Introduction

Now a day the computers we are using that computers are known as fourth generation
computer. From this period semi-conductor memory is introduced & begins the uses of
Microprocessor made by LSI (Large Scale Integration) & VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
technology. As a result the price & size of computer becomes more less & performance of
work gains several times. For using in it numerous application soft wares, operating systems
etc. has been stronger & more developed. These computers which are made with
Microprocessor called Microcomputer Personal Computer otherwise known as PC.

Definition of Personal Computer

Sometimes known as a personal computer, this is a computer system that can fit on your
desk at home, work, school or college. The individual elements of a desktop computer vary
according to the needs of the user. Some users need a general-purpose desktop computer
to run a range of applications; others need a desktop computer that will form a workstation
on a network. A typical desktop computer comprises a central processing unit (CPU), a
monitor, a keyboard, a mouse and a printer. The CPU includes the processor, the main
memory and other important electronic circuits.

Classification of Computer
Analog computer:
The word analog has derived from the word “Analogous” which means Similar. In analog
computer gradual inconstant signal is used in place of alphabet or number. The main feature
of analog signal is fluctuation gradually. In analog computer calculation is processed by any
physical number or indicated with other similar number. Electric signals are used in analog
computer as input which creates because of inconstant data as a result of Pressure, heat &
liquid flow. One kind of analog computer can’t be used in place of other kind of analog
computer e; g. analog computer used in measuring temperature can’t be used in measuring
pressure. In this computer processed output is displayed by meter or graphical picture
drawn by plotter. Speedometer of a motorcar is an example of analog computer.
 Fig: Analog Computer

Digital computer:
The word digital of digital computer has derived from the word “Digit” which means
Number. In digital computer for processing & calculation alphabet & number is used &
processed output is displayed directly on monitor or other output devices. Basically it is a
calculation machine which is directed on the base of mathematics. In digital computer
binary digit (BIT) ‘0’ & ‘1’ are used to express all kinds of alphabet, number, image, video
even voice. Generally we can understand the term computer with digital computer.

Fig: Digital Computer

Hybrid computer:
Hybrid computer is made of the combination of work method of Analog & Digital computer.
In hybrid computer data is given in analog system & received is transmitted in digit & sent to
digital part for processing. After analyzing the received data in digital part the processed
output is displayed on monitor or by other output devices. For example in hospital body
temperature, blood pressures etc. of a patient are received by analog part. After receiving
the data digital part analyze the data & present the current status of the patient through
output. Moreover hybrid computer is used for missiles, space shuttle and weather etc. but
as it is very costly, it is used in special fields.
 Fig: Hybrid Computer

Classification of Digital computer:

Generally we can understand the term computer only by digital computer. Digital computer
can be classified in different classes. On the basis of size, performance, capacity & other
features digital computer can be classified in four classes. These are:

1. Mainframe computer
2. Mini computer
3. Micro computer
4. Super computer

Mainframe computer:
Main frame computer is the 2nd most powerful computer. In main frame computer all kinds
& types of peripheral system, high level languages & software are used. This computer can
transmit several lacks byte per second through its I/O system. It costs for several corer
money. This computer is used in large types of industries, complex scientific research & high
level technological analysis. This computer is kept in air conditioned room restrain from dust
& humidity. Special operators are needed to operate this computer. Over hundred of people
can use main frame computer through time sharing system. Example: IBM 4300, UNIVAC
1100, CYBER 170.
 Fig: Mainframe Computer

Mini computer:
Mini computer is used for scientific & technological research & analysis, industries &
business. It is 3rd most powerful computer & used for various complex work. In this case
several I/O devices are used. Over hundred of people can use mini computer through
terminal. Example: IBM S/34, IBM S/36, PDP 11, NCR S/9290

Fig: Mini Computer

Micro computer:
‘Micro’ means ‘small’. It is called micro computer because it is made of small size
microprocessor. This computer is consists of microprocessor or CPU, ROM, RAM & I/O
interface chip. Inter corporation of America first made microprocessor in 1971 under
supervision Tred Hoff which name is ‘Intel 4004’. It was a 4 bit microprocessor. Before that
diyot, resister, transistor were used in computer. As a result the price of computer was
much higher. In 1975 an electrical engineer named H. Edward Roberts designed first
microprocessor based computer whose name was “Altair-880”. Microprocessor 8080 & 256
byte memory were used in it. After then microcomputer was developed gradually. At
present the size & price of microcomputer is the most less. Example: IBM PC, Apple Power
PC.

Microcomputer is called ‘Personal Computer’ or ‘PC’ in short.

Fig: Micro Computer

According to size & capabilities of work personal Computer can be classified in several
classes. Such as:

- Desktop computer
- Laptop computer or notebook computer
- Netbook computer
- Hand-hold computer or palmtop computer
- Tablet computer

These classifications of computer are described below:

Desktop computer
The computer which can be used keeping it on desk or table or even on floor called Desktop
computer. It is not easily portable. Every sort of work can be done by a desktop pc. It is much
popular among people because of its low price. There are different brands of desktop pc in market.
Such as; Tower, Mid Tower desktop PC. Dell, HP Compaq, Apple power pc etc. are example of
current pcs in market.

Fig: Mid Tower PC Fig: Desktop PC

Laptop/Notebook Computer
The computer which is capable of Desktop computer but easily portable, light weight, small
in size & well-look that computer is called Laptop or Notebook Computer. It can also be
flooded. A laptop has same features like desktop computer. It has attach keyboard, screen &
touchpad subsitution of Mouse. It can be operated through AC power (direct electric power)
& rechargable battery back-up. Some popular brands of laptop are; HP compaq, Apple, Asus,
Ecer etc.

Fig: Laptop Computer

Netbook Computer
Netbook is a little bit smaller than laptop for mobile use. Lower configured hardware is used
in Netbook computer. Threre is no space for build-in storage or optical disk drive in it. But
there are ports for connecting external drives. There is no conventional hard drive in
netbook. Solid test storage device (SSD) is used in it. So it has a less storage capacity. It is
also has a less speeder processor. It needs less electric power & its power system is like
Laptop. It also works comparitively faster, light in weight, more sock-profable.

Fig: Netbook Computer

Tablet Computer
Tablet computer is a computer which is like tab or letter size slate in shape & in which
necessary commands or instructions or data are given through toughing fingure on screen
& writing or drawing through digital pen in it. There is also port for using keyboard. There is
also voice input system by which user can give commands or instructions.

Fig: Tablet Computer

Palmtop Computer
Palmtop computer is the smallest computer by which work can be done holding it in hand. It
is also known as hand-hold computer. Stylus input system, hand-writing recognizer,
personal organizer & wireless communication tools are integrated in it. Commonly used PDA
(Pesonal Digital Assistants), Smart phones & electronic recognizer are example of plamtop
or hand-hold computer.

Fig: Palmtop Computer Fig: PDA

Components of Personal Computer
If we look on the persoanl computer we can find out the components which it needs to
operate are Hardware, Software & Humanware. So the necessary components of a pesonal
computer are Hardware, Software & Frameware

Hardware
Hardware is the collection of physical elements that comprise a computer system. Computer
hardware refers to the physical parts or components of computer such as monitor,
keyboard, hard disk, mouse, etc. Refers to objects that you can actually touch, like disks,
disk drives, display screens, keyboards, printers, boards, and chips.

There components are described below:

Input Devices
Keyboard
A standard keyboard has keys that produce the letters of the alphabet, keys to produce the
digits from 0 to 9, keys to produce all punctuation marks as well as special command and
function keys. Standard keyboards are often referred to as QWERTY keyboards because of
the layout of their keys. Many keyboards have a numeric keypad at the side of the main
keyboard, which allows easy input of numeric data. The keyboard is continually scanned to
see if a key has been pressed. Each individual character (remember there may be three
characters on a single key) has a unique scan code, which is passed to the operating system.
The operating system translates the scan code into ASCII code.The keys of keyboard are
divided in several types. These are: Function key, Alpha-numaric key, Numeric keypad,
Special key, Movement key, Modifier key

Fig: Keyboard
 Fig: Classification of key

Mouse
A mouse is a small hand-held device connected to the computer by a cable. It has a ball on
the underside of its cover and at least one button on the top. It can control a computer
without command of keyboard. The menu & items of the manu of modern grafic user
interface based programs can be choosen easily by clicking buttons of a mouse. A standard
mouse has Two or Three. Left button is used generally. But right button is used with some
extra options which are used in several programs. The mouse which has three buttons can
igve command by clicking middle & right button jointly. There is a small ball which is closed
in a plastic boxes attach with two metal wheels by which cursor can be moved willingly.
Now a day there is seen optical & laser mouse. In optical mouse reflection of light is used to
move cursor instead of metal ball. In laser mouse laser ray is used instead of wire. In laptop
computer touch pad is used instead of mouse which works like mouse.

Fig: Mouse Fig: Touchpad

Optical character recognition (OCR)
With OMR the character shapes are recognized by sensing light reflected from the paper
and the ink. The reader has to have a memory and a processing capability in order to
identify the characters, e.g. National lottery forms, pin code of letters, electric bill etc.

Fig: OCR

Optical Mark Reading (OMR)

A beam of light is directed onto the surface of a card or document. The beam is reflected
from the surface to a light sensor. When a mark passes under the beam, less light is
reflected back and so the presence of a mark is registered. Special OMR form is needed for
this. Most competitive, public exams’ test papers are evaluated by OMR. Moreover MICR is
used in market experiment, census, and order form.

Fig: OMR

Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

Characters are printed using an ink which contains iron oxide. As the document passes into
the reader, the ink is magnetized, so that the character shapes can be recognized by their
magnetic signature. To read the number of bank check this procedure is used. Now a days
MICR check has been introduced in Bangladesh & it has been mandatory to use.
 Fig: MICR

Scanner
A scanner can be used to convert a picture into digital form so that it can be processed by a
computer and printed out. For example, a photograph could be scanned and incorporated
into a word processor or desktop publisher document. Like the light pen and the bar-code
reader, a scanner measures the levels of reflected light and codes these into a digital signal
which is processed by a CPU. There are various designs of scanner, e.g. some are hand-held
and others are flat-bed types. Some scanners produce only black and white pictures (with
colors being represented by shades of grey) while others faithfully reproduce the original
colors.

Fig: Scanner

Joy Stick
The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the stick is
moved. It typically has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by the
cursor. Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video games, training
simulators and controlling robots.
 Fig: Joy Stick

Bar Code Reader

A bar code is a set of lines of different thicknesses that represent a number. Bar Code
Readers are used to input data from bar codes. Most products in shops have bar codes on
them. Bar code readers work by shining a beam of light on the lines that make up the bar
code and detecting the amount of light that is reflected back.

Fig: Bar Code Reader

Light Pen
It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen. It is quite like the mouse
(in its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the pointer and select any object on the
screen by pointing to the object. Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications
commonly use the light pens to directly draw on screen.
 Fig: Light Pen

Digitizer
A graphics table is a board which can detect the position of a pen-like stylus on its surface. A
design is put on the board and its shape is traced out with the stylus. The device digitizes the
analogue signal from the stylus and sends the data in digital form to the CPU for processing.

Fig: Ditiger

Microphone
The “Microphones - Speech Recognition” is a speech Input device. To operate it we require
using a microphone to talk to the computer. Also we need to add a sound card to the
computer. The Sound card digitizes audio input into 0/1s .A speech recognition program can
process the input and convert it into machine-recognized commands or input.

Fig: Micro Phone

Touch Screen
This can be used as an alternative to a light pen or keyboard, especially by people who are
not familiar with computers. The monitor screen is overlaid with another, transparent
screen which is sensitive to touch. With the use of special software, the computer is able to
calculate the precise point at which the screen is touched. A program can be written which
prints labeled squares on the screen. When a point (which coincides with one of the
squares) on the screen is touched, the program commands the computer to react in an
appropriate way. Such a system can be used by hospital patients to select their meals.

Fig: Touch Screen

Output Devices
Monitor
Monitor is the most important output devices. It is medium of data presentation which
show the sigals on its screen after proper formation getting from vedio controller card or
adaptor. It’s like television & works like television. For showing any image, writing or text on
display computer uses a interface which is called vedio controller.Every monitor can be
divided in three types depending on its showing colors. These are,

- Color monitor: shows all colors in display

- Monocrom monitor: shows white or other colors on black display
- Gray scale: show all colors in black & white on display

Moreover monitor can farther classified on technological basis. These are:

- Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitor

- Liquid Crystal Display/Flat panel (LCD) monitor

CRT Monitor
CRT monitors comprise a sealed glass tube that has no air inside it. An electron gun at one
end fires a stream of tiny electrons at the screen located at the other end. The image is
made by illuminating particles on the screen.

Fig: CRT Monitor

LCD Monitor
Applying a voltage across an LCD material changes the alignment and light-polarising
properties of its molecules so that they can be used in conjunction with polarising filters to
create an electronic shutter that will either let light pass or stop it passing. Thus, the LCD
display works by allowing different amounts of white backlight through an active filter. The
red, green and blue of each pixel are achieved by filtering the white light that is allowed
through

LCD monitor can be classified in Two types. These are:

- Active matrix LCD otherwise known as Dual-screen LCD

- Passive matrix LCD otherwise known as Thin Film Transistor (TFT)

Fig: LCD Monitor

There are some important element of monitor for display. These are:
Dot Pitch
The diplay of a color monitor are covered inside with numerous Dot Trial which cosists of
the thee basic colors dots’; RED, GREEN & BLUE in short known as RGB. The diagonal
distance between two adjecent dot trial is called Dot Pitch. As the number of dot pitch
would less the image shown on display would be much more clear & explicit. Dot pitch is
masured in Milimetre (mm). Generally the dot pitch of a monitor is 0.26mm to 0.31mm

Pixel
A pixel is the most basic component of any computer graphic. Pixel stands for picture
element. It corresponds to the smallest element that can be drawn on a computer screen.
Every computer graphic is made up of a grid of pixels. When these pixels are painted onto
the screen, they form an image. In black and white, each pixel can be represented by 1 bit: 1
if the pixel is black or 0 if the pixel is white. The computer represents the image in memory
as a file of 0s and 1s. The computer opens this file then starts looking for numbers that
describe image information. Every time it comes to a 0 it draws a white pixel. When it comes
to a 1 it draws a black pixel. The file is known as a bit map. There is a one-to-one
relationship between the pixels and the bit pattern.

Fig: Pixel

Resolution
The quality of a graphical image is directly related to the number of pixels used to produce
it. An image with a large bit map that contains many small pixels will be clearer and sharper
than a similar image with a smaller number of pixels. The concentration or density of pixels
is called the Resolution of the image. On the other hand the thickness of a image displayed
on screen is called Resolution. The image would be so thick as much as the pixel would be
more in per inch of display which is known as PPI. Resolution is total of the numer of pixel
on vertical multiples the number of pixel on horizontal. For example: 640*480 pixels,
800*600 pixels, 1024*768 pixels.
 Fig: Resolution

Printer
Printers are used to print the output data on paper. Such output is referred to as printout or
hard copy. There are many different types of printer but only the most common types are
listed here:

Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the
paper through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall
under this category. Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use
chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser,
Thermal printers fall under this category of printers. When we talk about printers we refer
to two basic qualities associated with printers: resolution, and speed. Print resolution is
measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed is measured in terms of
number of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as characters-per-second
(cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).

Fig: Printer
Dot Matrix Printer
These use rows (a matrix) of needles which are made to impact with an ink-ribbon to make
the pattern of the required character on the paper. Although they are relatively cheap to
buy, dot-matrix printers are very slow, very noisy and do not give a high quality of print.

Ink-Jet Printer
These squirt quick-drying ink onto paper to form the shape of the character being printed. In
comparison to dot-matrix printers, ink-jet printers are quick, quiet and give a good quality of
print; however they are more expensive.

Laser Printer
These work in a similar way to photocopiers. A laser beam is used to create an electric
charge which attracts special black dust to it. The dust is then transferred to the paper to
produce the printed output. Laser printers are faster and quieter than ink-jet printers and
produce a very high quality print. They are also relatively expensive.

Thermal Printer
It’s work like dot matrix printer but uses electric resist point in place of pin. Costly pages are
used for this printer. This printer is very fast (5000 lmp).

Plotter
Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands and
makes line drawings on paper using multicolored automated pens. It is capable of producing
graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc. Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) applications like CAD
(Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) are typical usage areas
for plotters. There are two basic types of graph plotter:

Flat-Bed Plotter: A sheet of paper is laid flat (on a bed) and a pen moves across it in two
directions to produce the drawings.

Drum Plotter: The sheet of paper is attached to a drum and as the drum revolves, a pen
moves from side to side to produce the drawings.
 Fig: Ploter

Speaker
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers external to a computer, that
disable the lower fidelity built-in speaker. They often have a low-power internal amplifier.
The standard audio connection is a 3.5 mm (approximately 1/8 inch) stereo jack plug often
color-coded lime green (following the PC 99 standard) for computer sound cards. A plug and
socket for a two-wire (signal and ground) coaxial cable is widely used to
connect analogaudio and video components. Rows of RCA sockets are found on the backs of
stereo amplifier and numerous A/V products. The prong is 1/8" thick by 5/16" long. A few
use an RCA connector for input. There are also USB speakers which are powered from the
5 volts at 500 milliamps provided by the USB port, allowing about 2.5 watts of output
power.

System Unit
The box or cabinet that contains the microcomputer’s pocessing hardware & other
components is called system unit. The system unit doesn’t include the keyboard or printer
or mouse or monitor. It is consists of peripheral devices like power supply unit, memory,
motherboard, optical drives etc. system unit is composed of following parts:

Fig: Tower System Unit Fig: Desktop System Unit

 - Power supply
- Motherboard
- Microprocessor/CPU (Central Processing Unit)
- RAM (Read Access Memory)
- ROM (Read Only Memory)
- Hard disk drive
- Optical drive
- Floppy disk drive
- Cache Mamory
- Bus system
- Interface port
- Expanstion Slot

Fig: Various Parts of System Unit

Power Supply Unit

The power supply is the device that supplies power to computer. Computer runs on DC
(Direct Current). It converts AC (Alternative Current) to low voltage DC for the internal
components of system unit. Some power supplies have manual selector for input voltage &
someothers have automatic adapt to supply voltage. The on/off switch in a computer turns
on or shuts off the electricity to a power supply through motherboard by signals. They also
provide a signal to the motherboard to indicate when the DC power lines are correct so that
the computer is able to boot up.
 Fig: Power Supply Unit

Motherboard
The motherboard also called the system board or planer board or logic board, is the painted
main circuit board in the system unit. This board acts as a container for the different
components in the system unit & all components of system unit are dirctly joint with this
board. It holds RAM, ROM, Processor etc.
 Fig: Motherboard

Microprocessor/CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The microprocessor/CPU is at the heart of the computer system and forms the main
component of the computer itself. CPU is like the Brain Of Computer. The part which does
the work of data processing is called CPU (Central Processing Unit). Within the CPU there
are three parts; the control unit, the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and registers. Together
they are responsible for the overall operations that make the computer work. Computer
programs are simply a list of instructions that have to be carried out in a particular order.
The control unit sends signals that fetch each of these instructions in turn from the main
memory (they are held in registers within the processor). It then decodes and executes
them. The ALU is involved from time to time where it is necessary to perform arithmetic
calculations or make logical decisions. This is far removed from the games and application
programs with which you are familiar but all programs are run in this manner.
 Fig: Microprocessor

Fig: Process work of CPU

There are three parts of a microprocessor. These parts are described below:

Control unit
The control unit tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out a program’s
instructions. It directs the movment of electronic signals between main memory & the
arithmetic logic unit. It also directs these electronic signals between main memory & the
input & output devices. The main functions of the control unit are:

- to control the timing of operations within the processor

- to send out signals that fetch instructions from the main memory
- to interpret these instructions
- to carry out instructions that are fetched from the main memory

In general the control unit is responsible for the running of programs that are loaded into
the main memory.

Control Unit
Primary

Memory
 ALU

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

ALU is like calulator of computer. It does all arithmetic & decision making function. The
circuits which are needed for arithmetic function is included to ALU. ALU dose all arithmetic
function by the intruction of control unit.

The main functions of the ALU are:

- to perform arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction,multiplication, division)

- to perform logic functions involving branching, e.g. IF…THEN

Memory Unit Accumulator

Control
Logic
Unit
Circuit

B Register

Fig: ALU

Registers
The control unit & the ALU also contain register, special high-speed circuitry areas that
temporarily store data during processing & provide working areas for computation. The
computer loads the program instructions & data from main memory into the registers just
before processing. There are several types of registers, including an instruction register,
which holds the instruction being executed; an address register, which holds the address
(location) of the data; a program register, which holds status information; & an
accumulator, which holds the results of the ALU’s logic operations.
ROM (Read Only Memory)
Read Only Memory(ROM) is one kind of main memory of computer. It is a semi-conductor
memory. ROM is used to store a small part of the operating system called the bootstrap
loader or BIOS (Basic Input Output System). In ROM program is written Permanently. ROM
can’t be changed or extended. When your computer is switched on, the bootstrap loader
examines the backing store devices to find the operating system. Now a day in ROM data
can be deleted & new data can be entried.

ROM has the following features:

1. data in ROM is permanently etched onto a microchip

2. ROM is read-only so it cannot be changed

3. data on ROM is not lost when the computer is switched off.

4. ROM is programmed in factory

Fig: ROM (Read Only Memory)

 Fig: BIOS

There are many kinds of ROM in market. Among them some popular ROM have given
below:

- Mask Programmable ROM (MROM)

- Programmable ROM (PROM)
- Eraseable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
- Electrically Eraseable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)
- Flash ROM

RAM (Read Access Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the largest part of the main memory. This is where the
operating system is stored; it also holds all program sand data. It’s a semi-conductor
memory. Date is stored temporarily in RAM. If electricity is gone or shut computer down, all
date in it would be erased. Additional RAM chips can be purchased and installed them in
computer. RAM can be classified mainly in two classes.

1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

- Synchronous DRAM
- Asynchronous DRAM
 Fast page
 Extended Data Output (EDO)
 Burst Extended Data Output (BEDO)
 Error Correcting Code Memory (ECC)
2. Static RAM (SRAM)

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

In DRAM bit (0 &1) are save as electrical charge in Capacitors. The capacitors are made of
MOS Transistor. Charge saved in capacitors has an attitude to be discharged. So after a
definite time DRAM has to be recharged by refreshing. It loses less power.

Fig: DRAM

Static RAM (SRAM)

SRAM is made of Flip-flop which save bit 0 &1. In this RAM data stays as long as the
electricity stays. If the electricity shut off the data are erased. It’s faster than DRAM but
costly. SRAM is used as Cache memory.

Fig: SRAM

Hard disk drive (HDD)

A hard disk is a rigid disk with a magnetized surface. The surface is divided into tracks and
sectors on which data is stored magnetically. The data is read by a read/write head fixed to
an arm that moves across the surface of the disk. Hard disks are usually sealed in a
protective container to prevent dust corrupting the data. Hard disks rotate at much higher
speeds than floppy disks, reaching speeds of up to 7200 rotations per minute. This means
that the fastest hard disk can transfer data from disk to computer at the rate of 22 Mb per
second. Some can even manage higher transfer rates in short bursts of up to 33 Mb per
second. The standard amount for a desktop computer is currently 20 GB but it is possible to
purchase hard disks with a capacity of 1TB. Now a days portable hard drive is found in
market.

Fig: Hard Disk Drive

Optical Drives
Optical drive disks are more secure than tapes as they cannot be erased by magnetic
devices. Data is written into the disk by burning a permanent pattern on the surface using a
laser beam. Data is read using a laser of low intensity.

Layers of light-sensitive chemicals on the surfaces of CD-R and CD-RW media create shiny
and dull spots along the groove that the laser reads. CD-Rs use a dye that works much like
photographic film, but CD-RWs contain a chemical that can switch between being clear and
opaque hundreds of times. Mass-produced CDs are stamped with microscopic pits that
produce the same effect.

CD-ROM drive
The term CD-ROM is short for compact disk read-only memory. CD-ROM disks can only be
used to read information stored on them – the user cannot save data to a CD-ROM disk. CD-
ROM writers use a high-powered laser to store data by making tiny pits in the surface of the
CD-ROM disk. The pattern of these pits is read by a sensor in the CD-ROM drive that detects
light reflected off the surface of the disk. The patterns are then turned into binary numbers.
The capacity of CD-ROM disks ranges from 650 Mb to 700 Mb of data. With compression the
capacity can be up to 1.3 GB. CD R can be written to once only but CD RW can be written to
over and over again as with magnetic media.

DVD-ROM drive (digital versatile disk)

These disks are the same size (12 cm) and composition (polycarbonate) as CDs, but store
more information as a consequence of smaller track spacing and smaller ‘lands and pits’
(bits).

In addition, they can be recorded on both sides, and in two layers on each side. There are
four types of DVD:
 Fig: Optical Drive & disk

Floppy Disk Drive

A floppy disk is a small disk that the user can remove from the floppy disk drive. The disk is
made from circular plastic plates coated in ferric oxide. When the disk is formatted or
initialized, the surface of the disk is divided into tracks and sectors on which data is stored
as magnetic patterns. The disk itself is floppy but is covered in a hard plastic case to protect
it. The standard size is 3.5". Floppy disks are relatively slow to access because they rotate far
more slowly than hard disks, at only six revolutions per second, and only start spinning
when requested. The access speed is about 36 Kb per second. High-density disks hold 1.44
Mb of data (enough to store about 350 pages of A4 text). A floppy disk needs to be
formatted before it can be used but most disks are now sold already formatted.

Fig: Floppy Disk Drive & Floppy Disk

Video Card
A Video Card is the part of a computer system that converts binary code from the CPU so you can
view it on a monitor. Most of the processing done on a computer is done via the computer's central
processing unit, or CPU. So in order to give the CPU a break and help it run more efficiently, a video
card can be used to process the graphics portion of the processing load. Because most of today's
programs are graphically oriented, the video card can help almost any program run more efficiently.
However, the difference in performance is especially noticeable in image editing applications and 3D
game.

Fig: Video Card

Cache Memory
It is a small block of high-speed memory (RAM) that enhances PC performance by pre-
loading information from the (relatively slow) main memory and passing it to the processor
on demand. Most CPUS have an internal cache (in-built in the processor) which is referred
to as Level-I cache memory or primary cache memory. This can be supplemented by
external cache memory fitted on the motherboard. This is the Level-2 Cache memory or
secondary cache. Some CPUs have both L1 and L2 cache built-in and designate the separate
cache chip as Level 3 (L3) cache.

Fig: Cache Memory

Bus System
This is the third type of components existed inside the processor. The main use of the bus is
to transfer any type of data between components inside the processor or among the
processor and the remaining devices inside the computer such as motherboard. The buses
are divided into three main subtypes:
Data Bus: this type is used to transfer the data bytes between elements inside the
processor. For example when the ALU outputs the result it may transfer it to registers by the
data bus. It is named so because it is responsible to transfer only data bytes.

Address Bus: this type of buses is used to fetch certain data from memory based on the
number on the address bus. For example if the address bus has a binary value of 1101. Then
it will fetch the value in memory in that address. Thus the address bus tells the processing
units where to find the data in memory or where to put the computed data in memory.

Control Bus: this type of buses is used to transfer control signals between elements of the
processor. For example, when an instruction is decoded that it has addition operation, it will
inform the ALU that the operation is addition by putting certain value on the control bus.
When the Processor decodes this value it will understand that the operation is addition
based on the value on the address bus.

Expansion Buses
An input/output pathway from the CPU to peripheral devices typically made up of a series
of slots on the motherboard. Expansion boards (cards) plug into the bus. PCI is the common
expansion bus in a PC and other hardware platforms. Buses carry signals, such as data;
memory addresses, power and control signals from component to component. Expansion
buses enhance the PCs capabilities by allowing users to add missing features in their
computers in form of adapter cards that are slotted in expansion slots. The different types of
buses include PCI, ISA, and EISA expansion bus.
 Fig: Expansion Bus

Chipset
A chipset is a group of small circuits that coordinate the flow of data to and from key
components of a PC. This includes the CPU itself, the main memory, the secondary cache
and any devices situated on the buses. The chipset also controls data flow to and from hard
disks, and other devices connected to the IDE channels. A computer has got two main
chipsets:-

Northbridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling transfers between
the processor and the RAM, which is way it is located physically near the processor. It is
sometimes called the GMCH, for Graphic and Memory Controller Hub. Southbridge (also
called the input/output controller or expansion controller) handles communications between
peripheral devices. It is also called the ICH (I/O Controller Hub). The Term Bridge is generally
used to designate a component which connects two buses. Chipset manufacturers include
SIS, VIA, ALI, OPTI etc.

Ports & Connectors:

To give input or receive output I/O or peripheral devices are connected with computer by
cable. To connect this cables computer has several connectors, these connectors are called
port. Ports can be two types. These are:

Male port: the ports which have pin to connect, these are called male port.

Female port: the ports which have hole to connect, these are called male port.
Ports of computer are described below

Serial Port: A serial port is used to connect external modems or an older computer mouse
to the computer. It comes in two versions a 9-pin version or a 25- pin model. The 9-pin is
found on most new computers. Data travels over a serial port at 115 kilobits per second.
Parallel Port: A parallel port is used to connect external devices such as scanners and
printers. The 25-pin port is sometimes it is called a printer port. It's also known by the
gruesome named: IEEE 1284-compliant Centroids port. The port is sometimes also called
more simply a "printer" port. There are two variants for this type of interface. The ports look
exactly like the traditional parallel port but are called ECP (Extend Capabilities Port) and EPP
(Enhanced Parallel Port). These interfaces are ten times faster than the older printer port
and can support two-way data so that computers can ask for information from a printer as
well as send it.

Fig: Parallel Port & Connector

PS/2 Port: A PS/2 port, sometimes called a mouse port, was developed by IBM. It is used
to connect a computer mouse or keyboard. Most computers come with two PS/2 ports.
Sometimes webcams piggyback on the ports in conjunction with a parallel port. Sometimes
it is not necessary to use a mouse port, as some keyboards and mice can be used with a USB
port.

Fig: PS/2 Port & Connector

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port: A universal serial bus port, introduced around
1997, is the gateway to computer. It's used to connect all kinds of external devices, such as
external hard drives, printers, mice, scanners and more. There are normally two half-inch
long USB ports on the back of computers built since 1998. Sometimes there are USB ports
built into a hatch on the front of a computer. By use a USB hub it is possible to connect as
many as 127 devices to a USB port. It can transfer data to a speed of 12 megabits per
second, but those 127 devices have to share that speed. Since USB-compliant devices can
draw power from a USB port only a few power drawing devices can connect at the same
time without the computer system complaining. In 2003, USB 2.0 connectors were
introduced on computers. These transfer data at 480 Mbps. Older USB devices work with
USB 2.0 ports, but at 12 Mbps. USB 2.0 devices also work with older USB ports, again at the
lower speed.

Fig: USB hub & Cable

Monitor Port: This connector is used to attach a computer display monitor to a

computer's video card. The connector has 15 holes. It sort of looks like a serial port
connector, however that port has pins not holes in it. There are two types of monitor video
port. One is for IBM & IBM compatible computer & other is for Apple or Macintosh
computer. Though there are 15 holes but these holes are arranged in many ways.

Power Connector: This three-pronged plug looks like a recessed power plug. It connects
to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.

IEEE 1394 or "Firewire" Port: This port is used to transfer large amounts of data very
quickly. Usually camcorders and other video equipment use this port to get data onto a
computer. Data can move across the port at up to 400 megabits per second. Apple invented
this technology and had branded it Firewire. It was also adopted as an industry standard and
is called IEEE 1394 on non-Apple computers. Other companies call it link and Lynx. Creative
Labs which incorporated it into their SoundBlaster Audigy Platinum products call it SB 1394
(pictured on the right). IEEE 1394 connectors can be used to connect up to 63 external
devices to a machine. TOP: A 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector Middle: A 4-Pin FireWire 400
connector. This connector is not powered. Bottom: A 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.
Audio & Video Port: This is an optical (not electrical) cable to connect Mac to a set of
high end speakers. The port was introduced with the Mac G5. The digital format is S/PDIF,
which in the PC world is often sent over a regular electrical cable (usually with an RCA
phonon plug). The geeky advantage of the optical cable (note the red glow) is that it's totally
immune to electromagnetic interference--long speaker wires can act as an antenna, picking
up the stray 60 Hz hum that pervades the universe.

Network Port: For faster Internet connections and for networking, an Ethernet or
network port is used. This looks like an oversized North American telephone jack. The port is
used to connect network cabling to a computer. Cable plugged into this port can lead either
to a network hub (a junction box that can wire lots of network cables together), directly to a
cable modem or DSL modem (both used for high speed Internet) or to an Internet gateway
which shares a fast Internet connection between computers. Most new computers have one
of these ports. They can either be built-in to or appear on the exposed part of an Ethernet
PCI card, which inserts into a slot inside the computer. Data moves through them at speeds
of either 10 megabits or 100 megabits or 1 gigabit (1,000 megabits) depending on what
speed the network card in the computer supports. Little monitor lights on these devices
flicker when in use. The "ACT" light flickers when data is moving through the network to or
from the port. The 10 or 100 lights relate to data speed. "10" means data is moving across
the network at 10 Megabits per second. "100" means the network is moving data at 100
megabits per second.

Game Port: Connect a PC to a joystick (or two). This port is now mostly replaced by USB.
This DB-15 connector has several (extremely primitive) analogue inputs and a small number
of digital inputs and outputs. Because the MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
standard scavenged two pins from this port, the port is almost always located on the sound
card. Apparently people that use MIDI normally has some sort of big ugly dongle that
extracts MIDI signals from their joystick port.
Software
Software is a collection of programs & related data that provides the instructions for telling
a computer what to do & how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer programs
& data held in the storage of computer for some reasons. In the other words, software is a
set of programs, procedures, algorithms & its documentation concerned with the operation
of a data processing system.

Software can be classified in two types:

1. System software
2. Application software

System software
System software works “behind the screen”; it “underlines” applications software. These
programs start up the computer & function as the principal coordinator of all hardware
components & applications software programs. Without system software hardware &
application soft wares are useless. System software can be divided in some types. They are:

1. Operating system
2. Device driver or Software driver
3. Utility program

Operating system
An operating system is a group of programs that automatically load from hard disk when
turn on computer & these programs remain in RAM until turn computer off in order to
control, supervise , direct & support all software & hardware. There are many types of
operating systems in popular use today: Linux, Windows, UNIX, Mac OS etc. All four of these
operating systems run on personal computers. Among them Mac OS is used for apple &
mackintosh computer. But Windows are the most popular & widely used operating system.

Fig: Logos of Different OS

Operating system can be divided into six classes. These are:

1. Batch mood OS: CP/M, MS-DOS, PC-DOS etc.

2. Multi pocessing OS: UNIX, LINUX, Windows NT etc.
3. Multi programming OS: Windows 7, Windows Vista, MacOS etc.
4. Time sharing OS: IBM/VM, Windows 2008 server etc.
5. Real time OS: Windows CE etc.

Operating system is consists of two types of program. These are:

1. Control program
2. Service program

Control program
Control program controls several works. These are:

1. Input/output control
2. Resolving interrupts
3. Error handling
4. Sending message to users
5. User protection & accounting
6. Time allocation
7. Resource control
8. Job schedule
9. Executing several programs at a time
10. Maintain serial in program direction

On the other hand control program controls the instructions given to CPU. Moreover control
program has also three types of program. These are:

1. Supervisor program
 2. Job control program
3. Input/output control program

Operating system can be further divided in two types. These are:

1. Text based operating system: in this system instructions are given by typing &
pressing keys of keyboard.
2. Graphical user interface (GUI) operating system: in this system all works are done by
mouse & keyboard by using different icons & pull-down menu.

Fig: GUI OS Fig: Text based OS (MS-DOS)

Device driver/Driver software

Device driver or driver software is one kind of high level program which directs & supports
any dual connected hardware. Device driver makes a dual path between operating system &
peripheral device. Popular & widely used device drivers are coordinated with operating
system. For example: in order to use a new printer it must be installed the device driver of
that printer.

Fig: Driver Software

Utility program
Utility preprogram, the second part of system software, are generally used to support,
enhance or expand existing programs in a computer system. Many operating systems have
utility program build-in for common purpose. Additional utility programs are available
separately.

Fig: Utility program (Disk Defragmenter)

Application Software
Application Software consists of computer programs designed to satisfy a user’s needs. The
task or problem may require, for example, word processing, mainttenance of different types
of data in different types of files, computation of payroll processing,creation of animation
etc. application softwares communicate to system software all file management & resource
requests. Every application works through “layers” in the computer to get to the hardware
& perform the desired result. The application software layer as what the computer is doing
the system software as how the computer does it. Both system software & applications
software must be purchased by the user.

Fig: Appication Software

Humanware
Humanware refers to the persons who program, design and operate a computer
installation. Such as System Analyst, Programmer and computer operator.

USES OF COMPUTER:
A computer is an electronic device, which executes software programs. It is made up of two
parts - hardware and software . The computer processes input through input devices like
mouse and keyboard. The computer displays output through output devices like a monitor
and printer. The size of a computer varies considerably from small personal computers to
gigantic supercomputers which require an entire building to host them. The speed also has a
very large range. Computers have become indispensable in today's world. Let us take a look
at some of their uses.

 Word Processing - Word Processing software automatically corrects spelling and

grammar mistakes. If the content of a document repeats, you don't have to type it
each time. You can use the copy and paste features. You can print documents and
make several copies. It is easier to read a word-processed document than a
handwritten one. You can add images to your document.
 Internet - It is a network of almost all the computers in the world. You can browse
through much more information than you could do in a library. That is because
computers can store enormous amounts of information. You also have very fast and
convenient access to information. Through E-Mail, you can communicate with a
person sitting thousands of miles away in a few seconds. Chat software enables one
to chat with another on a real-time basis. Video conferencing tools are becoming
readily available to the common man.
 Digital video or audio composition - Audio or video composition and editing have
been made much easier by computers. It no longer costs thousands of dollars of
equipment to compose music or make a film. Graphics engineers can use computers
to generate short or full-length films or even to create 3D models. Anybody owning a
computer can now enter the field of media production. Special effects in science-
fiction and action movies are created using computers.
 Desktop publishing - With desktop publishing, you can create page layouts for entire
books on your personal computer.
 Medicine - You can diagnose diseases. You can learn the cures. Software is used in
magnetic resonance imaging to examine the internal organs of the human body.
Software is used for performing surgery. Computers are used to store patient data.
 Mathematical Calculations - Thanks to computers, which have computing speeds of
over a million calculations per second we can perform the biggest of mathematical
calculations.
 Banks - All financial transactions are done by computer software. They provide
security, speed and convenience.
 Travel - One can book air tickets or railway tickets and make hotel reservations
online.
  Telecommunications - Software is widely used here. Also all mobile phones have
software embedded in them.
 Defense - There is software embedded in almost every weapon. Software is used for
controlling the flight and targeting in ballistic missiles. Software is used to control
access to atomic bombs.
 E-Learning - Instead of a book it is easier to learn from an E-learning software.
 Gambling - You can gamble online instead of going to a casino.
 Examinations - You can give online exams and get instant results. You can check your
examination results online.
 Business - Shops and supermarkets use software, which calculate the bills. Taxes can
be calculated and paid online. Accounting is done using computers. One can predict
future trends of business using artificial intelligence software. Software is used in
major stock markets. One can do trading online. There are fully automated factories
running on software.
 Certificates - Different types of certificates can be generated. It is very easy to create
and change layouts.
 ATM machines - The computer software authenticates the user and dispenses cash.
 Marriage - There are matrimonial sites through which one can search for a suitable
groom or bride.
 News - There are many websites through which you can read the latest or old news.
 Classmates - There are many alumni websites through which you can regain contact
with your classmates.
 Robotics - Robots are controlled by software.
 Electronic gadgets run with the help of computers. There are various software which
are used to increase the efficiency of these devices. Timers, self-controlled switches -
these ensure that the machines ask for minimum human effort.
 Planning and Scheduling - Software can be used to store contact information,
generating plans, scheduling appointments and deadlines.
 Plagiarism - Software can examine content for plagiarism.
 Greeting Cards - You can send and receive greetings pertaining to different
occasions.
 Sports - Software is used for making umpiring decisions. There is simulation software
using which a sportsperson can practice his skills. Computers are also to identify
flaws in technique.
 Airplanes - Pilots train on software, which simulates flying.
 Weather analysis - Supercomputers are used to analyze and predict weather.

Computers have leapfrogged the human society into another league. It is used in each and
every aspect of human life. They will spearhead the human quest of eradicating social
problems like illiteracy and poverty. It is difficult to imagine a world bereft of computers.
This revolutionary technology is indeed a boon to the human race. May computers continue
to shower their blessings to us.

Conclution
Computer is the bless of modern science. Dar by day is being modernized & developed.
Along with this it’s working capasity & uses are being more developed & wide extand