ISC3701 MODULE ORIENTATION & OVERVIEW

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................1
II. PURPOSE OF THE MODULE......................................................................2
III. MODULE OUTCOMES...............................................................................2
IV. WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THE STUDY GUIDE............................................2
V. WHAT WE EXPECT OF YOU AS A STUDENT IN THIS MODULE...................2
VI. STUDY MATERIAL FOR THIS MODULE......................................................3
VII. TUITION AND ASSESSMENT.....................................................................4
VIII. SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES................................................................4
IX. ORIENTATION TO USING MYUNISA..........................................................4
X. ICONS......................................................................................................5
XI. CONCLUSION...........................................................................................7

INTRODUCTION

WELCOME

Dear ISC3701 students,

Welcome to the Instructional Studies in Context (ISC3701) module. This

module will take you through general teaching and learning principles, and
the various styles and models of instruction that will equip you to be a good
designer of teaching events or lessons. Please read through this OVERVIEW
OF THE MODULE page, as it has all the important information about the
lessons (learning units) and about how to use the study guide.

Please do not hesitate to contact us at [email protected] if you need any

help or clarity on any content related matter, grades, assignments, or
exams. Always use your myLife email address to avoid your email being sent
to the junk mailbox, and not being attended to in time.

We wish you every success with your

studies! Kind regards,

Open Rubric
The ISC3701 Team

PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

The purpose of this module is to provide a foundation and scaffolding for teaching
methodologies and strategies in education. Students who complete this module will
be able to understand the teaching methodologies and strategies in education, and
design effective learning activities. This module focuses on designing effective
instruction for diverse learning contexts. Additionally, it equips student teachers
with essential skills related to integrating technology into their teaching practices.

MODULE OUTCOMES

 Outcome 1: Explain the nature and key concepts related to

instructional design across diverse contexts.
 Outcome 2: Evaluate various viewpoints and alternative teaching
methodologies and teaching strategies in education.
 Outcome 3: Design instruction for a learning event such as a lesson, a
training session, or a tutoring class.
 Outcome 4: Put it all together by designing your own instructional
event, and reflecting on your design.

WHAT TO EXPECT FROM THE STUDY GUIDE

The study guide is divided into five learning units, each consisting of the following:

• Unit specific outcomes – these are the things you should be able to
do and understand once you have worked through the unit.
• The table of contents in each unit provides information on the focus of that
unit.
• Activities are intended to help you engage actively with your study
material and with your environment.
• The checklist of outcomes at the end of each learning unit will help
you determine whether you have gained as much as possible from
reading the unit. Where relevant, you may need to access additional
reading material.
• The icons on the left-hand side of the page inform you of the kind of
activity you will be working on.

WHAT WE EXPECT OF YOU AS A STUDENT IN THIS MODULE

Unisa is an open distance e-learning (ODeL) higher education institution.

Teaching and learning in an ODeL context involves multiple modes of
delivery ranging from blended to fully online learning. The Instructional
Studies in Context (ISC3701) module is a fully
online module, which means that all of the information is available via the
internet. Thus, we use myUnisa as our virtual campus. This is an online
system that is used to administer, document, and deliver educational
material to you and to support our engagement with you. Because this is a
fully online module, you will need to use the myUnisa Leaning Management
System (LMS) available at (https://my.unisa.ac.za) to study and to complete
the learning activities for this module.

You are encouraged to log into the module site on myUnisa regularly (that is,
at least three times per week). The module website code is ISC3701-24-Y.

ODeL is a different way of learning. Click here to read more on what is it like
to be an ODeL student.

As you start this module, we assume that you can:

• read academic texts with understanding;

• learn from academic texts in the language of instruction;
• write academic essays in the language of instruction;
• relate the concepts you learn to practical real-life situations;
• use electronic devices to type your work;
• study independently in a distance education environment;
• appreciate academic integrity and submit assessment work which is a
product of your own effort;
• use, and have the necessary tools and devices to complete the
required tasks in this module.

STUDY MATERIAL FOR THIS MODULE

Your study material for this module includes the following:

• Tutorial Letter 101 (available under the “Official Study Material” tab on
the myUnisa module site)
• Tutorial Letter ISC3701
• Any other tutorial letters that you may receive throughout the year
• E-reserve articles on the library’s e-reserves site
• Any additional electronic communications you receive (e.g.,
announcements from your lecturer).
 TUITION AND ASSESSMENT

This is a fully online module, which means that it is delivered via the myUnisa
Leaning Management System (LMS), the internet, and other myUnisa tools.
Your lecturers will interact with you on myUnisa and via e-mail. It is critical
that you familiarise yourself with the myUnisa LMS and Tutorial Letter 101
(see section VI of this tutorial letter), as this is where you will find the
assessment plan, as well as important information and guidelines on how to
study this module online. The tutorial letter is available on myUnisa under
“Official Study Material”.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

We have prepared self-assessment activities which appear throughout the

learning units. The activities require you to either give your opinion, read
sections of the study guide, read articles related to the module, or link the
content in the study guide to your everyday life experiences and prior
knowledge. These tasks will:

 make learning more interesting;

 help you remember information better, as you will be actively involved in
learning by doing;
 link theory and practice;
 involve you in the search for answers;
 acknowledge that you are an adult learner, and give you a chance to
incorporate your own knowledge into your study material;
 motivate you because the activities will help you check your own progress;
 help you to collect and arrange information that could be used in
essay-type assignments;
 give you a chance to think about interesting ideas and arguments you
may come across for the first time.

As you work through the study material, use a notebook to make your own
notes and complete the various activities in the study guide. This will assist
you when it comes to preparing for the assignments and for the non-venue
examination for this module. Your textbook was selected as a guide to
support you throughout your degree, and you will continue to find it useful
once you have qualified and are working as a teacher.

ORIENTATION TO USING myUNISA

You need to be able to use the various menu options on the myUnisa site,
as they will enable you to participate actively in the learning process.
The options include the following:
myUnisa menu option What you will find here
Official Study Material Your study guide and tutorial letters can be found under
this
option.
Announcements From time to time, the lecturer will use this facility to
share important information about this module. You will
receive an email
notification of the new announcements posted on
myUNISA.
Calendar This tool shows important dates (e.g., examination dates
and
deadlines for assignments). You need this information to
help you manage your time and plan your own schedule.
Additional Resources The lecturer may use this folder to provide you with
additional learning material that might help you in your
studies for this module. You will receive an email
notification when documents
are uploaded in this folder.
Assessment Info This tool allows you to submit your assignments
electronically, and monitor your results. For information
on how to submit your
assignments, consult Tutorial Letter 101.

When interacting online, always be mindful of, and respectful towards your
fellow students and lecturers. The rules of polite behaviour on the internet
are referred to as netiquette – a term that means “online manners”. Access
the website below to learn more about netiquette:
http://www.carnegiecyberacademy.com/facultyPages/communication/
netiquette.html
Please observe the rules of netiquette during your normal, online
communication with your fellow students, lecturers, and the administrative
staff. Remember to be courteous when using the discussion forums.
Netiquette also applies when communicating with your lecturers via email or
telephone.

ICONS

Look out for the following icons as you work through the study guide:

Icon Description
The icon indicates the start of the outcomes for that
learning unit.
 This activities icon means that you need to write
down your answers for the activity. These activities
are not for grading purposes.

This means that the section is dealt with in your

prescribed textbook, and that you need to read the
section in your textbook before continuing.

This means that you need to log into myUnisa for a

resource or an activity.

The open book indicates that you need to do additional

reading

Here is a brief overview of the module lessons (learning units):

Learning unit Main content

1: Instructional studies in • What is instruction?
context • Concepts related to teaching
• Roles and responsibilities of
teachers regarding instruction
• Curriculum concepts
• African perspectives on teaching
2: Practices and possibilities in • Instructional styles
instruction • Instructional contexts
• Instructional forms
• Instructional approaches and strategies
• Instruction at different levels
3: Models and theories of  The ADDIE model
instruction  Instructional design for teachers model
(ID4T)
 Understanding by design (UbD)
 Merrill’s five principles of instruction
 Gagne’s nine events of instruction
 Dick and Carey’s model of instructional
design
 Gardner’s multiple intelligences
 Kolb’s learning styles
 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles
4: Putting it all together: • Designing a learning event
designing your own • Reflecting on and improving the design
instructional event, and
• Reflecting as a teacher
reflecting on your design

CONCLUSION

We hope you will find this module interesting and engaging. If you have
academic queries about the content of this module, do not hesitate to
contact your lecturers via email or telephone.

We wish you every success with your

studies! The ISC3701 Team

 LEARNING UNIT 1

Instructional Studies in Context

Contents

1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Understanding instruction 2
1.3 Characteristics of practices 6
1.4 Key concepts relating to instruction 9
1.5 The place, importance and value of instruction 12
1.6 Teacher roles and responsibilities in instruction 13
1.7 African teaching philosophies and perspectives 18
1.8 Curriculum concepts 21
1.9 Conclusion 23
1.10 Learning outcomes checklist 23
References 24

Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the nature of and concepts associated with instruction.

 Develop and demonstrate an understanding of your role and responsibilities in
the context of instruction.
 Define a curriculum and apply its concepts.
 Have developed an appreciation for, and give due consideration to the African
perspectives on education and instruction that have been neglected and
suppressed.

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 1.1 INTRODUCTION

This study unit offers an understanding of the nature of instruction and its related concepts. It helps
student teachers gain clarity on when and where instruction can be given to ensure its value.
Therefore, it is essential for student teachers to understand their roles and responsibilities in
the context of instruction, taking into consideration African teaching philosophies and
perspectives.

1.2 UNDERSTANDING INSTRUCTION

Instruction can relate to being told or informed about something, and is also about
communicating how something should be done. Practitioners in the fields of education,
teaching and training use the term ‘instruction’ extensively. In this module, we will consider
instruction in its role in formal education. Instruction can also entail being told what to do
without another person doing the instructing (e.g. following a written method or a computer
program). However, in the context of education, we talk about instruction that involves people.
A teacher is involved with the theory of instruction. Teaching is how instruction manifests itself
within a school or classroom. In this module, I will use the terms ‘teaching’ and ‘instruction’
interchangeably, even though instruction often relates to getting people to the point where
they are able to do something, while teaching can be considered as stimulating their
thinking. Instruction therefore relates to the aspect of teaching that is planned and
purposeful. Teaching is often more holistic, as it involves more than just the instructional
component.

Stop for a few minutes to consider the following question. Speak to other people (this could include
other students) and write down some ideas.

Activity 1.1

What is teaching?

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Feedback
Did you notice that different people have different interpretations of the concept of
teaching?

Please share your own definitions by participating in the myUnisa discussion

forum for this module. Did you notice that some definitions relate to teaching as
knowledge, teaching as a skill, or even teaching as an art form? All of these
would be correct. Teaching is a very complex endeavor.

In the next section, I would like you to form an overview of the concept of teaching. You
already know quite a lot about teaching. You would not be here, reading this module, if you
did not. You have been a student for many years in school, and also perhaps in college, and
you have probably also done some teaching. Let us find some examples of teaching to help us
to think about teaching as an activity. For a start, recall three examples of teaching from your
own experience.

Activity 1.2

(1) Briefly describe three examples of teaching that you have experienced.
Try to think of three examples that are as different as possible from
each other. Identify each example with a few words, or a sentence or
two. Label your examples (a), (b), and

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 (c) to make it easier to refer to them later.
(2) Think about your three examples by answering the following eight
questions:

(a) Are all three of your examples cases of teaching that take place in
schools?
(b) Are all the teachers in your examples people who are employed as
teachers in schools?
(c) Are you the teacher in any of your examples?

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 (d) Are any of your examples cases in which more than one teacher was
involved?
(e) Are any of your examples cases of teaching in which the teacher was
younger than the learners?
(f) Are any of your examples cases in which the learners were not
school or college students?
(g) Are any of your examples cases in which only one learner was involved?
(h) Are any of your examples cases of teaching that took place over a
long time (more than the length of a school lesson)?
(i) Is there another question that could be added here?

Feedback

The purpose of the questions in activity 1.2 is to try to break the common
idea that teaching only takes place in classrooms, in schools and
colleges, and in formal institutions of learning. Your three examples, (a), (b),
and (c), are probably examples of this specialized kind of teaching.

1.2.1 The common picture of teaching

From your own experience, you know that teaching is not only found in classrooms of formal
institutions of learning. You know that in everyday life, mothers teach their children how to
eat their food properly, grandfathers teach their grandchildren how to grow vegetables,
older brothers and sisters teach their younger siblings how to dress themselves or clean
their teeth, and school-going children might teach an older relative how to speak English or
read. When we think carefully about teaching, we are reminded that teaching is an activity
which is constantly present in the everyday lives of normal human communities. In fact, most
teaching takes place outside of the walls and timetables of schools and colleges, and
most teaching is done by anyone who knows something that someone else does not, and not
only by people who are in the teaching profession.

The common picture of teaching is too narrow, as it only covers a restricted range of examples of
teaching. This is why it is misleading to try to find out what is the distinctive activity of
teaching when considering the activity clearly and within the appropriate shaping of its internal
time and space. In introducing Activity 1.2, one of the things we suggested is that you
already know a lot about teaching because “you have been a student for many years in
school”. We can now see that this might have led you onto a specific path. To say that you
have been a ‘student’ for many years is different from saying that you have been a
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‘learner’ for many years. You have been a learner for many more years than you have been a
student, and many of the things that you have learnt, have been learnt outside of schools and
colleges. Additionally, a lot of what you have learnt has been taught to you by people who
were not officially teachers. In the first five or six years

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of your life, before you ever went to school, you learnt some of the most important skills you
will ever use, such as how to speak and the social etiquette of a human being. Throughout your
life, many different people with whom you have come into contact have taught you many
different things.

Further, in the introduction of Activity 1.2, we suggested that you “have probably done
some teaching”. Perhaps you took this to mean that you have probably already taught in a
school, or in some other formal institution of learning. However, thinking in terms of the
general activity of teaching, it is extremely unlikely that you have done no teaching at all.
Think of examples such as mothers teaching children how to use a spoon to eat their food,
uncles teaching their nephews how to restart a car which has stopped, siblings teaching
each other or their friends how to dress fashionably or play a game, or a grandmother
teaching their grandchild how to thread a needle. As a normal member of a society, you must
be able to think of the many examples of teaching that you have done, although they might
not have come to mind when you were thinking of examples for Activity 1.2.

Also think about of how teaching some kinds of skills can take extended periods, perhaps even
years. For example, the time it takes to teach a person how to read or write, and the time
it takes to teach a person how to speak a language fluently. These examples also help us
think about another way in which the common picture of teaching can be very misleading, as
that picture suggests that in all cases of teaching, only a single teacher is involved. However,
we know that we were taught how to read or write by a series of teachers, over a number of
years. We can also think of other examples in which a number of teachers are involved – i.e.,
a novice motorcar mechanic might be taught his skills by the half a dozen experienced
mechanics already working in the garage.

Now think of some additional examples of teaching, examples that break free of the
common picture of teaching.

What have we learnt so far?

Here are the main points of our discussion which explain how we can tell
whether someone is teaching:

(1) A person who is teaching must be engaging in some appropriate action,

and must be engaging in that action with appropriate intentions.
(2) We can tell what the appropriate actions and intentions are only in
terms of the formal purpose that defines the activity of teaching.
(3) The formal purpose of an activity is a concept that is shared in a
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community; it is neither personal nor subjective.

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 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRACTICES

Here we briefly introduce the five characteristics of practices:

(1) Practices are necessarily social.

(2) Practices have histories and traditions.
(3) Practices are flexible in relation to changing conditions.
(4) A practice can change, but only within the boundaries of our
understanding of what makes it a distinctive practice.
(5) Practices have their own internal standards of success and excellence.

1.3.1 Practices are necessarily social

In a manner that is more evident than in the case of some other activities, practices are
shared and sustained in communities of practitioners. To see something as a practice, places
much more emphasis on its social aspect. This is not merely a point about how some
activities are inherently social, for example when playing a team game or having a
discussion, where it is necessary to involve a number of participants who act in co-
ordination with each other (i.e., a person cannot play hockey or chess, or teach by
themselves.) However, it is a point about how what is considered to be participation in an
activity cannot just be a matter of personal intentions or individual decisions. Even though
there are some practices such as writing a novel, which might be done by a single person
working on their own, what counts as writing a novel cannot be a matter of an individual
decision.

We have already considered examples of this kind, in relation to Pat doing the housework and
Martha doing the gardening. Our shared understanding of housework and gardening draws a
boundary around what could count as an example of participating in the practices of
housework or gardening. This boundary might not be very sharp, but we know that there is a
boundary because we know that for example, dozing in front of the TV cannot be considered
to be any form of housework or gardening. This boundary was established by the agreement
amongst those who participate in the activity, and the people who talk and think about these
things. The origins of this understanding is unlikely to have been an explicit agreement at
a particular moment, such as agreeing to name a newborn child Thandi. However, there is
implicit agreement about the concepts which we use to understand our world. Because this
understanding is shared and communal, rather than individual or personal, we can say that
it is based on inter-personal agreement. And in this way, practices are essentially social.

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 1.3.2 Practices have histories and traditions

Unlike some other activities, practices have histories and traditions. The practices of cooking,
building shelters, playing soccer, thinking scientifically, and of course school teaching, all have
histories during which

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particular traditions were developed of how to participate in the practice, and of what
counts as good or excellent participation. To become a participant in a practice involves
critically appropriating its history and traditions, and anyone who imagines themselves as
having invented a practice without having taken account of its history and traditions, is
simply naïve or ignorant.

1.3.3 Practices are flexible in relation to changing conditions

The traditions that are embedded in a practice, and that serve partly to define it, are not
rigid or static. Practices can be thought of as being open and ongoing projects that stop
changing only when they cease to have vitality and significance in our communal lives. Over
time practices change, sometimes gradually, but sometimes quite rapidly. What brings about
such changes, are changes in our knowledge of the practice and how its definitive goals can be
better served, changes in relevant technologies and circumstances, and creative innovations
from some of its participants. In these ways, practices remain open to revision and
improvement.

1.3.4 A practice can change, but only within the boundaries of our understanding
about what makes it a distinctive practice

Although practices are open to revision, those revisions and improvements remain within
the broad boundaries that mark out the scope of the practice. There are important distinctions
between improving a practice, abandoning the practice or substituting it for a different
practice. Over time, a practice just as with the game of cricket, changes, although the
question of whether such changes count as improvements is always a matter of controversy.
The practice of playing cricket doesn’t change simply by everyone ceasing to play cricket, or
by substituting it for another game, such as baseball. There is something essential to the
practice of playing cricket and the changes that take place within, as we might put it – the
framework of that essence – otherwise the changes in question are not changes in the
practice of cricket at all.

If we think back to what we have discovered in the formal purpose of the activity of
teaching, we can see how this might work. That formal purpose is now being seen as the
formal purpose of the practice of teaching, and it creates the conceptual and practical
boundary of what we are prepared to accept as an example of teaching. The formal purpose
of teaching is to bring about in practical terms, how someone tries to learn something. How
this might be done is not specified for this purpose, and we know that there are many
ways of doing this. Improvements in the practice of teaching might arise from changes in
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relevant technology, changes in our knowledge of the conditions for learning, or even from a
practitioner discovering a way of accomplishing this purpose in a manner that had not been
previously thought of.

1.3.5 Practices have their own internal standards of success and excellence

A very important fifth characteristic of these practices is that they have internal standards of
success and

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excellence. Someone can participate well or poorly in the practice of cooking for example.
Some participants are much more successful than others when it comes to cooking, and some
even achieve excellence in this practice. The criteria for success or excellence is internal to
the practice. For example, one cannot judge the excellence of a choir singing in terms of the
criteria appropriate for judging the excellence of participating in the practice of gymnastics, as
such judgments are not subjective or of a personal opinion. We can add, that when the
standards of success and excellence of one practice are used in judging success and
excellence in another practice, that practice can be corrupted or distorted.

Activity 1.3

Write some notes under each of the five headings about the practices related
to teaching as a practice. Can you think of practical examples from your own
experience? How does teaching manifest itself as a social, flexible,
historically rich, and changing within boundaries and standards-based
practice?

Feedback

Are you beginning to see that teaching and instruction is a very complex endeavor, and
that even after a number of years of studying to be a teacher, you will be involved in
life-long learning?

There are many forms of teaching, and teaching is often defined in different ways. Let’s
look at some definitions of this concept.

1.4 KEY CONCEPTS RELATING TO INSTRUCTION

Let us take a look at some of the concepts commonly associated with instruction. These
definitions are not exhaustive, but they do provide you with a starting point from
which to formulate your own understanding and formulation of these concepts.

Fraser, Loubser and Van Rooy (1990, p.3) state that “teaching is an activity which aims at
presenting certain (learning) content to somebody else in such a way that person learns
something from it”, they add that teaching is “intentional, dynamic, systematic, and
well founded”. Teaching is intentional because it has an educational aim, it is dynamic
because it should yield learning results, it is systematic because it is deliberately planned,
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and it is well founded because it is based on definite guidelines (e.g. a curriculum
document), and it is evaluated continuously.

Orlich, Harder, Callahan, Trevisan and Brown (2010) explain that teaching is both a science
and an art. It is an art because it requires a teacher to make decisions, and it is a
science because it requires the

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knowledge of techniques.

You will notice that it is very difficult to separate ‘teaching’ from ‘learning’. The
science of teaching is called didactics, while pedagogy refers to a more holistic study of
the educational process involving not- yet-adult learners.

Are there other words that are similar in meaning to the word ‘teaching’? How many similar
words can you find?

Teaching: The goal of teaching is to ensure that meaningful learning takes place. This
means that teaching is more than instructing, and presenting lessons – teaching involves
all the teacher’s activities before, during, and after lessons. Smith and Ragan (1999)
make the following distinction between teaching and instruction: teaching is a learning
experience facilitated by a person, whereas instruction does not always involve human interaction –
for instance, you could receive instructions on your phone or via a computer app. The definitions of
teaching are varied and complex. If we look at the roles you are expected to fulfill as a
teacher, you will understand why teaching is a multi-faceted and complex endeavour.

These roles should be understood as the everyday functions of the collective of all
educators at a school. These functions seldom have to be carried out completely, in all their
detail, or all of the time by individual teachers. However, teachers carry out the roles
that are appropriate to their specific position in the school. All classroom teachers are
developed in the seven roles as appropriate to their practice. These roles are specified in
the Revised Policy on Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications,
which appears in Government Gazette no. 38487 (Department of Higher Education and
Training, 2015).

Teacher: A professionally qualified person who undertakes to teach in a formal environment

such as a school or college. In informal contexts, it could refer to anyone who teaches
something to someone else.
Instruction: The teaching and learning activities that are planned and executed during
a lesson. Instruction is designed with a specific purpose in mind and to achieve
certain goals. The ultimate decision a teacher makes regarding instructional choices
must contribute to learning and must be of educational value to learners. The term
‘instruction’ can include various forms such as training, teaching, facilitating,
mentoring, and tutoring. Smith and Ragan (1999:3) consider instruction to be the
delivery of a focused educational experience.
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Training: Smith and Ragan (1999) describe training as a form of instruction where specific
job-related skills are taught. Often the skills learnt will be used almost immediately.
Training is also used in terms

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 of sporting activities or military exercises, so repetition is involved.
Mentoring: The Oxford Learner’s dictionary defines a mentor as an experienced person in a
company or educational institution who trains and counsels new employees or
students (Oxford Learners Dictionaries.com). Mentoring can involve two adults, one
of whom advises and trains the other. Lancer, Clutterbuck and Megginson (2016:6)
state that “the mentor has wisdom and experience, but uses them to help the mentee
become courageous and develop their own wisdom rather than to impart
knowledge.”
Facilitating: A facilitator normally works with a group. The role of a facilitator is to make
things easier for the group, but not to tell them what to do or give them the
solution. The group normally has a problem to solve, and the facilitator enables them
to reach their solution collectively. The facilitator also assists with group dynamics.
Hogan (2002) explains that facilitators may direct learning by making planning
decisions for the group. The facilitator may act as negotiator by helping learners
share ideas, or the facilitator may delegate roles to group members so that they can
become more independent.
Tutoring: Oxford Learner’s dictionary tells us that this word stems from the Latin word tūtor
meaning to guard or to watch (Oxford Learners Dictionaries.com). Tutoring entails
one person assisting an individual or small group. A tutor is in many instances, a
personal teacher who assists a learner with a particular subject. Sometimes tutors have
less experience or are less qualified than a professional teacher or lecturer. Gagne
(1987:319) states that cross age and peer tutoring can take place as the tutor adapts
the instruction for the learner.
Learners/pupils/students: These terms are sometimes used synonymously (i.e., to mean the
same thing). Generally, any person who is learning can be considered to be a learner. In
the South African school context, we often use the term ‘pupil’, and in South Africa we
refer to post-school learners as ‘students’. Internationally, the term ‘students’ is also
used to refer to learners of school-going age.
Learning: This is the goal of teaching and instruction. Broadly, it refers to the acquisition of
knowledge and skills. It also refers to an understanding of concepts that could not be
understood, or an ability to do something that could not be done before the teaching
or instruction took place.
Teaching methods: These are those specific teacher and learner activities that you plan and
execute during a lesson. The methods depend on your learners, the content, and the
aims of your lesson. A teacher needs to consider how to optimise learning through the
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choice of teaching methods. Liu and Shi (2007) tell us that a teaching method is
characterised by a set of principles, procedures, or strategies to be implemented by
teachers to achieve desired learning in students. These principles and procedures are
determined partly by the nature of the subject matter to be taught, and partly by our
beliefs or theories about how students learn. As such, defining a teaching method is not
as simple as one might first think. Carl (2015:115) explains that there is a “close
connection between

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learning experiences, learning opportunities, and teaching methods.” Carl (2015:
115) further describes the connection as arising from the fact that both the teacher’s
and the learner’s actions result in a learning opportunity where the learner could be
actively involved, and a meaningful experience could result from this involvement.
Carl (2015: 116) defines a teaching method as the “ways or means, which will
acquaint the learners with the content in a manner that will lead to learning.”

Activity 1.5

1.1. How many synonyms (words with the same meaning) can you
find for the word teaching? Create a list here:

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

1.2. Show how the synonyms in your list can be used in the school
context.

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

2. How many teaching methods do you know? Identify as many as

you can by consulting books and the internet.

............................................................................................................................
.........

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 ............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

3. In some circles, learning to become a teacher is called teacher

training, while in others it is called initial teacher education. What
are your thoughts about the difference between the two? Is learning to
teach about acquiring a set of skills, or is

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 learning to teach a deeper, life-long process? Is training part of learning to
teach?

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

............................................................................................................................
.........

Feedback

Perhaps the term ‘education’ is more holistic than the term ‘training’ as it encompasses
growing and developing the whole student. Education refers to developing a holistic
knowledge, and the skills and values related to teaching, whereas training refers to just a
narrow set of skills.

1.5 THE PLACE, IMPORTANCE, AND VALUE OF INSTRUCTION

Lowery and Hayes (2014:xiii) introduce the concept of teaching as “an essential part of
life [that has been] on this earth for a very long time”. People throughout the ages have so
valued their cultures and traditions, that handing these traditions down to their children
was an important part of life. Therefore, teaching and instruction have always been part of
human existence. Teaching was often undertaken by the most educated people in a
community (Hoadley & Jansen, 2014), which led to a high regard for teachers. Teaching
has changed, and the days when teachers were mere transmitters of knowledge to passive,
uninvolved learners are long gone (Khoza, 2015). Today, teachers need to involve
learners creatively in their learning, and incorporate relevant technology. Kruger (1997)
explains that teachers need to be knowledgeable regarding up-to-date instructional
methods. They also need to know how to adapt these methods to learners at different
levels and to individual learners. Khoza (2015) reminds us that teachers must have a
holistic view of teaching that involves physical, cognitive, social and moral aspects, and
volition, and not just knowledge and intellect. Teachers are the most critical layer of the
curriculum, since they breathe life into the curriculum and integrate what they know about
their learners and their communities into the instructional environment. A teacher’s
role in forming and building knowledge, skills, orientations, beliefs, and values should
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 never be underestimated.

1.6 TEACHER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN INSTRUCTION

As a teacher, you will be making many decisions every day. Orlich et al. (2010) remind us
that with decision-making comes responsibility, but they point out that some decisions
are made on behalf of teachers, such as the curriculum, the number of learners in the
class, and the time school starts. Teachers, however, still make many other decisions
every day. You may not even be aware of the decisions you are making, as you will
make them almost automatically. Orlich et al. (2010) note that

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teachers who take responsibility for decision-making, try to get as much information as
possible about their students and their subject, and then develop a teaching plan aimed
at success.

One of your roles and responsibilities regarding instruction is to align your teaching to
the relevant curriculum. The CAPS documents are underpinned by the wider
framework of the South African Constitution. This wider framework has set out some
general aims for the curriculum. Let’s have a look at these.

General aims of the South African curriculum

(a) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 gives expression to the
knowledge, skills, and values worth learning in South African schools. This
curriculum aims to ensure that children acquire and apply the knowledge and
skills in ways that are meaningful to their own lives. In this regard, the
curriculum promotes knowledge in local contexts, while being sensitive to
global imperatives.
(b) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 serves the purpose of:
• equipping learners, irrespective of their socio-economic background,
race, gender, physical ability, or intellectual ability with the knowledge,
skills, and values necessary for self-fulfillment and meaningful participation
in society as citizens of a free country;
• providing access to higher education;
• facilitating the transition of learners from education institutions to the
workplace; and
• providing teachers with a sufficient profile of a learner’s competences.

(c) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 is based on the following
principles:
• Social transformation to ensure that the educational imbalances of the
past are redressed, and that equal educational opportunities are
provided for all sections of the population;
• Active and critical learning to encourage an active and critical approach to
learning, rather than the rote and uncritical learning of given truths;
• High knowledge and high skills which are the minimum standards of
knowledge and skills to be achieved at each grade. These are specified,
set high, and achievable standards found in all subjects;
• Progression in the content and context of each grade which shows
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 progression from simple to complex;
• Human rights, inclusivity, environmental and social justice which
pertain to the infusing of the principles and practices of social and
environmental justice, and human rights as defined in the Constitution of
the Republic of South Africa. The National

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 Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 is sensitive to issues of diversity such as
poverty, inequality, race, gender, language, age, disability, and other
factors;
• Valuing indigenous knowledge systems by acknowledging the rich
history and heritage of this country as important contributors to nurturing
the values contained in the Constitution; and
• Credibility, quality, and efficiency in providing an education that is
comparable in quality, breadth, and depth to that of other countries.

(d) The National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12 aims to produce learners
that are able to:
• identify and solve problems, and make decisions using critical and
creative thinking;
• work effectively as individuals and with others as members of a team;
• organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and
effectively;
• collect, analyse, organise, and critically evaluate information;
• communicate effectively using visual, symbolic and/or language skills
in various modes;
• use science and technology effectively and critically, showing
responsibility towards the environment and the health of others; and
• demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related
systems by recognising that problem-solving contexts do not
exist in isolation.
(e) Inclusivity should become a central part of the organisation, planning, and
teaching at each school. This can only happen if all teachers have a sound
understanding of how to recognise and address barriers to learning, and how
to plan for diversity.
The key to managing inclusivity is ensuring that barriers are identified and addressed
by all the relevant support structures within the school community, including teachers,
district-based support teams, institutional-level support teams, parents, and special
schools as resource centres. To address barriers in the classroom, teachers should
use various curriculum differentiation strategies such as those included in the
Department of Basic Education’s Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Learning.

Source: Department of Basic Education (2011).

You should always have the greater aims of the curriculum in mind, even if you are not
following the CAPS curriculum, as this will assist you in making some of the decisions
that you will need to make when planning instruction. In terms of instruction, your other
roles and responsibilities include:
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• Analysing learning needs. This means that you design lessons that cater for the
needs of the learners in your classroom by adapting, refining, and redesigning learning
activities to optimise the learning for your specific learners.
• Articulating your learning intentions. You write out your lesson planning to ensure that
you have

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 considered the detail of how your lesson will proceed. You have clear learning goals and
outcomes. These aims and outcomes allow you to make a good selection of the content,
material, and teaching methods. When you are doing lesson planning, these are usually
the first things that you formulate.
• Selecting content to enable you to achieve your teaching aims and learning
outcomes/objectives. You do this by considering your curriculum.
• Selecting the relevant teaching and learning material. Learning material is often
referred to as teaching resources, or LTSM (learner-teacher-support material).
Analysing your learning needs carefully and writing out your aims, goals, outcomes,
and objectives will guide you in your choice of learning material.
• Selecting appropriate teaching methods to achieve your teaching aims and
learning outcomes/objectives. This will be the driving force of your lesson. How will the
teaching and learning take place? Who will do what?
• Planning for both the formal and informal formative assessment as well as for the
summative assessment. Formative assessment guides your actions as a teacher in
terms of how learners are progressing towards meeting the lesson aims and
outcomes.

Formative assessment provides feedback to the learners while they are learning.
Summative assessment is the way in which you will evaluate student learning at the
end of the lesson, section of work or term.
• Reflecting on your lesson. Spend time thinking about how learning could be enhanced or
supported. Too many teachers consider teaching and learning only after they
have marked a test or an examination. Reflection on your teaching should be
built into your day. Do not only consider the lesson from your own perspective; think
about how the learners experienced your lesson.
• Keeping abreast of the latest ideas in teaching as these relate to methods and
technology. Do not be afraid to try new ideas. This will involve reading current journal
articles and books, and attending professional development workshops.

Ultimately, your role and responsibility regarding instruction relates to learning. Nowadays,
teachers are held accountable for the learning and assessment results in their classrooms
to a greater degree than in the past. If you look at some of the criteria for teaching method
selection, it is clear that the selection of a teaching method is not undertaken in a
haphazard manner, but it must be carefully considered and chosen by the teacher. This
choice is part of the responsibility of teaching.
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 Activity 1.6

Spend some time thinking about these questions and write down your ideas.
Expand

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your answers in your notebook.

(1) Which of the CAPS overarching aims will you find a) the easiest, and b)
the most difficult to meet? Why do you say so?

..............................................................................................................................
..........

..............................................................................................................................
..........

..............................................................................................................................
..........

..............................................................................................................................
..........

..............................................................................................................................
..........

(2) Which of the above roles and responsibilities will you find a) the easiest,
and b) the most difficult to fulfil?

Why do you say so?

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.........

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(3) Why do you think some teachers use the same methods for all their
lessons?

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..............................................................................................................................
.........
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 ..............................................................................................................................
.........

..............................................................................................................................
.........

(4) How can you ensure that you offer a greater variety of teaching methods
once you are a teacher?

..............................................................................................................................
.........

..............................................................................................................................
.........

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 ..............................................................................................................................
.........

..............................................................................................................................
.........
.

Feedback
Never lose sight of the fact that as a teacher, you have a huge responsibility. If you
examine the CAPS document, you will notice that a great deal is expected of you. In
terms of making a difference in the classroom, your choice of a specific method or
methods is going to have an enormous influence on the learners and how they learn –
which is your primary responsibility.

The following section in your textbook deals with the intricacies of selecting a teaching
method. Selecting and implementing a teaching method is a complex and multifaceted
endeavour. It is one of your primary responsibilities as a teacher, and will have
consequences for learning.

Prescribed reading: Textbook chapter 2

Do you see that you can select either teacher-centred approaches or learner-centred
approaches? Each strategy you select has its own advantages and disadvantages, and you
will need to weigh these up in order to make your decision. You cannot say that only one
approach should be used all the time.

1.7 AFRICAN TEACHING PHILOSOPHIES AND PERSPECTIVES

In this section we are going to talk about African perspectives on teaching and instruction.
African-based perspectives are community oriented. Many of the more modern ideas of
inclusive education and connectivism can be traced to African roots.

Ngara (2007, pp.7-9) offers this insight:

In the African sense, a child is a child of every adult in the community. Teaching
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the child in traditional Africa was therefore not the monopoly of the biological
parents. Every responsible adult could teach any child about the community’s ways
(etiquette, survival, welfare, etc.). There was a division of labor and specialization
whereby youths were apprenticed to skilled masters of healing arts,
blacksmithing, hunting, midwifery, craftwork, etc. Any adult who happened to be
free
could enjoy teaching children traditional games including counting, puzzles, riddles,
and reciting

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 children’s poems (to the new moon, to the rain, to the sun, etc.). Grandparents were
not relegated into seclusion by virtue of old age, but they remained with the
family, imparting their acquired wisdom and philosophical ideas of the
community. Children would congregate at the home of well-known storytellers
whose services they reciprocated by bringing firewood.

As you can see, in this context instruction is communal and based on rich traditions rather
than being individual and atomistic, as more Western approaches tend to be. Dei (2010,
p.35) talks about the “cult of individualism” in Western countries as opposed to a
“community of leaders” or “collaborative responsibility,” which is more in tune with
African philosophy. Dei (2010) states that within the Western paradigm, students who do
well, do not feel an obligation to assist those who are struggling. Dei (2010) suggests that
learners should develop a sense of obligation towards one another, and he gives
examples of cooperative learning, study groups, and working in pairs as ways to foster
this mutual obligation. Dei (2010) explains that within the Western paradigm, failure is
individual, while an African perspective views failure as a collective problem. Dei (2010)
further explains that African-centred educational philosophy supports inclusive education
as it makes provision for a diversity of learners who come from different backgrounds.
Dei (2010, p.42) further proposes that learners develop a connectedness and
identification with their schools, and suggests that teachers should aim to get students
to “own” their knowledge. Adult–peer mentorship encourages ties between teachers,
learners, the family, and the community, and this in turn promotes leadership in learners.
You can see from Dei (2010) that although these concepts have surfaced in recent thinking
about education, connectedness and inclusivity can be traced back to their African
roots.

Reagan (2005), as expanded in the work of Fafunwa (2022), identifies the following goals of
traditional African education:

• To develop the child’s latent physical skills;

• To develop character;
• To inculcate respect for elders and those in positions of authority;
• To develop intellectual skills;
• To acquire specific vocational training and a healthy attitude toward honest labour;
• To develop a sense of belonging and to participate actively in family and community
affairs; and

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• To understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community at large.

In citing Moumouni’s (1968) four features of traditional African education, Reagan

(2005) presents similar ideas to those of Dei (2010):

• The great importance attached to it, and its collective and social nature;

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 • Its intimate tie with social life, in both a material and a spiritual sense;
• Its multivalent character, in terms of both its goals and the means employed; and
• Its gradual and progressive achievements, in conformity with the successive
stages of the physical, emotional, and mental development of the child.

Integrated within the discourse on African philosophy is the notion of ubuntu. Letseka
(2000:179) defines this concept as “an important measure of human wellbeing or human
flourishing in traditional African life. Botho or ubuntu is treated as normative in that it
encapsulates moral norms and virtues such as kindness, generosity, compassion,
benevolence, courtesy, and respect and concern for others.” Letseka (2000)
emphasises the human aspect arising from our connection to other people. African ways of
knowing cannot be separated from ways of living, which include language, knowledge,
cultural practices, and heritage.

Carruth (2011), in reviewing the book, Non-Western perspectives on learning and knowing:
perspectives from around the world explored some of Kim and Merriam (2011) findings. In
the book, the African perspective was cited as an example of a non-Western
perspective. Carruth (2011) notes that in the book, non-Western perspectives are
cited as valuing knowledge that is learnt informally or from experience, and that
there is a focus on interdependence in non-Western perspectives as opposed to the
independence that is favoured in the Western context. Carruth (2011) also draws
attention to Merriam’s (2007) finding that in non-Western contexts, knowledge has
a number of dimensions (spiritual, emotional etc.), but that in terms of Western
perspectives knowledge is compartmentalised.

Dei (2010, p.42) reminds us that “African-centred philosophical ideals are not simply for
Black and African students. African-centred ideas are shared by many Indigenous
communities and are relevant to global humanism. For this reason, the African school is
defined by its philosophical grounding rather than its racial characteristics”. Ngara (2007)
reaffirms that pedagogy in Africa should include different layers of knowledge and that
indigenous knowledge has a vital role to play in education.

As you work through the remaining units in this module, please look out for the ties
between some of the concepts we will be dealing with and for African perspectives.
For example, there are parallels between social constructivism or connectivism, and
African thinking and perspectives on education. You will also find communalism and

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ubuntu mirrored in some Western ideas.

Activity 1.7

(1) Why is it important that as teachers in Africa, we have a good

understanding of

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 African teaching perspectives?
(2) What aspects of African-based teaching can you integrate into your own
teaching philosophy?
(3) How will this be of benefit to you, the learners, and your school?
(4) Dei (2010) mentions that individualism is a non-African concept,
while African concepts are more community based. What is your
experience in this regard at the schools you have attended or have
visited?
(5) Reagan (2005) states that one of the goals of African education is to instill
a sense of belonging. What is your experience in this regard at the
schools you have visited? How can schools improve this sense of
belonging?

Feedback
It is important that you consider different cultural approaches to issues in education. You will find
that many of the ideas about education across the world are based on similar
philosophies.

1.8 CURRICULUM CONCEPTS

In this section, we define what a curriculum is, and unpack concepts that constitute the
curriculum. Numerous teachers implement/enact a curriculum without fully
understanding what a curriculum is or having a clear notion of its concepts. Hence, the
following paragraph outlines the definition of a curriculum and its layers or
presentation.

Hoadley and Jansen (2014) agree with Pinar (1978) that the etymological definition of
the word ‘curriculum’ originates from the Greek word currere, which implies ‘to run the
course/race’, in other words, to run the course of teaching or learning. As such, a
curriculum is a “plan for teaching or learning”, also known as a syllabus (Van den
Akker et al., 1999, p.9). Thus, the intended syllabus is referred to as a curriculum by
the developers or designers who develop it into a document that is intended, and
officially planned for teaching and learning (Chisholm & Wildeman, 2013).
However, when the curriculum is at the actual implementation stage by teachers,
or is being achieved by learners and assessed (Le Grange & Reddy, 2017), it

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 is defined as “a plan of teaching/learning” (Pinar, 2012 p.3). This suggests that
the reconceptualisation of the word curriculum requires teachers to understand the
different layers and presentation of the curriculum which include the intended
(planned/official curriculum), the implemented (actual curriculum), and the achieved
(assessed curriculum).

From latter studies, a curriculum is defined as a plan of, or for teaching and learning. It
may be

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 represented by three main layers. The first layer (representation) is the intended,
planned, or prescribed curriculum, which is a formal or written policy of ideas that are
framed by the educational rationale or theories, and by the intentions of teaching
and learning that specify the intentions of the curriculum. The second layer is the
implemented, enacted, or practiced curriculum, which is the interpretation of the
intended curriculum as perceived by teachers and the actual process of teaching in
operation. The third layer is the attained, achieved, or assessed curriculum, which are
the learning experiences as perceived by learners and measured through their learning
outcomes.

Activity 1.7

(1) Define the term curriculum according to your understanding.

(2) Give examples of documents that represent the intended
curriculum presentation/layer.
(3) Can a lesson plan be presented as an implemented or assessed
curriculum?
(4) State activities that are done under the assessed curriculum.

Feedback

The word curriculum can be defined in different ways by different authors in the
discipline of curriculum and instructional studies. Thus, the Department of Basic
Education provides teachers with official policy documents as an intended curriculum,
and teachers are therefore expected to prepare lesson plans from the documents
(implemented curriculum) for teaching and learning. Additionally, summative,
formative, or peer assessment tasks form part of the assessed curriculum in order to
evaluate if the learning goals have been achieved.

Furthermore, Hoadley and Jansen (2014) agree with Khoza (2015) that curriculum
development and implementation, particularly in South African schools at a classroom level,
is faced with different challenges, such as being unable to complete the syllabus, and the
use of the wrong teaching and assessment methods, amongst others. In resolving this

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challenge, Van den Akker et al. (2003) established a more comprehensive teaching
framework (Table 1), known as the curricular spider web, which stipulates ten
fundamental curriculum concepts that teachers should understand for a successful teaching
and learning process.

Table 1: Curricular spider web framework (Van den Akker et al., 2003)

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Curriculum concept Question
1. Rationale or Vision Why are they teaching?
2. Aims, Objectives, Learning Toward which goals are they teaching?
outcomes
3. Content What are they teaching?
4. Learning activities How are they teaching?
5. Teacher role How is the teacher facilitating teaching?
6. Materials & Resources With what are they teaching?
7. Grouping With whom are they teaching?
8. Location Where are they teaching?
9. Time When are they teaching?
10. Assessment How do we measure how far teaching has
progressed?

Activity 1.8

1. Why is it important that teachers in South Africa understand the

concepts of a curriculum?
2. Use the concepts of a curriculum to design lesson plans for your teaching
subject.

1.9 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we looked at some of the concepts associated with instruction. An important
point we agreed on was that there is no single concept to describe teaching or instruction,
and that these terms cannot be narrowly defined. We also considered some definitions of
the concepts closely related to teaching. In terms of instruction, we examined some of
your roles and responsibilities as these relate to the instructional choices you make as a
teacher. An African perspective on pedagogy was presented as an important contribution
to our understanding of teaching. The etymological definition of the curriculum paved
the way to understanding various presentations of the curriculum and the concepts that
constitute the curriculum. In the next unit, we will look at some of the forms, styles,
approaches, and strategies encountered in instruction.

1.10 LEARNING OUTCOMES CHECKLIST

Outcome Can do Can not do

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I can explain the nature of and concepts
associated
with instruction.

I can develop and demonstrate an

understanding of the teacher’s role and
responsibilities in the context
of instruction.
I can define a curriculum and apply its
concepts.
I developed an appreciation for and give due
consideration to African perspectives on
education and to the instructions that have
been neglected and
suppressed.

References
Carl, A. (2015). Teacher empowerment through curriculum development. 5th edition. Cape
Town: Juta.

Chisholm, L. & Wildeman, R. (2013). The politics of testing in South Africa. Journal of
Curriculum Studies, 45(1), 89-100.
Dei, GJS. (2010). Teaching Africa: towards a transgressive pedagogy. Dordrecht: Springer.
Department of Basic Education. (2011). Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement, Grades
7–9.
Pretoria: Government Printers
Department of Higher Education and Training. (2015). Revised policy on the minimum
requirements for teacher education qualifications. Government Gazette 38487.
Pretoria: Government Printers.

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Fafunwa, AB. (2022). African education in perspective. In A. Babs Fafunwa and JU.
Aisiku (Eds,),
Education in Africa: A Comparative Survey (pp. 9-27). London: Routledge.
Fraser, WJ., Loubser, CP & van Rooy, MP. (1990). Didactics for the undergraduate student. Durban:
Butterworths.

Gagne, R.M. (1987). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. 4th edition. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Hoadley, U & Jansen, J. (2014). Curriculum: Organizing knowledge for the classroom. Cape
town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.

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 Hogan, C. (2002). Understanding facilitation: Theory and principles. London: Kogan Page
Publishers.

Khoza, SB. (2015). Student teachers' reflections on their practices of the curriculum and
assessment policy statement. South African Journal of Higher Education, 29(4), 179-
197.

Kruger, N. (1997). Human development and learning. In EM Lemmer and DC

Badenhorst (Eds.),
Introduction to education for South African teachers (pp. 215–256). Cape Town: Juta.

Liu, QX & Shi, JF. (2007). An Analysis of Language Teaching Approaches and
Methods— Effectiveness and Weakness. Online Submission, 4(1), 69-71.

Lancer, N., Clutterbuck, D & Megginson, D. (2016). Techniques for coaching and
mentoring.
Routledge: London.

Le Grange, L & Reddy, C. (2017). Curriculum development and design, in L. Ramrathan, L.

Le Grange, and P. Higgs, (Eds.), Education Studies: for Initial Teacher Development (pp.
125-138). Cape Town: Juta.
Letseka, M. (2000). African philosophy and educational discourse. In P. Higgs, NCG.
Vakalisa, TV. Mda & NT. Assie-Lumumba (Eds.), African voices in education (pp.
179-193). Cape Town: Juta.
Lowery, AM & Hayes, W. (2014) The heart and mind in teaching: pedagogical styles through the
ages.
Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Merriam, SB. & Kim, YS. (2011). Non-Western perspectives on learning and knowing. The
Jossey- Bass reader on contemporary issues in adult education, 378-389.
Moumouni, A. (1968). Education in Africa. New York: Frederick Praeger
Ngara, C. (2007). African ways of knowing and pedagogy revisited. Journal of Contemporary
Issues in Education 2(2):7–20
Orlich, DC, Harder, RJ, Callahan, RC, Trevisan, MS & Brown, AH. (2010). Teaching strategies:
a guide to effective instruction. 9th edition. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Pinar, W. (2012). What is curriculum theory? New York: Routledge.

Pinar, W. (1978). The Reconceptualisation of Curriculum Studies. Journal of Curriculum

Studies, 10(3), 205-214.
Reagan, T. (2005). Non-Western educational traditions. 3rd edition. Mahwah: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Smith, PL & Ragan, TJ. (1999). Instructional design. 2nd edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Van den Akker, J., Kuiper, W., Hameyer, U & van den Akker, J. (2003). Curriculum
perspectives: An introduction. Curriculum landscapes and trends, 1-10.

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Van den Akker, J. (1999). Principles and methods of development research. Design
approaches and tools in education and training. Dordrecht: Springer.

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 LEARNING UNIT 2

Practices and possibilities in instruction

Contents

2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Styles of Instruction 18
2.3 Forms of Instruction 20
2.4 Instructional contexts 22
2.5 Basic instructional approaches 24
2.6 Basic instructional strategies 27
2.7 Instruction at different levels in education 33
2.8 Conclusion 34
2.9 Learning Outcomes Checklist 34

References

Learning outcomes
When you have worked through this study unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the nature of and concepts associated with instruction.

 Identify and critically evaluate different standpoints, alternative practices, and exciting
possibilities in instruction.

 Highlight and critically appraise the similarities and differences between the
various forms of instruction.

 Explore the different levels of instruction.

1 ISC3701
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 2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter distinguishes between, and evaluates differing standpoints regarding instruction.
It further looks at the different forms of instruction, the different contexts for
instruction, and the different approaches to instruction. Education, teaching, and
instruction are not context free, and they cannot be defined in singular terms. The
definitions found in this chapter will be based on different philosophies and beliefs
regarding teaching and learning. This will enable you to make judicious instructional
decisions, and may even present you with new or different ways of understanding
instruction, and the vital role you play in instructional design.

2.2 STYLES OF INSTRUCTION

There are three main styles of instruction which are usually informed by a teacher’s own
personality. They are the permissive, democratic, and authoritative approaches to
teaching and learning. A permissive teaching style is one where the learners can
do just about anything they please in a classroom, as the teacher sets few or no
rules. In other cases, the teacher may have set rules, but is inconsistent in imposing
them, and expects the learners to organise and monitor themselves. This can frustrate
learners who are not ready for this responsibility or whose peers take over the classroom.
At the opposite end of the spectrum is the authoritative stance. The teacher who adopts
this stance does not allow learners much input into the lesson: they are there to
receive knowledge and follow instructions. The democratic teacher is one who is flexible
within the learning arrangement. Democratic teachers include their learners in decision-
making in the classroom regarding classroom norms and rules. These teachers consider
and value learners as individuals who are able to contribute to their own learning. A
teacher’s style is a personal quality. Many teachers are not aware that they have a leaning
towards a certain style, and teachers often develop a certain style because they
experienced it as a dominant style when they themselves were learners. Your teaching
style may also be affected by your knowledge of the different teaching styles. As a teacher,
you need to try a variety of styles and forms of teaching. This will enable you to
determine the best style for certain age groups, subjects, and time frames.

2.3 FORMS OF INSTRUCTION

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The form of instruction should suit the needs of the learners and the outcomes envisaged.
Forms of instruction have been developed to meet various needs. As we discussed in
Learning Unit 1, there are many different words that mean ‘teaching’. Look at this grid
and analyse it as a way to differentiate

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 between the different forms of instruction. Do you agree with the positioning of ‘teaching’?

Table 2.1: Teaching in terms of goals and process

Process of learning/thinking is Practical application of

as important as the knowledge knowledge/skills is
and skills important
Long-term goal oriented Teaching Mentoring
Short-term goal oriented Facilitating Training

What would your matrix look like if you had to create one to differentiate between the terms
related to instruction?

A Venn diagram can also help us to understand the similarities and differences between
the different forms of instruction. One interpretation is to see teaching as including all the
other forms of instruction, as illustrated in the diagram below:

Figure 2.1: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

Or would your diagram look like this, perhaps? Would you agree with the arrangement
of the words, with facilitating occupying the largest portion of teaching, and training
occupying the smallest? Should training be there at all? These are things you need to
think about when considering the various forms of instruction.

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 Figure 2.2: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

Perhaps teaching includes fewer instances of the other forms of instruction, and we get a
diagram like this:

Figure 2.3: Possible interpretation of instructional forms

Or are the forms perhaps too different to be placed together in a single diagram? What do
you think?
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 Activity 2.1
Were you able to integrate these forms of teaching, and which one/s is
driving your teaching?

Feedback
Depending on the teaching context, a teacher can be driven by one or more forms of
instruction. However, none of these forms are perfect. Each one has its own strengths and
opportunities, so it is wise to choose the right form depending on the context of your
teaching.

2.4 INSTRUCTIONAL CONTEXTS

Whenever people interact, there is the potential for teaching and learning to
take place. Instruction can take place in many contexts: it can take place at
home, at work, online, and in specific instructional institutions such as
schools or colleges. Bear in mind our earlier definition of teaching as
involving instruction by human beings, while instruction can take place
without the presence of another person (i.e., reading a manual, following
computer instructions).

2.4.1 Formal contexts

These relate to formal institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities, where
instruction takes place in set classrooms or lecture venues. Instruction is organised by
means of set timetables, and learners are grouped according to various criteria: for
example, at school level the learners are of a similar age, while in post-school
institutions this may not be the case. These institutions are there to provide an already
agreed upon or policy sanctioned curriculum. Formal institutions are registered with a
relevant body that oversees their functioning and quality of instruction. However, formal
contexts also include distance institutions offering formal programmes. In the modern
world, it is necessary not to focus on the setting as the only determinant of formal
education. More and more courses are offered online, which means that formal learning
does not always take place within a specific setting. However, the module or certificate is

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part of a formal programme, therefore it is the context that is formal. With regard to
the formal school context, Turner and Meyer (2000, p.70) explain that:

“The instructional context is a distinct but overlapping aspect of the classroom

context and includes the influences of the teacher, students, content area, and
instructional activities on

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 learning, teaching, and motivation. The various contexts within a classroom,
such as the instructional context, are naturally difficult to define because
they are simultaneous and interdependent, making them fluid rather than static.
In addition, definitions vary widely depending on whether they have been
examined from psychological, educational, sociological, or anthropological
perspectives.”

The EDU/EDPC (2007, p. 5) documents define formal learning as follows:

“[Learners] may learn during courses or during a training session in the workplace;
this is formal learning. The activity is designed as having learning objectives and
individuals attend with the explicit goal of acquiring skills, knowledge or
competences. Formal learning contexts therefore are goal oriented, there are
professional or skilled teachers or instructors, and the learning is measured.”

2.4.2 Informal contexts

The EDU/EDC documents (2007, p.5) state that learners “may learn in activities
without learning objectives and without knowing they are learning; this is informal
learning.” This means that informal learning takes place in most contexts where
people interact, and that people could learn something informally without having any
prior intention of learning. You could learn informally through a discussion with friends, or
by watching a movie, as in both of these circumstances you did not deliberately set out to
learn something.

2.4.3 Non-formal contexts

The EPU/EPDC documents (2007, p.5) define non-formal learning as follows:

“[Learners] may learn during work or leisure activities that do not have learning
objectives, but individuals are aware they are learning; this is non-formal
learning. Individuals observe or do things with the intention of becoming more
skilled, more knowledgeable and/or more competent.”

People may learn through non-formal activities such as hobbies. They may attend
workshops or seminars relating to their hobbies with the intention of learning more.
You could learn in non-formal contexts such as in cooking classes or by watching
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YouTube video tutorials.

Activity 2.2

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 (1) Think of what you have learnt in the three instructional contexts we
have just discussed.
(2) What could a learner at school learn formally, informally, or non-formally?

Feedback
As human beings, we are learning all the time, in different contexts and in different
situations. As such, learners learn using written resources, learn among themselves, and
also learn from their own personal experiences.

2.5 BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES

A number of approaches and strategies relating to instruction have developed over time. A
number of instructional approaches have developed out of theories of learning. The
three basic theoretical approaches are based on behaviourism, cognitivism, and
constructivism. As a teacher, you need to understand these. Please watch the video clip
for the activity below which will help you understand the link between learning theories
and instructional theories.
Activity 2.3

Log onto the module site on myUnisa to watch a YouTube clip on learning
theories before continuing with this section. It will be linked under Additional
Resources.

Feedback
Can you see how our thinking about learning has evolved? Perhaps you
experienced all three approaches to learning while you were a learner yourself. Let us
consider these three approaches in more detail.

Behaviourism
Behaviourism emphasises behaviour that can be observed (Seels & Glasgow, 1998).
Seels and Glasgow (1998) also explain that this approach focuses on actions that are
visible rather than complex or vague internal processes. In addition, they attempt to find
a relationship between a stimulus and a response. The well-known behaviourist BF
Skinner suggested that learning should be broken down into small bits or steps. Learning is
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seen as “programming,” so filling in answers or repetition is important to bring about the
desired result (behaviour).

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Cognitivism
Seels and Glasgow (1998) describe cognitive psychology as focusing on the organisation of
memory and thinking, and view the mind as an information-processing system. These
authors are interested in processes such as comprehension and problem-solving.

Constructivism
Constructivist approaches claim that learners can only interpret information in the
context of their experiences. Learners need to actively construct meaning and knowledge.
Cohen et al., (2005) explain that there are two broad types of constructivism,
namely cognitive constructivism and social constructivism. Both see learning as
continually developing. Cognitive constructivism considers learning as a search for
meaning that involves language and higher-order thinking, and is derived from
experience. Social constructivism proposes that teachers and other learners provide
scaffolding to support a person’s learning.
In the table below, there are some of the differences between these three approaches. You
may have experienced some of these approaches while you were at school. Today, many of
our classrooms are still based on behaviourism or instructivism.

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Table 2.2: Broad differences in learning theories (Jennings & Surgenor , 2013, p19)

Activity 2.4

(1) Why is it ‘easier’ for a teacher to adopt a behaviourist approach in the

classroom?
(2) What is the effect of the behaviourist approach on learning?
(3) If you were a school principal, how might you encourage your teachers
to change from a behaviourist to a constructivist approach?
(4) Which perspective is more closely aligned to African ideas and worldviews?

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Feedback
In terms of African perspectives, a collaborative constructivist approach is dominant. The
more Western perspective is rational and objective, and only recently have Western
approaches moved closer to social constructivist approaches. Teachers may prefer
behaviourist approaches because they can tick off observable behaviour on a checklist
as evidence of teaching and learning. However, not all learning is observable as behaviour.
This ties in with an approach being either teacher-centred or learner-centered. Your
textbook provides a brief outline of teacher-centred versus learner-centred approaches.

Furthermore, instructional strategies are an integral part of instructional studies. Morrison

et al., (2011, p.149) suggest the following as pertinent questions to ask before deciding on
an instructional strategy:

What is the best way to teach a fact, a concept, a rule, a procedure, an interpersonal skill, or
an attitude?

How can I make the instruction meaningful?

How can I teach an objective that focuses on interpersonal skills?

What is the best way to present the content so that each learner will master the objectives?

Start by focusing on a broad approach, either a teacher-centred or a learner-centred

approach. Direct instruction or lecture-based instruction is a teacher-centred approach,
while inquiry-based strategies are more learner-centred. To help you choose between
the two, think about whether you want your learners to “reproduce” (what you said or
did) or “produce” (their own ideas or actions) in their learning. Your next level of decision-
making involves the actual method or strategy you will use.

2.6 BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

We will focus on a few major forms of instructional strategies. In this module, we take a
general look at these strategies, so that in time you will be able to adapt them to the
specific subjects and grades that you teach.

2.6.1 Constructivist, active, and cooperative instruction strategies

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Baviskar et al., (2009) briefly define constructivism as a theory of learning and not a theory
of curriculum design. Therefore, when a lesson is said to be constructivist, it does not
necessarily follow a specific formula. Instead, a constructivist lesson is one that is
designed and implemented in a way that creates

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the greatest opportunities for students to learn, regardless of the techniques used.
Constructivism is regarded as the umbrella term for several forms of constructivism, such
as radical constructivism and social constructivism.

Baviskar et al. (2009) set out four criteria that must be met in order for a lesson to be
considered to be constructivist. The first criterion is that prior knowledge must be elicited
during the lesson. The second is the creation of cognitive dissonance. This means that the
learners realise that there is a gap between their current knowledge and the new
knowledge. The third criterion is the application of knowledge with feedback. This is similar
to Piaget’s (1977) notions of assimilation and accommodation. When presented with new
knowledge, a student will integrate it with an existing knowledge structure, provided there
are no inconsistencies. However, if a student detects an inconsistency, then the
accommodation of the knowledge structure takes place, and the student re-organises the
knowledge. The fourth criterion is an opportunity for the student to reflect on learning. This
means that tasks go beyond the traditional recall of knowledge.

Carr-Chellman (2016) explains that constructivist classrooms should be characterised by:

• Authentic activities
• Social contexts
• Multiple perspectives
• Knowledge construction (rather than knowledge transmission)
• Metacognition (reflections on own constructions)

Do you notice that active learning within social contexts is highlighted in this
approach? Do you also notice the close ties between this list and African perspectives?
Learners are further involved in the learning process when the teacher allows for
multiple perspectives (learners’ own ideas), and meta- cognition (thinking about how
you are learning) which is also important. Constructivist instruction requires that
learners experience something new and then reflect on that experience. Very often
the constructivist view of learning and supporting teaching methodologies proposes
active learning or guided discovery. Your textbook briefly summarises some ideas
regarding constructivist approaches to teaching and learning.
Your textbook provides a comprehensive account of the instructional strategies used in
teaching. Let us talk about the most common (and overused!) one first.

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2.6.2 Direct instruction
Direct instruction is a teacher-centred instructional approach that is focused on teacher
activity. The

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teacher uses presentation strategies such as lectures, discussions, or explanations, which
do not entail any learner involvement. A transmission model follows – this is what
Freire (1978) describes as a banking model of education. Although more modern
approaches that understand how we learn have been advocated for as being more
successful, there are still times when direct instruction is necessary, even if only for a
small part of the lesson. Direct instruction assumes that the learner does not know
anything about the topic or concept, and cannot become involved in developing
the knowledge. However, direct instruction should not only have negative
connotations. Your textbook provides a comprehensive account of the direct
instruction clearly:

2.6.3 Discussion

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.4 Small-group work

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.5 Cooperative learning

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.6 Problem-solving

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.7 Inquiry

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.8 Case study

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

2.6.9 Role-play
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The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

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 2.6.10 Writing

The textbook provides a comprehensive account of the topic.

Please consider the following questions

Please ensure that you are able to answer the following questions with regard to each of the
instructional strategies you have just read about:

1. What are the important features of the strategy?

2. What are the benefits of, or reasons for using the strategy?
3. What are the issues to consider before selecting the strategy?
4. When should you consider using the strategy, and when should you avoid using it?

Feedback

Later on in this module, I will be asking you to justify your selection of teaching
approaches and strategies in your design of a lesson. This requires you to evaluate
each one and be able to discern when it is appropriate for teaching, and when a better
choice is available. Answering the questions above will help you to do this.

Activity 2.6

The following table deals with the different instructional strategies covered in
this section. As such, choose two subjects that you are familiar with, and write
down an activity under the strategy that would be suitable for them. Try to
include an activity for each instructional strategy.
Direct instruction

Small-group work

Problem-solving
Discussion

Case study
Strategy

Cooperati

learning

Role-play

Writing
Inquiry
ve

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 Subject

1 .....................

Subject

2 ......................

2.6.11 Connectivism and e-learning: The Flipped Classroom

Connectivism is a theory of learning proposed by Siemens (2005) that states that the
internet has now created new ways and opportunities for learning to take place
(Gregory, 2016). Siemens (2005) proposed that learning can take place through people
interacting in online spaces. Traditional learning needs to move towards connected learning
(Haung et al., 2013), and it has the following characteristics:

• Building the capacity of knowledge transferability

• A problem-oriented approach – learning may start with the question and not the
learning material
• An open classroom as opposed to a “closed” classroom
• Effective use of information technology
• Social interaction is an integral part of connected learning

Take particular note of the third and the fifth bullets. Can you see a link between this
‘modern’ approach and African perspectives? It can be said that African perspectives
on teaching encompass an open approach and a high level of social interaction.
African perspectives also acknowledge the connectedness of people (e.g. through
ubuntu).

In the move away from the cognitive, instructivist, and behaviourist approaches and
towards social, constructivist, and connectivist approaches, Robson (2013) stated that
facilitative technologies involve a greater use of discussion boards and forums, webinars,
and wikis. We must not forget that all this is now happening through mobile technology,
which makes learning immediate and personal.

One example from among the many different ideas regarding e-learning is that of the

flipped classroom. To demonstrate the flipped classroom, you are going to have to

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experience it.

You will need to log onto myUnisa and watch two YouTube clips titled Flipped classroom 1,
and Flipped classroom 2. Then come back to this section of the study guide to continue.

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 Activity 2.7

Log onto myUnisa to watch Flipped classroom 1 and Flipped classroom 2 found
under Additional Resources.

Although these clips show that video is the resource used for the work students have
to do at home, Sams and Bergmann (2016) explain that using videos as a resource is
not always necessary. These authors require that we ask when our learners need us
the most – while we are proving the content (knowledge), or when we want them to
apply it? Most teachers will answer that the application of the provided knowledge is the
most problematic, and this application work is usually the homework given learners based
on the knowledge and understanding that teachers have instilled in them in class. In
another YouTube video, Bergmann (2016) explains that traditionally we teach in a group
space (teacher and learners together), and then we expect learners to tackle more difficult
areas such as application and analysis on their own at home – in an individual space. He
points out that getting students to cover the direct instruction in the group space allows
for the teacher and students to work collaboratively in the group classroom space. This
allows the teacher to intervene and assist students when and where they need it.

There are some problems associated with this method. The first of these is the availability
and cost of internet data. How could teachers overcome this? One possibility is to provide
students with CD discs that have the videos or lectures on them, or to allow students to
use the school computer laboratory after school. Another way is to provide students with
the content that they can work through at home in a low-tech way – you could ask them to
read a chapter of the textbook in preparation for the next day’s homework or project, or
you could provide them with written notes or a poem they have to read. Try to think of
things that students can do at home to prepare for the next lesson. This still allows you to
‘flip’ the lesson. Bergmann (2016) also suggests that you could allocate time for both
(the video and the homework) in class. He suggests splitting the class into two groups;
while one group is watching the teaching material, the other group starts with the
activity, and then after this, they swap. It really becomes the teacher’s choice
regarding when it’s best to work individually and when it’s best to work as a group.

You may want to make videos of your own lesson or use a screencast (voice
recording over a PowerPoint), or use existing videos (e.g. from YouTube, National
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Geographic, Khan Academy, OER Africa). However, if you decide on existing videos, it is
vital that you view the material before your lesson to ensure that the material is suitable.
Another important consideration relates to keeping learners safe

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online if you use an internet resource. This is where your own work is the preferred
option, or where they watch outside material under your supervision. Remember that the
instructional decision you make forms part of your responsibility as a teacher.

2.7 INSTRUCTION AT DIFFERENT LEVELS IN EDUCATION

Instruction can take place at all levels of education. The concept of life-long learning
definitely applies to humans. Humans have the capacity to learn from the cradle to the
grave, and society provides for these different levels of instruction. Often, South Africa
is criticised for its focus on the matriculation examination results. The comment is
sometimes made that matric begins in Grade 1 or even earlier. South African schooling is
now compulsory from Grade R (when children are 5 or 6 years old), as part of ECD (Early
Childhood Development), for which the programme starts at birth. Formal schooling, from
Grade R to Grade 12, provides for the needs of learners up to Grade 12. Many learners
continue their education through university, while others follow other adult education
courses. Some teachers feel more comfortable with certain age groups over others. As
you qualify to become a teacher, consider the age of learner you have selected. What led
you to make this selection? How you feel about teaching other age groups? Which age
group is the most important? And is it important to know about the instructional
principles and pedagogy related to the age groups you do not teach?

Activity 2.8

(1) Find out about the different levels of instruction, specifically what the most
important instruction principles for that particular age group are.
Share your ideas on the myUnisa Discussion Forum.

 Early childhood (ages 0–4)

 Grade R and Foundation Phase (age 5 to Grade 3)
 Intermediate Phase (Grades 4 to 6)
 Senior Phase (Grades 7 to 9)
 Further Education and Training (Grades 10 to 12) Higher Education
(beyond Grade 12)

(2) What is your experience or opinion of multi-grade classrooms? What are

the positive and negative aspects of a multi-grade classroom?
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(3) Consider an African perspective where such formal segregation would not
take place. What are the advantages and disadvantages of segregating
learners?

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 2.8 CONCLUSION
In this unit, at some point we looked at important instructional concepts. We looked at
how different styles of instruction (permissive, democratic, and authoritative) affect
teaching and learning. We also looked at the various forms of instruction and the
differences between them, and how they contribute to the concept of teaching.
Instruction also takes place in different contexts (formal, informal, and non- formal).
The broad instructional approaches (behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism) led us
to look at various instructional strategies that can be implemented in day-to-day
instruction. This unit concluded by considering the three levels of instruction in
education, and by reminding you that as humans we are always learning. However,
Learning unit 3 will take a look at some of the theoretical models that inform
instructional practices.

2.9 LEARNING OUTCOMES CHECKLIST

Outcome Can do Can not do

can explain the nature of and concepts associated
with
instruction.
can Identify and critically evaluate different
standpoints,
alternative practices, and exciting possibilities in instruction.
can highlight and critically appraise the similarities
and
differences between various forms of instruction.
can explore different levels of instruction.

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 References

Baviskar, NS., Hartle, RT & Whitney, T. (2009). Essential criteria to characterize constructivist
teaching: derived from a review of the literature and applied to five constructivist
teaching method articles. International Journal of Science Education 31(4), 541-550.

Bergmann, J. (2016). Simplifying flipped learning. Available at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=- hwu3xqbMKw.

Carr-Chellman, AA. (2016). Instructional design for teachers: improving classroom practice. 2nd
edition.
New York: Routledge.

Cohen, L, Manion, L & Morrison, K. (2005). A guide to teaching practice. London:

Routledge. EDU/EDPC. (2007). Terms, concepts and models for analysing the value of

recognition programmes.
Available at:

http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyondschool/41834711.pdf. Freire, P.

(1978). Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 9th edition. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra.

Gregory, H. (2016). Learning theories in plain English. Vol 1. https://learning-

theories.com/product/learning-theories-in-plain-english-ebook.

Haung, R, Chen, G, Yang, J & Loewen, J. (2013). The new shape of learning: adapting to social
changes in the information society. In R Huang, Kinshuk & JM Spector, Reshaping
learning: frontiers of learning technology in a global context, pp 2-24. Dordrecht: Springer.

Jennings, D & Surgenor, P. (2013) Exploring educational theory. Available

at: https://drive.google.com/file/d/0BxV1LO6iHp1yN3FYT3dXclB1Vm8/edit?
resourcekey=0- LVJ1vJi7pdNVRJQFqJnCnA

Morrison, GR, Ross, SM, Kalman, HK & Kemp, JE. (2011). Designing effective instruction. New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures.(Trans A. Rosin).

New York: Viking.

Robson, R. (2013). The changing nature of e-learning content. In R Huang, Kinshuk and
JM Spector, Reshaping learning: frontiers of learning technology in a global context, pp 177-
196. Dordrecht: Springer.
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Seels, B & Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. 2nd edition. New Jersey:
Prentice- Hall.

Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: a learning theory for the digital age. International
Journal of

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 Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1), 1-9.

Turner, JC & Meyer, DK. (2000). Studying and understanding the instructional contexts of
classrooms: using our past to forge our future. Educational psychologist, 35(2), 69-85.

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LEARNING UNIT 3

MODELS AND THEORIES OF INSTRUCTION CONTENTS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
3.1INTRODUCTION
3.2THE ADDIE MODEL, ID4T INSTRUCTION MODEL AND UBD MODEL
3.2.1 The ADDIE model
3.2.2 The ID4T model
3.2.3 The UbD model
3.3MERRILL’S FIVE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION
3.4GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
3.5DICK AND CAREY’S MODEL
3.6 INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS BASED ON MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND
DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES
3.6.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences
3.6.2 Kolb’s learning styles model
3.6.3 Honey and Mumford’s model of learning
3.8 CONCLUSION
3.8LEARNING OUTCOMES CHECKLIST
3.9REFERENCES
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have worked through this study unit, you should be
able to:

 Identify instructional models and theories in different contexts.

 Plan and design effective instruction.
 Use appropriate design steps to design instruction.
 Reflect on your design.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we will investigate a variety of instructional models and theories.

As Gagne (1987:244) tells us, these instructional theories are based on
learning theories. You will remember that learning theories can broadly be
classified as behaviourist, cognitive, or constructivist.

Instructional theories propose relationships between instructional events,

how these actions affect learning, and the learning outcomes that are
produced by the instructional event. These instructional theories are not
just for school instruction – they are for all instruction.

We have not mentioned all the possible instructional design models, as there
are far too many! Please compare these models and reflect on how these
models are similar to or different from your own instructional design
methods, and how these models can enable you to develop improved
instructional design practices?

In this learning unit, we will cover the following content:

 The ADDIE model

 Instructional design for teachers (ID4T)
 Understanding by design (UbD)
 Merrill’s five principles of instruction
 Gagne’s nine events of instruction
 Dick and Carey’s model of instructional design
 Gardner’s multiple intelligences
 Kolb’s learning styles
 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles
 3.2 THE ADDIE MODEL, The ID4T INSTRUCTION MODEL AND THE UbD MODEL

3.2.1 The ADDIE model

The basic instructional design model is called the ADDIE model, and
numerous instructional design models are based on it. The name of this
model is in fact an acronym:

 Analyse needs. In this phase you will do a needs analysis of both the
curriculum and the learners, a task analysis, and an instructional
analysis (Seels & Glasgow 1998:13). This may lead you to write a
goal or aim for your instruction.
 Design instruction. In this phase you will write up objectives, plan
instruction, and develop tests (Seels & Glasgow 1998:13).
 Develop materials. This is where you will write the materials that are
needed.
 Implement the instruction. In this phase, the actual teaching takes
place.
 Evaluate and revise the instruction. Review the instruction, reflect on
learning, and propose, or develop improvements. This will lead you
to a new phase of analysing needs.

Figure 3.1: The ADDIE model

This model has its history in military applications and has no formal author
(Morrison et al., 2011:13).
3.2.2 The ID4T model

Carr-Chellman (2016:3) proposes the ID4T model, which excludes the

analysis of needs and reformulates the remaining four steps in the
following way (Carr-Chellman 2016:10):
Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures.
(Trans A. Rosin). New York: Viking.
1. Write instructional goals – this is where you write the aim of the
lesson contained in the form of a fairly short sentence.
2. Write learning objectives – this is where you state what the learners
will do/say/demonstrate to show you that they are achieving the
goal. There may be several learning objectives in a single lesson.
3. Write aligned assessment/test items – set the assessment tasks so
that they match the instructional goals and objectives you have just
set out. You do this to ensure alignment from beginning to end.
4. Analyse learner characteristics or prerequisites – what learners
already know about the concept, how they prefer to learn, and how
they have responded in the past to different teaching approaches
and content.
5. Select materials – these are the learner-teacher-support materials
(LTSM) that you will incorporate during the lesson (pictures, books,
flashcards, counters etc.)
6. Select and design activities – here you will design the actual activities
that the learners will be involved in. These activities will enable
learners to meet the aims and objectives of the instruction.
7. Select (and develop) media or technology – find or create media that
will support the activities in the previous step.
8. Implement the plan – this is when the lesson or instruction episode
actually takes place and includes learner assessment.
9. Evaluate and revise the instruction – this is where you assess and
reflect on the lesson and make improvements.

Activity 3.1

Comment on the third step in the ID4T model. Are you surprised that this
occurs so early on in the instruction process? What are the advantages
and disadvantages of planning the assessment before instruction?

Please log onto the module site on myUnisa and listen to PODCAST 4.
3.2.3 The UbD model

The UbD model is set out in the book titled Understanding by design, by
Wiggins and McTighe (2005), from which it takes its name (abbreviated as
UbD). The model rests on a ‘backward design’ (Wiggins & McTighe,
2005:13). These authors propose that designing instruction should start
with identifying the desired results that the instruction intends to bring
about. This could also be considered an outcomes approach. The focus is
on what content is valued and what understandings are necessary in
instruction. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) propose that instructional
designers should then determine what will be accepted as the evidence
that this learning or understanding has taken place. Finally, they suggest
planning the learning experiences and instruction. Their model consists of
the following steps, which follow the sequence of some other models, but
in reverse order:

1. Identify the desired results. What should the learners learn?

2. Determine acceptable evidence. What will the learners do to show you
that they have learnt what you wanted them to?
3. Plan the learning experiences and the instruction. What activities and
experiences will you provide so that they can learn what you intended
them to learn?

Activity 3.2

1. Why is this referred to as ‘backward design’?

2. What is your opinion of determining the outcome before you have
taught the lesson?
3. Can you think of an advantage and a disadvantage of doing this?
4. Are some subjects better suited to this type of instructional planning?

Although some models set out long lists while other set out shorter lists,
the type of thinking involved in designing instruction is complex and
multifaceted. You may prefer a particular model to another – however, it is
important that as a teacher you consider other models to add to your
growing knowledge of instruction.

3.3 MERRILL’S FIVE PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION

Merrill (2002:44-45) sets out five principles of instruction:

1. Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world

problems. Merrill adds to this by stating that in problem-centred
learning, learning is supported when learners are shown what they will
be able to do after completing the lesson, module, or course.
Furthermore, he adds that learning is promoted when learners are
engaged on the problem level, and not just on the operation level.
Learners are involved with the whole task, and not just with the
individual tasks in solving the problem.
 2. Learning is promoted when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation
for new knowledge. Merrill (2002:46) believes that learners must be
asked to recall, relate, or apply previous knowledge. Furthermore, they
must be given new experiences that will form the foundation of new
knowledge, and finally, they should be encouraged to reflect on a
structure to organise their knowledge.
3. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
This is facilitated by demonstration that is consistent. This means
providing both examples and non-examples, demonstrating
procedures, and providing visualisations for the procedures. Learners
should also be guided towards relevant information, multiple
representations, and comparing multiple demonstrations. According to
Merrill (2002:48), this also means that media plays a relevant role in
instruction. However, he warns that multiple forms of media should not
compete for the learner’s attention.
4. Learning is promoted when the learner applies new knowledge. Merrill
(2002) suggests that problem-solving is guided by feedback and
coaching, and that the coaching should be gradually reduced. Merrill
(2022) also contends that learners are involved in solving a sequence
of varied problems.
5. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s
world. Merrill (2002:50) contends that learners should be allowed to
demonstrate their new knowledge or skills publicly. Learners should
also be enabled to reflect on and defend their new knowledge, as well
as explore new ways to use their new knowledge or skills.

Activity 3.3

Merrill’s principles of instruction are really about how learners learn. Re-write
each of the five principles as principles from a teacher’s perspective. For
example: A teacher should …

Do you see how closely teaching and learning are related? Were you able to
re-write all the principles?

3.4 GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Gagne was an educational psychologist who formulated instructional

principles based on learning processes (Gagne 1987:304). He viewed the
entire process of instruction as a set of procedures designed to support
learning and stated that planning instruction is a matter of arranging the
situation to best support learning.

Gagne’s nine events of instruction (Gagne 1987:246–255)

1. Gaining attention – this involves doing, saying or presenting something

that will stimulate the learners’ interest or curiosity.
 2. Informing learners of objectives to motivate them – this can be done by
describing or demonstrating what they will achieve through the
instruction. Why is the lesson important?
3. Stimulating recall of prior knowledge – ask learners to recall something
previously learnt. It can be a rule, concept, knowledge, or skill.
4. Presenting the stimulus material or content.
5. Providing learning guidance – this could include giving a variety of
concrete examples of the concept, providing a verbal description
followed by an example, elaborating on the concept, and using models
or continued practice of a motor skill.
6. Eliciting performance – the learner has to demonstrate a newly learnt
capability (by speaking, writing, drawing, making etc.).
7. Providing feedback – the instructor provides feedback regarding the
correctness or degree of correctness of the learners’ performance.
8. Assessing performance – the instructor will provide additional
opportunities for performance, to check that the learning is stable or
whether additional learning can be applied.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer – this normally involves increased
practice and an increase in the variety of practice.

Activity 3.4

Please log onto myUnisa and watch Screencast 1 on Gagne’s nine principles.

3.5 DICK AND CAREY’S MODEL

This model uses a systems approach to instruction. This means that all the
components are important to successful learning, and these components
provide both input and output (Dick & Carey 1996:2). Dick and Carey
(1996) view the instructional process as a system that results in learning,
and the components of the instructional system are learners, instructors,
materials, and the learning environment (Dick & Carey 1996:4). Although
these authors based their model on the ADDIE model, their model does
not focus on the needs analysis. Instead, their model starts by
determining the instructional goal. Their model consists of various
feedback loops around ten interrelated concepts:

1. Identify instructional goals

2. Conduct an instructional analysis
3. Analyse learners and contexts
4. Write performance objectives
5. Develop assessment instruments
6. Revise instruction
7. Develop an instructional strategy
8. Develop and select instructional materials
9. Design and conduct formative evaluations for instruction
 10. Design and conduct summative evaluations

Activity 3.5

Log onto myUnisa under Additional Resources for this module. Then follow the
link to the diagram representing this model. You can see how the model
includes feedback loops to the various components.

Dick and Carey (1996:5-7) briefly explain their model, and state that
instructional design begins with determining your instructional goal. This
comes from your needs assessment. You then analyse your instructional
goal and set out what learners will need to do to show that they have
achieved that goal. You will also need to set out what knowledge and skills
the learners need before instruction can take place. A corresponding
analysis is made of the learners and their context. The next step is to
write out performance objectives. These are what the learners will be able
to do after the instruction. Once the objectives have been written, you
design an assessment that matches the objectives.

Using the information up to this point, you identify a strategy that will assist
you in achieving the learner objectives and the instructional goal. You will
need to consider the presentation of information, practice, and feedback.
The instructional strategies are also based on the content, the knowledge
of the learning process, and the characteristics of learners. In the next
step, you will produce the material you need, such as learner manuals
(worksheets), teacher guides or tests. This is followed by a formative
evaluation of your instructional design. The information gathered here
helps you to revise your instruction while conducting summative
evaluation, which means that the value of the instruction is evaluated.

Activity 3.6

Dick and Carey’s model states that the performance objectives must be
written. This means that you must be able to see the student’s learning –
the student will write, draw, act out, dance, and so on. Are there some
subjects in which the learning cannot be written off as a performance
objective? Write your examples down.

It may not always be possible to set out all learning as performance and
behavioural objectives. Some learning involves emotions and meta-
cognition (how we monitor our own thinking).
3.6 INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS BASED ON MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND
DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES

There are a number of theories that propose that we all have different
learning styles or learning preferences. Not all people involved in
education agree with these theories or models. What is important,
however, is that we have some knowledge of them and that we realise
that the learners in our classrooms are unique. They all have preferences
and styles that make learning some things easier than learning other
things. It is very important not to label learners. The models and theories
are there for you to use in adjusting and adapting your teaching
continually. You should be revising activities each year to see how you can
improve on them and make them more engaging. Because you know the
content, you may find it surprising that the learners struggle with either
the content or the concepts (or both!). Remember to vary your
instructional methods and styles.

3.6.1 Gardner’s multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner set out his theory of multiple intelligences in the mid-
1980s. He considered the traditional conception of intelligence to be too
narrow, and also felt that traditional “pencil and paper tests” do not
measure human intelligence accurately (Gardner 2009:77). He suggested
eight intelligences that make up intelligence as a more holistic concept.
They are:

Figure 3.2: Gardner’s eight intelligences (Sajaganesandip, 2015)

Gardner (2006:23) reached the following conclusions derived from this
theory: no two people have the same intellectual profiles, and having a
strong intelligence does not mean that you will necessarily act
intelligently. You should avoid “labelling” learners as having one or the
other type of intelligence. An understanding of the different types of
intelligence as set out by Gardner should make you aware of providing
different forms of instruction and assessment in your class. The table
below briefly sets out the key abilities of each intelligence.

Table 3.1: Multiple intelligences

Key abilities (from Baum, Viens, Slatin & Gardner

Intelligence
2005:14- 19)
Perceiving, generating, and sense-making through
Verbal-Linguistic
spoken or written language, even through subtle
language meanings
Using and appreciating numbers, logical
Logical-Mathematical
thinking, and abstract relations
Perceiving and understanding patterns of sound,
Musical intelligence
and being able to create and communicate meaning
through sound
Visual-Spatial Understanding visual or 3D information, and re-
intelligence creating images from memory
Bodily-Kinaesthetic Using the body or parts of the body to communicate
intelligence or solve problems. Able to control all or some parts
of the body.
Interpersonal Sensitive to the feelings and moods of other people.
intelligence Works effectively with others.
Having a good understanding of themselves. Can
Intrapersonal
use that understanding to make decisions or
intelligence
anticipate future reactions.
Understands the natural world well. Good
Naturalistic
understanding of features of the environment. Good
intelligence
patterning ability.

Many instructional practices are based on theories of learning. In the next

section, we will look at theories of learning related to different learning
styles. Although it is possible to determine a person’s learning preference,
very few people show an inclination to just a single learning style. In terms
of designing instruction to suit different styles of learning, researchers
have not reached consensus regarding how effective this is. What we do
know is that learners should be exposed to a variety of active learning
experiences and opportunities.

3.6.2 Kolb’s learning styles model

Kolb formulated the experiential learning theory (ELT), in which four

modes of learning were identified: concrete experience, reflective
observation, abstract conceptualisation, and active experimentation (Kolb
& Kolb 2012:1699), with nine distinct learning patterns observed, as you
can see in figure 3.3.

The four styles correspond more directly to the learning modes (N, S, W,
and E); the four corners (NW, NE, SW and SE) correspond to two learning
modes, while the central block (C) balances all four modes. Learners in the
N, S, W or E blocks use the dominant mode associated with that side of
the grid, while also balancing learning modes from the other two sides.
So, for instance, learners in the N block emphasise feeling (concrete
experiences) but are equally comfortable in the world of activity and
reflection, while learners in the NE block only balance feeling and
reflecting.

CONCRETE EXPERIENCE
(Feeling)

NW N NE
Feeling Feeling Feeling-Reflecting
Reflecting
Accommodating Diverging
Experiencing

W C E
Feeling- Reflecting Reflecting

REFLECTING OBSERVATION
Feeling-Thinking
ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION

-Thinking Feeling-Thinking
Acting
Balancing Reflecting

(Reflecting or watching)
(Activity or doing)

SW S SE
Thinking Thinking Thinking-Reflecting
Reflecting
Converging Assimilating
Thinking

ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALISATION
(Thinking)

Figure 3.3: Kolb learning styles (adapted from Kolb & Kolb 2005:198)

Activity 3.7

Log onto the module site on myUnisa, where you will find Kolb’s model
explained in Screencast 2.

 Kolb and Kolb (2012:1700-1701) give some characteristics of

learners who display the nine learning styles.

 Learners with an experiential style enjoy working in groups, role-

playing, brainstorming, and fieldwork.
  Learners with a reflecting style “thrive in learning environments rich
in discussions, interactions, and through readings that provide them
with a deeper understanding of themselves and the world around
them”(Kolb & Kolb (2012: pp. 1700-1701)

 Learners with a thinking style prefer well-structured, logical tasks and

may prefer to work alone.

 Learners with a practical learning style “learn best through real-life

projects, field trips, and hands-on experiments.” (Kolb & Kolb (2012:
pp. 1700-1701)


 Learners with a divergent learning style prefer to work in groups

where they gather information and are able to listen with an open
mind.

 Learners with an assimilating style may prefer “lectures, readings,

exploring analytical models, and having time to think things
through.” (Kolb & Kolb (2012: pp. 1700-1701)

 Learners with a converging style enjoy doing simulations, practical

applications, and laboratory assignments.

 Learners with an accommodating learning style like to work with

others, do field work or find different ways of doing a project.

 Learners with a balancing learning style are able to change their

learning style to match the task.

The focus on nine different learning styles assists teachers in planning for a
diverse range of activities that may suit the different learning styles in the
classroom. This is important, because teachers may be tempted just to
provide activities for a learning style that suits them in particular.
Remember that research indicates that learners should be provided with
different learning activities, consequently you may find all nine styles in a
single classroom.

3.6.3 Honey and Mumford’s model of learning

Honey and Mumford (1986) generated profiles of learning based on

participant responses to a questionnaire. People may display a
predominant or preferred style reflective of the following four profiles:
activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists.

These authors describe activists as learners who enjoy the “here and the
now” and take pleasure in immediate experiences. They tend to act first
and think about the consequences later. They enjoy brainstorming.

They describe reflectors as students who stand back, watch, and think before
taking any action. They prefer to collect information and embark on
research before making any decisions. They tend to think about things
from all angles.
According to Honey and Mumford (1986:25–29), these general aptitudes
for each style may apply.

Table 3.2: Honey and Mumford’s learning styles

Learning style May learn from

Activist New experiences, short activities, high visibility activities,
being thrown in at the deep end of a challenging task,
being involved with others
Reflector Being allowed to watch and think about an activity,
undertaking in- depth research, producing careful analysis
and reports, being given time to make a decision
Theorist Systems, models, concepts, or theories; structured
situations with a clear aim; exploring logical
interrelationships between ideas
Pragmatist Activities that are practical, models to emulate, or “real”
problems to solve

The important thing for instruction is that we provide learners with

different approaches to learning, not only to suit their particular learning
style, but to also balance them. Fr instance, learners who are not
reflective may benefit from learning via reflection, and learners who are
pragmatic may benefit from reflecting first and then acting.

Did you notice that there are similarities between Kolb’s learning styles
and those of Honey and Mumford? A learner should not be considered as
being one particular type or only having one particular style– we all have a
variety of styles that we should integrate in different ways, depending on
the learning or problem situation.

Activity 3.8

(1)Which of the models in this learning unit did you find the most
interesting or useful? Why do you say so?
(2)Which of the models in this learning unit did you find the least
interesting or useful? Why do you say so?

3.8 CONCLUSION
We have looked at a few of the many, many instructional models that
exist. This is to give you some idea of what is out there and to allow you
to further explore instruction models. Many of our instructional practices
and models are based on theories of how learners learn, and I’m sure you
can see how the field of psychology of education integrates with
instructional design. It is important that you critically appraise these
models and think effectively about their design and how you can put
them to use in a
classroom. As a teacher, you need to make informed educational and
instructional decisions.

The instructional design models we discussed included different types of

models (described by on the EduTech
wiki,
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/instructional_design_model) as follows:

Some models describe a strategy in detail (e.g. Gagne’s nine events),

some relate to the quality of the design (Merrill’s first principles), others
provide a method to create instruction (the ADDIE, and the Dick and
Carey’s models), while others help us to enhance instructional design
(understanding different learning styles).

In the next learning unit, you will have the opportunity to draw on what
you have learnt from the units you have studied so far in order to design a
learning event.

3.8 LEARNING OUTCOMES CHECKLIST

Outcome I Can do I Cannot do

 Identify instructional models and
theories in different contexts
 Plan and design effective instruction.
 Use appropriate design steps to
design instruction.
 Reflect on your design.
3.9 REFERENCES

Baum, S, Viens, J, Slatin, B & Gardner, H. 2005. Multiple intelligences in the

elementary classroom: a teacher’s toolkit. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Carr-Chellman, AA. 2016. Instructional design for teachers: improving classroom
practice. 2nd edition. New York: Routledge.
Dick, W & Carey, L. 1996. The systematic design of instruction. 4th edition.
New York: Longman.
EduTech Wiki contributors. 2017. "Instructional design model," EduTech
Wiki, A resource kit for educational technology teaching, practice and
research Available
at: https://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?
title=Instructional_design
_model&oldid=64463.
Gardner, H. 2006. Multiple intelligences: new horizons.New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. 2009. Multiple approaches to understanding. In CM
Reigeluth (eds),
Instructional design theory and models: a new paradigm of instructional theory.
Volume two. New York: Routledge.
Gagne, RM. 1987. The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. 4th edition.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Honey, P & Mumford, A. 1986. The manual of learning styles. Berkshire:
Peter Honey Publications.
Kolb, AY & Kolb, DA. 2005. Learning styles and learning spaces: enhancing
experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management
Learning & Education, 4(2):193-212.
Kolb, A & Kolb, DA. 2012. Kolb’s learning styles. In N Seel (ed), Encyclopedia of
the sciences of learning. Berlin: Springer.
Merrill, MD. 2002. First principles of instruction. Educational Technology
Research And Development, 50(3):43-59.
Morrison, GR, Ross, SM, Kalman, HK & Kemp, JE. 2011. Designing effective
instruction. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Sajaganesandip. 2015. A visual representation of Gardner's Multiple Intelligence
Theory. Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Multiple- intelligence.jpg.
Seels, B. & Glasgow, Z. 1998. Making instructional design decisions. 2nd edition.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Wiggins, T & McTighe, J. 2005. Understanding by design. Washingtion: ASCD.

3.10 RESOURCES

 Learning Unit 3: Models and theories of instruction

 Screencast 1: Gagne's nine events of
instruction PowerPoint Presentation: Gagne's nine events
of instruction
 Screencast 2: Kolb’s model of learning style explained
 PowerPoint Presentation: Kolb and Kolb's theory on learning styles
 Activity 3.4: Dick and Carey Model diagram
 LEARNING UNIT 4

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: DESIGNING YOUR OWN INSTRUCTIONAL

EVENT BY REFLECTING ON YOUR DESIGN

Contents

LEARNING GOALS.........................................................................................01
4.1INTRODUCTION...................................................................................01
4.2DESIGNING A LEARNING EVENT.........................................................02
4.3INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY IN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND
DELIVERY...............................................................................................03
4.4REFLECTING ON AND IMPROVING YOUR DESIGN...............................04
4.5CONCLUSION......................................................................................06
REFERENCES................................................................................................06

LEARNING GOALS

When you have worked through this study unit, you should be
able to:

 Use appropriate design steps to design instruction

 Design and deliver instruction using technology
 Reflect on design to improve it

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will use appropriate design steps to design your own
instructional event or lesson. You will integrate some of the concepts we
have talked about so far and include your own creative ideas. Remember
that your goal is for your learners to be successful in your classroom
through active learning.

We also briefly explore the integration of technology into instructional design

and delivery processes. Students will gain insights into various
technologies, strategies for effective integration, and considerations for
enhancing learning outcomes through technology. You will also be asked
to reflect on your design and to improve or change it where needed.

Wiggins and McTighe (2005:13) hold the view that teachers are designers. An
important part of what you do as a teacher involves creating learning
experiences that fulfil a specific purpose. However, as is the case with all
1 ISC3701/1
design professions, there are constraints. Time, resources, and the
specified curriculum are among the constraints

2 ISC3701/1
that will affect your choices in terms of learning design. Teacher
knowledge is an important resource for learning design. How much you
know of both the content and how to teach it effectively will affect your
instruction design. One of the most important activities you will engage in
as a teacher is lesson planning. The more detailed the design of your
lesson, the more control you will have over it. A clearly written out lesson
plan guides your decisions through the lesson, and will assist you in
reaching your instructional goals.

4.2 DESIGNING A LEARNING EVENT

The following chapter from your textbook provides you with a guide to
planning lessons, which will assist you with this section.

PRESCRIBED READING: Textbook Chapter 2

Activity 4.1

1) Design your own lesson planning guide, that you believe teachers
should fill in as a lesson planning template. Include the lesson planning
elements that you feel are important.
2) Which elements from the units that you have already studied will you
include and why? You will be submitting this lesson plan design as an
assignment (see Tutorial Letter 101).

An important part of your decision-making relates to how much detail is

necessary in lesson planning. Does it depend on the level of experience of
the teacher, or should all teachers plan equally thoroughly?

Activity 4.2

3 ISC3701/1
You are going to design a learning event (e.g., lesson, tutor class) by
considering Table 4.1. Select a subject and grade for this lesson design.
You will be submitting this learning event as an assignment (see Tutorial
Letter 101).

Table 4.1: Designing a lesson or learning event

LESSON OR LEARNING EVENT

Subject: Grade level:
Topic: Duration:
Analysis of learning needs: (who are your learners, what are their
learning needs,
what is required by the curriculum?)
Learning objectives (your goals for the lesson)
What is the content/skill that must be taught? Refer to your topic and
expand.
What teaching materials (resources – LTSM) will you choose or design
(worksheets,
texts etc.)? Will you integrate technology into this lesson? If so, how?
Macro level:
What teaching methods will you use? For what parts of the lesson will
you use them?
How will you try to include some of the constructivist, learner-centred
methods discussed in this module? How can you accommodate different
learning styles?
Micro-level:
What specific activities will you be involved in during the lesson? Write
them down in order (introduction, lesson development, and conclusion).
What specific activities will the learners be involved in during the lesson?
Write them down in order (introduction, lesson development, and
conclusion). What are you
wanting learners to learn from each activity?
Teacher Activities Learners Activities
What formative assessment will you include? (Questions you will ask,
small tasks
during the lesson, etc.)
What summative assessment will this learning event lead up to? When
will this take
place?

4.3 INTEGRATING TECHNOLOGY IN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND DELIVERY

In the field of instructional design and delivery, the incorporation of

technological resources and innovative educational strategies has
4 ISC3701/1
profoundly reshaped teaching and learning processes (Amir et al., 2020).
This transformation is further highlighted by the critical success factors in
online education, where universities leverage the internet and online
delivery methods to enhance teaching practices (Voléry & Lord, 2000).
The sudden impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has also accelerated the
adoption of online teaching and learning environments, requiring
immediate and supportive measures to ensure the quality of learning
experiences for students (Fabriz et al., 2021).

5 ISC3701/1
As online learning technologies become more integral to the university
experience, the quality of student learning is significantly impacted by
their interactions with these technologies (Ellis & Bliuc, 2019). The shift to
online learning represents a transformative process that leverages
innovative technology to revolutionize traditional teaching and learning
methods (Watjatrakul, 2016). As a teacher in this digital era, it is
important to have the skill to identify key technologies used in
instructional design and delivery.

Online teaching and learning require specific pedagogical content

knowledge (PCK) to design and organize effective learning experiences
using digital technologies (Rapanta et al., 2020). Integrating Information
and Communications Technology (ICT) in teaching environments is
essential for preparing students for the digital era (Bingimlas, 2009).

There are plenty of technology tools that teachers can employ to enhance
teaching, to engage students, and to facilitate personalized learning
experiences. Remember that the effectiveness of these technologies
depends on how well they align with educational goals, pedagogical
approaches, and student engagement.

4.4 REFLECTING ON AND IMPROVING YOUR DESIGN

You cannot grow and improve as a teacher (even with many years of
experience) if you do not reflect on your lessons. Reflection means
looking back at your lesson from different perspectives. Some reflection
takes place while you are teaching (reflection-in-action), and you can
also reflect after the teaching event (reflection- on-action). According to
Bassot (2015:15),

Becoming more self-aware is a crucial part of practicing reflectively

and the concept of the metaphorical mirror: which is a vital tool for
reflection in both senses of the world must become clearer to you
as a reflective teacher and learner. We are exploring the different
kinds of mirrors that we use in our everyday lives to see what
these can teach us about different aspects of reflective practice.
How do we learn best? Learning and reflection go 'hand in hand'
and it is difficult to imagine one without the other. It is important to
remember that reflection is a skill, so it is something we can
develop and improve upon. We must consider learning styles, and
the strengths and weaknesses in the four styles and apply this to
our own learning and to those of our student's. The SWOT/B
(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats/Barriers) and
SWAIN (Strengths, Weaknesses, Aspirations, Interests and Needs)
exercises could assist you to analyse your current position. For
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reflective practices, we should also examine issues of motivation
and the role of drivers in helping us to understand more about
what we do and why we do it.

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If you have written down your lesson design according to the format in
4.2, then you will be able to look back and identify where your lesson was
very successful or where it may have been lacking. You will need to look
at each aspect and consider its strength or weakness. Also, consider the
lesson from the learners’ perspectives. If you were a learner in the class,
consider how would you have enjoyed the lesson, and what and how much
would you have learnt? Also, ask yourself what you could do to improve
the lesson if you were to teach it again.

Activity 4.3

Write a set of questions you would suggest teachers ask themselves as a

way to reflect on their lesson design:
 after they have prepared the lesson (before they teach it);
 while they are teaching the lesson;
 after they have taught the lesson.

Now that you have taught the lesson, I would like you to reflect on the
success of your lesson plan.

Answer the following questions:

1. What were the strengths of this lesson? Consider this question

from your perspective and from the perspective of the learners.
2. What contributed to the success of the lesson?
3. What were the weaknesses of this lesson? Consider this question
from your perspective and from the perspective of the learners.
4. What contributed to the weaknesses of the lesson?
5. What changes will you put into place before designing the next
lesson? Look back at your written design.
6. Is your design clear enough to allow someone else to teach the same
lesson from it?

Reflection also means looking at your entire practice as a teacher. This is

very important if you are to develop holistically.
4.5 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you drew all the elements of this module together into a
lesson design. There are many models of instructional design, and we
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have looked at just some of these. As technology changes what we do
and how we do it, newer approaches and

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models will come to the fore, and so, as a teacher, you will need to keep
up to date with these approaches, models, and theories. In the 1980s,
there were over 40 instructional design models – nowadays there are
many, many more.

It is vital that you understand instructional design as one of your

responsibilities as a teacher. It is not the only thing that you as a teacher
will do, but it is one of the most important. It is also very important for
your own growth as a teacher that you engage with both the needs of the
curriculum and the needs of your learners to design learning events that
are meaningful and successful.

It is very important that, as a teacher, you not only keep abreast of the
new ideas in teaching and instruction, but also consider ideas emanating
from societies that have been neglected. The voices of these societies
need to be heard and considered if we are to teach meaningfully and
successfully.

The various instruction models and theories should provide you with an
opportunity to reflect and to consider your role more critically and
carefully. As you gain practice in writing out instructional design plans
(lesson plans), you will become more confident. Your effectiveness as a
teacher will rely on your ability to plan and prepare instructional events.

I have enjoyed presenting this module to you. I hope that you have
enjoyed studying it, and that you have learnt to think critically about your
role in instructional design.

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0
REFERENCES

Amir, A. (2020). Thinking Probabilistically: Stochastic Processes, Disordered

Systems, and Their Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Bassot, B. (2015). The reflective practice guide: An interdisciplinary approach to
critical reflection. New York: Routledge.
Bingimlas, K. A. (2009). Barriers to the successful integration of ICT in
teaching and learning environments: A review of the literature.
Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, science and technology education, 5(3),
235-245.
Ellis, R. A., & Bliuc, A. M. (2019). Exploring new elements of the student
approaches to learning framework: The role of online learning
technologies in student learning. Active Learning in Higher Education,
20(1), 11-24.
Fabriz, S., Mendzheritskaya, J., & Stehle, S. (2021). Impact of synchronous
and asynchronous settings of online teaching and learning in higher
education on students’ learning experience during COVID-19.
Frontiers in psychology, 12, 733554.
Rapanta, C., Botturi, L., Goodyear, P., Guàrdia, L., & Koole, M. (2020).
Online university teaching during and after the Covid-19 crisis:
Refocusing teacher presence and learning activity. Postdigital science
and education, 2, 923-945.
Watjatrakul, B. (2016). Online learning adoption: effects of neuroticism,
openness to experience, and perceived values. Interactive Technology
and Smart Education, 13(3), 229-243.
Wiggins, T., & McTighe, J. 2005. Understanding by design. Alexandria:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Volery, T., & Lord, D. (2000). Critical success factors in online education.
The International Journal of Educational Management, 14(5), 216-223.

RESOURCES

Learning Unit 4: Putting it all together: Designing your own instructional event,
and reflecting on your design

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