, language, disability, or any other social or cultural
characteristic” (NAEYC, 2019, p.17).
Finding the “right fit” to offer what individual children and families need for
Equity/Equitable
successful relationships
Ethical Conduct Behavior following moral and right principles.

Moral conflict that requires choosing between two conflicting values and
Ethical Dilemma
responsibilities.

Ethical Finesse Finding a way to resolve an ethical dilemma that is acceptable to everyone involved.

Ethical Ideals Aspirational statements guiding behavior.

Rules for practice, distinguishing between two conflicting values and
Ethical Principles
responsibilities.
Ethical Responsibility A clear cut rule regarding moral decisions.

Eustress positive stress

Evidence-Based Approaches that have been developed through repeated scientific research and
Strategies testing to make sure that they are effective.

Executive Function Collection of processes that encompass attention, working memory, and inhibition.

The cognitive (thinking) skills and abilities a child needs to control his/her thoughts,
Executive Function
emotions, and actions.
 GLOSSARY | 350

Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes parts of a child’s indirect

Exosystem
environment that influence the child’s development.

Experience personal connection and engagement

Exploratory Play exploration of materials and toys

Expressive Language talking and using language so that others understand what is being said

Extrinsic external to a person and observable

A main element of our society. A family is made up of people who care about each
Family
other.
A process used to develop and sustain positive, goal-focused connections with
Family Engagement
families.
Simply when a family accepts an invitation from the school or teacher to join in an
Family Involvement
activity usually at the school.

Specialization or a defined scope of work undertaken by an identified group of

Field Of Practice
practitioners.
Fine Motor Skills Movement related to small muscle groups in the body.

Assessment that utilizes standardized tools designed to assess a specific skill or

Formal Assessment
ability, often with a narrow focus.

Ongoing assessment, often informal, that provides real time feedback on children’s
Formative Assessment
understanding, skills and development.

Frontal Lobe part of the cortex that processes mainly sensory and motor information
Glial Cell Support cell in the brain that does not send electrical messages.

Gross Motor Skills Movement related to the large muscle groups in the body.

To teach and to help children learn social skills that will support them to get along
Guidance
with other people

Any system or mode of thought or action in which human interests, values, and
Humanism
dignity predominate.

Hundred Languages Of The belief that children can express themselves through various types of artistic
Children expression.

Inclusion The act or practice of including all students in the classroom community.

involves how we can intentionally create equitable learning opportunities into our
Inclusion
teaching, curriculum, and programs with a commitment to continuous learning.

Families and family relationships are shaped by a variety of internal and external
Influences
factors such as culture, language, identity, education, experiences, and more.

Methods of assessment that are individualized and flexible, as opposed to standard

Informal Assessment
and rigid

Intentional A deliberate action taken by someone with a specific goal or objective in mind.
The ways in which two or more individuals or groups communicate and engage with
Interactions
one another.
351 | GLOSSARY

spaces arranged for the purpose of specific materials and play, such as block area or
Interest Area
library area

A conceptual understanding of how the relationship between an individual and a

Internal Working Model
loved one should be.

Intrinsic within and inside a person

Intrinsic Motivation A desire to do things based on one’s own wishes and goals.

Iterative Repetition of a procedure applied to the result of a previous application

The action of a child and a caregiver focusing on the same object or concept at the
Joint Attention
same time.

A psychological conflict in which two conflicting aspects of development must be

Life Crisis
navigated by an individual

Limbic System mid part of the brain concerned with emotions and memory

Loose Parts moveable items; a term that is commonly used in ECE for moveable items

Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes broad aspects of culture that
Macrosystem
influence a child’s development.

Manufactured Items things that are made, including items made of wood
Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes the connections between parts of a
Mesosystem
child’s immediate environment that influence the child’s development.
Metacognition Self-reflection; an ability to think about one’s own thoughts.

Part of the Ecological Systems Theory; includes the parts of a child’s immediate
Microsystem
environment that influence the child’s development.

Mindfulness being aware of your body and surroundings in the current moment

Models The individuals in a child’s environment after which behavior is emulated.

People’s views of what is good, right, or proper: their beliefs about their obligation
Morality
and ideas about how they should behave.
More Knowledgeable Individuals in a child’s environment who have more skills and knowledge about a
Others particular area than the child.
Moveable Items things that can be moved, such as small rocks, sticks, buckets, bicycles

In ECE mutual refers to respect and relationships that are between two parties
Mutual
(programs, staff, families, community)

Myelin protective fatty coating on the mature neuron

National Association for the Education of Young Children-a national association

Naeyc
dedicated to the services for children birth to age 8.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. Prominent professional

Naeyc
organization for early childhood educators.
Natural Items things found in nature, such as sticks and rocks

Naturalistic Observation of children in real-world settings engaged in activities of their

Observation choosing
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A characteristic in which an individual’s brain and behavior differ from the majority
Neurodivergent
of individuals

Neuron brain nerve cell

Neurotransmitters chemical messengers that transmit information between neurons

A type of standardized test in which children’s performance is compared to a “norm

Norm-Referenced
group”

The ability for a child to understand that if an object is hidden from view, it
Object Permanence
continues to exist.

Objective Based in what is directly observed, as opposed to what is inferred

As an educator, watching and listening to children in an objective manner to learn

Observation
about them

Occipital Lobe part of the cortex that processes mainly vision

Open-Ended Questions Questions that do not have a yes or no answer; used to facilitate thinking.

is the systematic and prolonged mistreatment of a group of people that results from
Oppression
systemic bias based on their social identity groups.

Outcome The specific steps to a goal, stated in measurable, objective terms.

Outdoor Learning
space outside where children learn and play
Environment (Ole)
Outdoor/Nature Play playing outside; playing in natural area and/or with natural objects

Parietal Lobe part of the cortex that processes mainly sensory information

A partnership is a reciprocal, respectful, and ongoing relationship between a

Partnership
program and families or community.

Efforts to advocate for what is best for young children in the context of one’s
Personal Advocacy
workday; advocating for an individual or a practice.

Physical Environment physical space including furniture and materials in a learning environment
Physical Play movement and being active; engaging gross motor skills

A learning process that helps children organize their activities through planning,
Plan-Do-Review
action, and reflection

Deliberate and intentional inattention to an identified attention-seeking or other

Planned Ignoring
strategic behavior

Plasticity how easily the brain can change itself. It is more plastic in the youngest years

Plasticity the ease the brain can change itself

A compilation of work samples and other documentation of development and
Portfolio
learning collected over time
Power To The A national collaboration led by NAEYC that defines the early childhood education
Profession profession.

part of the cortex that processes mainly critical thinking, problem solving, executive
Prefrontal Lobe
function and self-regulation
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is the unearned advantages that result from being a member of a dominant social
Privilege
identity group.

A system by which children use step-by-step strategies and logic to complete

Problem Solving
cognitive tasks.

An occupation that serves the public welfare and that requires specialized
Profession
educational training in some branch of learning or science.

The inhabitant of a role in that occupation–the person who does the work of the
Professional
profession.
Professional Advocacy Speaking out to address an issue of concern for the community as a whole

A combination of courses or practical experience designed to prepare and qualify

Professional
individuals to be effective within the teaching profession. Can be pre-service or
Preparation
in-service.
Practices, skills, ethics, and/or qualifications set forth by a professional body
Professional Standards representing the respective profession. Guide the behaviors of the individuals as
well as the collective profession.
Pruning reducing the number of connections and neurons in the brain

A method of documenting a child’s skill, knowledge or development on a continuum

Rating Scale
of how frequently, or successfully the behavior is displayed6
Receptive Language understanding what is being said

Reciprocal Shared, felt, or shown by both sides, in a balance of give and take.
Back and forth communication between a child and caregiver. Can be verbal or
Reciprocal Interactions
nonverbal.
To think deeply and carefully about something, to consider it thoroughly, or to
Reflect
examine it closely to gain a better understanding or insight.
Reinforcers Actions taken by adults to encourage or discourage certain behaviors.

The connections and interactions between family members, including parents,

Relationship
siblings, grandparents, and other extended family members.

The connections and interactions between family members, including parents,

Relationship
siblings, grandparents, and other extended family members.

Resilience ability to overcome early hardship

Something or someone that reacts quickly and positively to different situations or

Responsive
needs.

taking risks when playing; can be social/emotional, cognitive, or physical risks;

Risky Play
mostly commonly refers to physical risks

a detailed, objective, sequential recording of a child’s behavior written while the

Running Record
event is happening

The assistance given by the more knowledgeable other that changes in response to
Scaffolding
the child’s ability

The assistance given by the more knowledgeable other that changes in response to
Scaffolding
the child’s ability
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Schemas Categories of information about a concept or thing.

Scope Of Practice The responsibilities and authority granted to a professional.

Self-Regulation A child’s ability to understand and manage their behavior.

Sensorimotor Play physical movement and input from the senses

Separation Anxiety A fear of being separated from their primary caregiver.

Social Development The process where a child learns to interact with others around them

Social Environment the atmosphere and people in a learning environment

3 credentials granted by community and technical colleges in Washington. They

Stackable Certificates
build on one another and set the foundation for acquiring an associate degree.

A method of formal assessment that uses standard (the same) methods of

Standardized
administration and scoring

Stationary Items things that cannot be moved, such as trees or climbing structures
A lab test that mimics an everyday scenario and assesses a child’s attachment to
Strange Situation
their caregiver
Begins with focus on a child’s (and family’s) positive attributes and seeing
Strengths-Based
possibilities to build upon.

Begins with focus on a child’s (and family’s) positive attributes and seeing
Strengths-Based
possibilities to build upon.

Stress physical, chemical or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension
Events or conditions in an individual’s life that cause stress. These can be internal or
Stressors
external factors
Based on, or influenced one’s own personal tastes and opinions; inferred rather
Subjective
than directly observed
Assessment completed at the end of a learning period; evaluates the cumulative
Summative Assessment
learning during that period
Synaptic Gap the tiny space between neurons

Temperament A set of inborn traits that organize the way we approach the world.

Temperament An infant’s regular way of reacting with their environment.

Temporal Environment pertains to time in a learning environment, including the daily schedule

Temporal Lobe part of the cortex that processes mainly hearing, speech and language
Thalamus structure that acts like a gate for sensory information coming into the brain

A set of ideas that are supported by a substantial amount of evidence and are based
Theory
on repeated testing of the same concepts

Theory Of Mind Ability for a child to infer the thoughts and feelings of others.

Toxic Stress stress that is beyond the child’s ability to process without adult help

Physical or emotional abuse, neglect, witnessing of physical or emotional abuse of

Toxic Stress
another person, or extreme poverty.
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Typical Development When a child develops in a way that is congruent with averages for a given age.

The final product of the Power to the Profession Task Force. Reports on
Unifying Framework recommendations made by the Task Force to define the profession and create
infrastructure to support implementation of the recommendations.

Unintended The result or consequence of a purposeful behavior or action that is not intended,
Consequence planned, or expected.

Principles or standards that a person believes to be important, desirable, or

Values
worthwhile.
Wac Washington Administrative Code. Sets regulations for licensed child care.

Washington State Core A framework that guides decisions and practices carried out by professionals in all
Competencies early care and education settings.

Window Of Opportunity times the brain is primed to learn certain tasks

A product or example of the child’s work in the classroom (i.e., drawing, building,
Work Sample
writing)

Zone Of Proximal The difference between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with help
Development (Zpd) from a more knowledgeable other.
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