CONCEPTS & FUNDAMENTAS OF REMOTE SENSING

INTRODUCTION: Remote Sensing is the science, art and technology of obtaining information
about an object, area or phenomena through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in
physical contact with the object, area or phenomena under investigation. Remote sensing techniques
enable us to study objects without being in touch with that object or without interfering with the
object. Hence, remote sensing leaves the object undisturbed while observing, that is one of the major
advantages of remote sensing compared to laboratory analyses or field experiments. Literally, any
data/information collected from a remotely device are called Remote Sensing techniques. This name
is attributed to recent technology in which satellites and spacecraft are used for collecting information
about the earth's surface. This was an outcome of developments in various technological fields from
1960 onward. Here, we are concern on electromagnetic energy(EMR) sources that are being
operated from airborne and space borne platforms to assist in inventorying, mapping and monitoring
of earth resources. Information about the object concerned is obtained by a sensor system located on a
satellite or aircraft, which receives electromagnetic radiation which has been either emitted by the
object or has interacted with the object. Here we will consider the latter case, in which the source of
radiation is not the object.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF REMOTE SENSING: When one is reading, it is an example of

simple remote sensing. Three basic things are 1. Source of Energy, 2. Object and 3. Linkage
between energy & object. Eyes are acting as sensors that respond to the lights(EMR) reflected from
the page. Light is falling on the object and light is reflected from the object, which is recorded by the
sensor and the object is recognized.

Sensor Linkage by Light i.e. EMR Object

A simple camera with flash is also an example of remote sensing technology. Here, flash is the
sourse of energy, which fall on the object, the object reflected energy that is captured by camera
lense and is recorded at flim negative, finally from photograph one can identify the object.
An ideal remote sensing process can be divided into six stages: Stages are : A) an energy source;
B) Propagation through the atmosphere; C) subsequent interaction with the ground target; D)

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 transmission of energy from earth surface features to atmosphare; E) energy recorded by a sensor as
data; and F) data products; displayed digitally for visual and numerical interpretation.

Figure 1: A system for electromagnetic Remote Sensing of the Earth including communication
facilities

1. Energy Sources and Radiation Principals: The natural source of energy is the sun in the form of
electromagnetic radiation or the emitted heat by the earth itself, or it is an artificial man-made source
of energy such as microwave radar. The source of energy utilized for remote sensing observation is
used to divide remote sensing systems into passive and active systems:

A passive remote sensing system observes the radiation reflected by the object of interest. The
energy source of such a system is most often the sun. Examples of passive remote sensing systems are
the sensors aboard the IRS, Landsat, SPOT satellites.

Active remote sensing systems combine the energy source and the sensor. The artificial energy
source emits electromagnetic energy in specific wavelengths towards the object and the sensor

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registers the reflected radiation. Especially radar systems, such as the Sideways Looking Airborne
Radar (SLAR) and SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) are most often active systems. Another well-
known example of an active remote sensing system is a photo camera with a flash.

Figure: 2 Shows the components of an active and passive remote sensing system

Table- 1: Metric Nomenclature for distance

Unit Symbol Equivalent Comment

Kilometer Km 1000 m = 103 m
Meter m 1.0 m = 100 m Basic Unit
Centimeter cm 0.01 m = 10-2 m
Millimeter mm 0.001 m = 10-3 m
Micrometer m 0.000001 m = 10-6 m Formerly called
Nanometer nm 109 m micron ()

Table- 2: Terms used to designate frequencies

Unit Symbol Frequency Cycles. Sec.
Hertz Hz 1
Kilohertz KHz 103
Megahertz MHz 106
Gigahertz GHz 109

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Visible light is only one of many forms of electromagnetic energy(EMR). It is a dynamic form of
10
energy that propagates as wave motion at a velocity of c = 3 x 10 cm/sec. The parameters that
characterize a wave motion are wavelength ( ), which is the distance between the successive wave
peaks; frequency (  ), the number of peaks passing a fixed point in space per unit time and velocity
(c). Three measurements are used to describe electromagnetic waves: wavelength (λ in micrometer:
µm or nanometers: nm, 1µm=1000nm); - frequency (v in Hertz: Hz); The relationship between the
above is

c = . ……… 1

Figure 3: Electromagnetic Radiation

Since C is constant, frequency  and wavelength  of any given wave are inversely related.
Electromagnetic energy radiates in accordance with the basic wave theory. This theory describes the
EM energy as travelling in a harmonic sinusoidal fashion at the velocity of light. In remote sensing, it
is most common to categorize electromagnetic waves by their wavelength location within the
electromagnetic spectrum(Fig.4 ). The most prevalent unit used to measure wavelength along the
spectrum is the micrometer(µm = 1 * 10 -6 m).

Electromagnetic radiation covers a very large range of wavelengths and is categorized by their
wavelength location within the electromagnetic spectrum. There is no clear-cut dividing line between
one nominal spectral region and the next. In Remote sensing we are concerned with radiation from
ultraviolet (UV) which has wavelengths from 0.3 to 0.4 m to radar wavelengths in the region 10 cm.

The light, which our eyes can detect, is part of the visible spectrum. It is important to recognize
how small the visible portion is relative to the rest of the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation around
us that is "invisible" to our eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing instruments. The visible
wavelengths cover a range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 m . The longest visible wavelength is red
and the shortest is violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as particular colors from the
visible portion of the spectrum are listed below. It is important to note that this is the only portion of
the spectrum we can associate with the concept of colors.

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  Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 m
 Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 m
 Green: 0.500 - 0.578 m
 Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 m
 Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 m
 Red: 0.620 - 0.7 m
Blue, green, and red are the primary colors or wavelengths of the visible spectrum. They are
defined as such because all other colors can be formed by combining blue, green, and red in various
proportions. Sunlight is actually composed of various wavelengths of radiation in primarily the
ultraviolet, visible and infrared portions of the spectrum. Ultraviolet(UV) energy extends just to the
shorter wavelengths portion of the visible spectrum. Adjoining the red end of the visible region lies
infrared(IR) waves [ near IR(0.7 – 1.3 µm), mid-IR(1.3 – 3 µm ) and thermal IR(beyond 3 µm).
Microwave portion, the much longer wave lies between 1mm to 1m.

Table- 3: Electromagnetic spectral regions

Region Wavelength Remarks
Incoming radiation is
completely absorbed by the
Gamma ray < 0.03 nm
upper atmosphere and is not
available for remote sensing.
Completely absorbed by
X-ray 0.03 to 3.0 nm atmosphere. Not employed in
remote sensing.
Incoming wavelengths less
than 0.3 m are completely
Ultraviolet 0.03 to 0.4 m
absorbed by ozones in the
upper atmosphere.
Transmitted through
atmosphere. Detectable with
Photographic UV Band 0.3 to 0.4 m film and photo detectors, but
atmospheric scattering is
severe.
Imaged with film and photo
detectors. Includes reflected
Visible 0.4 to 0.7 m
energy peak of earth at 0.5 m

Region Wavelength Remarks

Interaction with matter varies
with wavelength. Absorption
Infrared 0.7 to 100 m
bands separate atmospheric
transmission windows.
Reflected solar radiation that
Reflected IR band 0.7 to 3.0 m contains no information about
thermal properties of

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 materials. The band from 0.7
to 0.9 m is detectable with
film and is called the
photographic IR band.
Principal atmospheric
windows in the thermal
region. Images at these
Thermal IR band 3 to 5 m, 8 to 14 m wavelengths are acquired by
optical- mechanical scanners
and special vidicon systems
but not by films.
Longer wavelengths can
penetrate clouds, fog, and rain.
Microwave 0.1 to 30 cm
Images may be acquired in the
active or passive mode.
Active form of microwave
remote sensing. Rader images
Radar 0.1 to 30 cm
are acquired at various
wavelength bands.
Longest wavelength portion of
electromagnetic spectrum.
Radio > 30 cm Some classified radars with
very long wavelength operate
in this region.
Source: Floyed F. Sabins, Jr.(1986) .

The electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is the source of all signals collected by most remote sensing
instruments. The source of this energy varies depending on the sensor characteristics. Most systems
rely on the sun to generate all the EM energy needed to image terrestrial surfaces. These systems are
called passive sensors. Other sensors generate their own energy, called active sensors, transmit that
energy in a certain direction and records the portion reflected back by features within the signal path.
Electromagnetic energy can be generated by changes in the energy levels of electrons, acceleration of
electrical charges, decay of radioactive substances, and the thermal motion of atoms and molecules

Although many characteristics of EM energy are easily described by wave theory another theory
known as particle theory offers insight into how electromagnetic energy interacts with matter. It
suggests that EMR is composed of many discrete units called photons/quanta.

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The energy of quantum is given as:

Q= h 

Where Q : Energy of a photon (Joules: J);

-34
h : Planck’ constant 6.626*10 J sec;
v : frequency;

The equation (2) may also be express as Q = hc / 

From these formulae it can be seen that the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its
wavelength: the longer the wavelength involved, the lower its energy content. This has important
implications in RS from the standpoint that naturally emitted long wavelength radiation, such as
microwave emissions from terrain features, is more difficult to sense than radiation from shorter
wavelengths, such as emitted thermal IR energy. The low energy content of long wavelength
radiation means that, in general, systems operating at long wavelengths must “view” large areas of
the earth at any given time in order to obtain a detectable energy signal.

Every object with a temperature above absolute zero (0°K or -273°C) continuously radiates energy.
Apart form the most commonly used source of radiant energy, the sun, all terrestrial objects are also
sources of radiation (although their energy content is much lower). The amount of energy emitted is
mainly a function of the temperature of the object and is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
4
W = σ*T
W : total radiated energy (Watts/m²);
-8 -2 -4
σ : Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67*10 W m K ;
T : absolute temperature (°K) of the object.
4
It is important to note that total energy emitted from an object varies as T , and therefore increases
vary rapidly with increases in temperature. The Stefan-Boltzmann relation is only valid for so-
called black bodies. A blackbody is an ideal material that absorbs all the radiant energy that strikes it.
A blackbody is a hypothetical, ideal radiator that totally absorbers and reemits all energy fall on it.
The rate of production of energy by a hot surface depends upon its temperature, nature and the area.
A dull black surface radiates more energy per unit time than a polished one of the same area and
temperature. The emitted radiation increases with the increase in the blackness so, the radiation is
maximum for a perfect black surface. This radiation is called blackbody radiation. In reality, materials
do not behave as blackbodies. All real bodies emit only a fraction of the energy emitted from a
blackbody at the equivalent temperature. The emitting ability of a real body, compared to that of a
blackbody, at a given temperature is referred to as its emissivity(ε). Emissivity is a factor that
describes efficiently body radiates energy compaired to a blackbody. By deification, emissivity is the
ratio of radiant flux of the real body and a blackbody from an object at a given temperature to that of

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a body at the same temperature. The value of ε can be between 0 and 1. Physically, no object at the
earth surface has an absorptivity of 1 and no object radiates the full amount of energy given in the
Stefan-Boltzmann equation. Remember that emissivity can vary with wavelength and angle of view.
A graybody has an emissivity less than 1. If the emissivity of an object varies with wavelength, the
object is said to be a selective radiator.

Fig. 5: Spectral emissivities and radiant existences for a black body, gray body & selective radiator
(after Hudson, 1969)

The temperature of the object does not only determine the amount of energy radiated, but controls
also the wavelength at which the maximum amount of energy is radiated, generally referred to as λmax.
Figure 6 shows radiant curves for objects ranging in temperature from 6000°K (the sun) to 200°K (the
coldest objects at the surface of the earth). Hence, with increasing temperature the total amount of
radiant energy increases and the radiant peak (λmax) shifts to shorter wavelengths.

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This shift is described by Wien’s displacement law:

λmax = A / Trad
A : constant 2897 µm °K;
Trad : radiant temperature, °K.
So, for a blackbody, the wavelength at which the maximum spectral radiant existence occurs varies
inversely with the blackbody’s absolute temperature. This formula is useful to calculate the
wavelength of the radiant energy peak of objects. For example, the temperature of the earth is
approximately 300°K (27°C) and its λmax is situated around 9.7 µm. Consequently, thermal infrared
observations of the earth are carried out around 9.7 µm (thermal infrared region: 3-14 µm). Figure 3
shows the spectral distribution of energy radiated from a blackbody of various temperatures and
Spectral distribution of energy radiated from a blackbody of various temperatures according to the
law of Stefan-Boltzman and the displacement law of Wien. (Lillesand & Kiefer, 1987). The curves
(Fig.6) also show that there is a shift towards shorter wavelengths in the peak of a blackbody
radiation distribution as temperature increases.

Figure 6: Spectral distribution of energy radiated from Blackbodies at various temperatures.

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2. Energy Interaction in the Atmosphere: Electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun must pass
the atmosphere before it reaches the surface of the earth. A sensor aboard a satellite or aircraft
measures reflected radiation which also has to pass the atmosphere or at least a part of the
atmosphere. The distance radiation has to pass through the atmosphere is called path length. The
path length varies widely. In passive satellite imaging system sunlight passes through the full
thickness of the earth’s atmosphere twice on its journey from source to sensor. On the other hand an
airborne thermal sensor detects energy emitted directly from objects on the earth, so a single,
relatively short atmospheric path length is involved. The net effect of the atmosphere varies with
these differences in path length and also varies with the magnitude of the energy signal being sensed,
the atmospheric condition present, and the wavelength involved.

Unfortunately, the atmosphere is not completely transparent for radiation. Radiation is absorbed and
scattered in the atmosphere. Absorption and scattering are both a function of wavelength and path
length. Furthermore, they depend on the conditions in the atmosphere at the time of data acquisition.
As the conditions of the atmosphere vary largely in space and time, it is very difficult to assess the
exact effect of atmospheric distortion upon the sensed images. As a result it also very difficult to
correct images for these effects.

The interaction of EMR with the atmosphere is important to remote sensing for two main
reasons. First, information carried by EMR reflected/emitted by the earth's surface is modified while
traversing through the atmosphere. Second, the interaction of EMR with the atmosphere can be used
to obtain useful information about the atmosphere itself.

Scattering: Atmospheric scattering is unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles in the

atmosphere. Atmospheric scattering results from interactions between radiation and gases and
particles in the atmosphere (figure 1.7). Two types of scattering are recognized: selective scattering
and non-selective scattering. In non-selective scattering all wavelengths of light are equally
scattered. Non-selective scattering is caused by particles (dust, clouds and fog) much larger than the
energy wavelengths being sensed. Water droplets with a diameter of 5 to 100 µm cause for example
non-selective scattering.
In selective scattering, the shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet and blue are scattered more severely
than the longer wavelengths. Selective scattering is caused by smoke, fumes and by gases such as
nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Examples of selective scattering are Rayleigh scatter and Mie
scatter.

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Rayleigh scatter is the most common type of scattering and affects the short visible wavelengths.
Rayleigh scatter is caused by particles in the atmosphere much smaller diameter than the wavelength
of radiation (< 0.1λ). A blue sky is a result of Rayleigh scatter. The scattering of visible light(0.4 –
-4
0.75 m) by pure gas molecules of the order of 10 m in size are characterized under rayleigh
criteria and scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Hence, shorter
wavelengths such as blue light are scattered severely as compared to green or red causing sky to
appear blue during day time. For this reason no remote sensing measurement is taken in 0.3-0.45m
spectral window. It also results haze in image. Haze can be eliminated, or at least minimized, in
photography by putting a filter in front of camera lens, that dose not transmit short wavelengths .It
tends to dominate under most atmospheric conditions

Mie scatter is caused when diameter of the atmosphere particles same with the wavelength of
radiation e.g. water vapour and dust. This type of scattering tends to influence longer wavelengths
compaired to Rayleigh scattering. Mie scattering is significant in slightly overcast conditions.

Table- 4: Relative scatter as a function of wavelength for various levels of atmospheric haze

Scattering Wavelength Approximate Kinds Comment

process dependence
particle size of
particles
Selective
I) Rayleigh  -4 < 1 m Air Scattering is inversely proportional to
molecules fourth power of wavelength. Result :
Blue sky, red sunset/sunrise; haze in

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 Scattering Wavelength Approximate Kinds Comment
process dependence
particle size of
particles
photography
o -4
ii) Mie  to  0.1 to 10 m Smoke, Generalised theory
haze
Affects long visible wavelengths.
o
Non-  > 10 m Dust, fog, Applies to scattering by fog and
selective clouds clouds. Scattering is largely
independent on . Results in whitish
color of fog, clouds

Nonselective scattering phenomenon took place when the diameter of the particles are much larger
than energy wavelengths being sensed. Water droplets( 5 – 100 m) cause such incident, and scatter
all visible and near & mid IR wavelengths about equally. In visible wavelengths, equal quantities of
blue, green and red lights are scattered, making fog and clouds appear white.

Absorption: Atmospheric absorption results in the effective loss of energy to atmospheric

constituents. The human eyes inform us that the atmosphere is essentially transparent to light.
Therefore, it is often assumed that these conditions exist for all electromagnetic energy at any
wavelength. However, the gases of the atmosphere absorb radiation at specific wavelengths
Wavelengths shorter than 0.3 µm are completely absorbed, protecting us against lethal ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. Water (H2O) and hydroxyl (OH) absorb radiation in specific bands called the water
absorption bands. The most important water absorption bands are located at 1.4 and 1.9 µm and
around 3.1 and 6.2 µm. Minor water absorption bands are located at 0.9 and 2.6-2.8 µm. Other
absorbing gases in the atmosphere are CO2 and O3. Consequently, remote sensing observations are
limited to the parts of the atmosphere that transmit radiation (table 1.1). The parts of the spectrum of
EMR in which atmosphere is particularly transmissive of energy are called atmospheric windows.
The most important atmospheric windows for remote sensing are:
Visible region: 0.4 - 0.7 µm
Infrared 0.7 - 2.5 µm
Thermal infrared 3.0 - 5.0 µm - Thermal Scanners
Thermal infrared 8.0 - 14.0 µm - Thermal Scanners
Microwave (radar) 0.01 - 1.0 m - Radar & Passive microwave systems.

Remote sensing data acquisition is limited to atmospheric windows. The interaction and
interdependence between the primary sources of EMR, the atmospheric windows through which
source energy may transmitted to and from earth surface features, and the spectral sensitivity of the
sensor available to detect and record the energy are important consideration in remote sensing. So, the
choice of spectral range of the sensor must be based on the manner in which the energy interacts with
the features under investigation.

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Figure- 8: Atmospheric windows in the visible, infrared and microwave regions of the spectrum.
Wavelengths bands of commonly used remote sensing systems are shown.

Refraction: The phenomenon of refraction that is bending of light at the contact between two media
also occurs in the atmosphere as the light passes through the atmospheric layers of varied clarity,
humidity and temperature. These variations influence the density of atmospheric layers, which in
turn causes the bending of light rays as they pass from one layer to another. The most common
phenomena are the mirage like apparitions sometimes visible in the distance on hot summer days.

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 3. Energy Interaction with Earth Surface Features: Environmental researchers using remote
sensing techniques are mainly interested in the interaction mechanisms between radiation and the
objects at the surface of the earth (except of course when the atmosphere and its constituents are the
research topic e.g. for ozone or aerosol studies). Radiation from the sun, when incident upon the
earth's surface, is either reflected by the surface, transmitted into the surface or absorbed and
emitted by the surface.

According to principle of conservation of energy, we can state the interrelationship between these
three energy interactions as:

EI = EA + ET +ER
Where,
EI = incident energy striking an object, EA = absorbed radiation, ET = transmitted energy and
ER = reflected energy.

(i)Absorption: Absorption occurs when radiation penetrates a surface and is incorporated into the
molecular structure of the object. All objects absorb incoming incident radiation to some degree.
Absorbed radiation can later be emitted back to the atmosphere. Emitted radiation is useful in thermal
studies.

Fig-

Fig-9
9:

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(ii) Transmission: Transmission occurs when radiation passes through material and exits the other
side of the object. Transmission plays a minor role in the energy’s interaction with the target. This is
attributable to the tendency for radiation to be absorbed before it is entirely transmitted. Transmission
is a function of the properties of the object.

(iii) Reflection: Reflection occurs when radiation is neither absorbed nor transmitted. The reflection
of the energy depends on the properties of the object and surface roughness relative to the wavelength
of the incident radiation. Differences in surface properties allow the distinction of one object from
another.

(iv) Reflectance of Radiation: Reflectance is simply a measurement of the percentage of incoming or

incident energy that a surface reflects. Reflectance = Reflected energy/Incident energy where
incident energy is the amount of incoming radiant energy and reflected energy is the amount of
energy bouncing off the object.
Reflectance is a fixed characteristic of an object. Surface features can be distinguished by comparing
the reflectance of different objects at each wavelength. Reflectance comparisons rely on the
unchanging proportion of reflected energy relative to the sum of incoming energy. This permits the
distinction of objects regardless of the amount of incident energy. Unique objects reflect differently,
while similar objects only reflect differently if there has been a physical or chemical change.
Note: reflectance is not the same as reflection.

Figure-10: Specular and diffuse reflectors(Lillisand and Kiefer, 1994)

The EMR, on interaction, experiences a number of changes in magnitude, direction, wavelength,

polarization and phase. These changes are detected by the remote sensor and enable the interpreter
to obtain useful information about the object of interest. It is to be remember that, the proportions of
energy reflected, absorbed and transmitted will vary for different earth features depending of their
material type and condition. These differences permit one to distinguish different features on an
image. Even within a given feature type, the proportion of reflected, absorbed and transmitted
energy will vary at different wavelengths. So, two features may be indistinguishable in one spectral

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range and be well distinguishable in another spectral range. Many remote sensing systems operate in
the wavelength regions in which reflected energy predominates, the reflectance properties of earth
features are very important.

On the primary consideration of surface roughness of the object, reflection are of two types. When
the surface is smooth, the reflection follows the Snell,s law(equal angle of incidence and reflection)
and is specular reflection. It produces mirror like reflections. A rough surface reflects incident EMR
uniformly in all direction independent of the angle of incidence, is called diffuse reflection. A
perfectly diffuse surface is called lambertian surface. Most earth surfaces are neither perfectly
specular nor diffuse reflectors. The characteristics are somehow between these two extremes. The
surface may be specular, near- specular, near-diffuse and diffuse reflectors. But, smoothness of the
surface is a function of wavelength of the incident EMR. As for example, for microwaves even rocky
surfaces may be smooth whereas for visible radiation even sandy surfaces may be rough.( Fig. 11)
Diffuse reflections contain spectral information on the colour of the reflecting surface, whereas
specular reflection do not. Hence, in remote sensing, one is most often interested in measuring the
diffuse reflectiance properties of the terrain features. However, it is to be recognized that in the final
analysis the combined earth-atmosphere-sensor effects as recorded by the remote sensor must be
taken into account. The variations in total reflectance of the Earth’s surface is the combined effect of
wavelength, angle of incidence, physical, chemical and biological properties of the earth feature.
Broadly, the reflected radiance, recorded by the remote sensor, is governed by a group of four
components; i. Surface composition, ii. Physical aspects of the surface(smooth, roughness etc.), iii.
Angle of incidence and observation, iv. Frequency or wavelength of incident radiation.

Spectral Reflectance Curve: The reflectance characteristics of earth surface features may be
quantified as the ratio of reflected energy to incident energy as a function of wavelength, is called
spectral reflectance(Þ

ÞR() / I() x 100 %

R() – Energy of wavelength reflected from the object, I()-Energy of wavelength

incident upon the object

A graph of the spectral reflectance of an object as a function of wavelength is termed a spectral

reflectance curve or spectral signature. The configuration of spectral reflectance curves gives us
insight into the spectral characteristics of an object and has a strong influence on the choice of
wavelength region(s) in which remote sensing data are to be acquired for a particular application. Do
not confuse albedo and spectral reflectance. Albedo is the ratio of the total amount of electromagnetic
energy reflected by a surface to the amount of energy incident upon it.

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Figure-12 : Spectral reflectance curve of different objects.

The spectral reflectance curve or “spectral signature”; is an unchanging property of the material. For
example, an object such as a leaf may reflect 3% of incoming blue light, 10% of green light and 3%
of red light. The amount of light it reflects depends on the amount and wavelength of incoming
illumination, but the percents are constant. Unfortunately, remote sensing instruments do not record
reflectance directly, rather radiance, which is the amount (not the percent) of electromagnetic energy
received in selected wavelength bands. A change in illumination, more or less intense sun for
instance, will change the radiance. Spectral signatures are often represented as plots or graphs, with
wavelength on the horizontal axis, and the reflectance on the vertical axis. To obtain the necessary
ground truth for the interpretation of multispectral imagery, the spectral characteristics of various
natural objects have been extensively measured and recorded using spectro-radiometers or spectro-
photometers.

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Spectral Reflectance curve of Vegetation, Soil and Water:
While there are too many surface types to memorize all their spectral signatures, it is helpful to be
familiar with the basic spectral characteristics of green vegetation, soil, and water. This in turn helps
determine which regions of the spectrum are most important for distinguishing these surface types.
Vegetation: The spectral reflectance of vegetation canopy varies with wavelength. A leaf is built-up
of layers of structural fibrous organic matters, within which are pigmented water filled cells and air
space. Figure 13 shows the variation of spectral reflectance of green leaf. Each of three features-
pigmentation, physiological structure and water content have effect on reflectance, absorption and
transmittance properties of a green leaf. Plants contain four primary pigments, chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b, carotene and xanthophylls, all of which absorb visible light for photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a absorbs at wavelengths of 0.45 and 0.66µm and Chlorophyll b absorbs at wavelengths
of 0.45 and 0.65µm.
The spectral reflectance of vegetation canopy varies with wavelength. A leaf is built-up of layers of
structural fibrous organic matter, within which are pigmented water filled cells and air spaces.
Pigmentation, physiological structure and water content have effect on reflectance, absorptionce and
transmissionce properties of a green leaf.
Reflectance of green vegetation is low in the visible portion of the spectrum owing to chlorophyll
absorption, high in the near IR due to the cell structure of the plant, and lower again in the short wave
IR due to water in the cells. Within the visible portion of the spectrum, there is a local reflectance
peak in the green (0.55 µm) between the blue (0.45 µm) and red (0.68 µm) chlorophyll absorption
valleys. The middle IR has a strong water vapour absorption bands, dips just prior to 1.6.and 2.0 µm.
Peak reflectance in MIR occur at 1.6.and 2.2 µm. Thus RS measurements in 1.55-1.75 and 2.08-
2.35µm can give information about moisture content of the plant canopy.

Fig-13: Spectral Reflectance Curve of vegetation showing absorption bands.

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Morphological characteristics of plants include size, shape, orientation of the leaves, plant height and
density. Field reflectance is influenced by solar zenith angle, azimuth angle, sensor look angle and
soil background reflectance.
Fig.14 shows reflectance curves for three species of trees and grass. The differences in the
reflectance values for these features are less in green and red and quite large in NIR. Figure 15 shows
the reflectance characteristics of the leaf for various moisture content leaves wherein variations can
be clearly observed around 1.4 and 1.9. Low pigment content results in higher reflectance in red
region. Stress in vegetation due to disease, insect infection and nutrient deficiency can also affect the
reflectance characteristics. A healthy plant gives less reflectance in red region and high in NIR as
compared to moderately and severely blight affected plant. This type of trace is easily noticeable in
the NIR(0.7 – 0.9 µm) imagery even in early stage of disease. Hence, colour infrared photograph is
often preferred for monitoring vegetation stress. In forest mapping to distinguish different plant
species(viz. deciduous and coniferous) only information form NIR will be useful.

Soil: Soil is the result of decay, alternation and disintegration of the upper layer of the earth crust
under the effect of life, atmosphere and energy exchange. Soil reflectance depends on the chemical
and physical properties of the components such as moisture, organic matter, iron oxide, texture,
surface roughness and sun angle. In visible spectrum, soils usually have higher reflectance than
plants. However, it is opposite in case of NIR band, where plants have higher reflectance than soil. At
low moisture content level for clay and sandy soils, reflectance typically increases with wavelength in
the visible portion of the spectrum and then stays relatively constant in the near-IR and short-wave
IR, with some local dips due to water absorption at 1.4 and 1.9 µm and due to clay absorption at 1.4
and 2.2 µm. Generally, a decrease in grain size of soil results in an increase of reflectance and the
decrease in extinction while passing through the particles(Fig.16). The mineral composition of soils
influences spectral reflectance. Soil rich in calcium carbonate(Caco3) and poor in iron(Fe) gives
higher reflectance in visible and NIR regions. The surface roughness influence the reflectance. For
dry soil, higher the surface roughness lower the reflectance in visible and NIR region. The reflectance
property of rocks vary considerably depending on rock types, chemical composition, weathering, rock
out-crop etc. Generally, weathered rocks give low reflectance.

Water: The reflectance of EMR from water is affected by a number of variables such as suspended
particles, floating materials and water depth. Water gives low reflectance in visible and almost nil in
NIR region. Reflectance increases in the visible portion when materials are suspended in the water.
The surface signal varies with sun elevation and wave conditions. Monitoring of water quality is
considerably complex because signal from water body is composed of many components. The
primary signal that is indicative of water quality is the volume reflectance or backscattered energy
caused by the materials added to water.

M.Tec/PGDGI/RS/PBH-1 19
4. Data Acquisition and Interpretation: The EMR interacts with earth surface features and the
remaining part of the energy is reflected to atmosphere i.e. “signals” from which information are
extracted. These signals are detected, recorded, and interpreted. The detection of electromagnetic
energy can be performed either photographically or electronically. The process of photography uses
chemical reaction on the surface of a light sensitive film to detect energy variations within a scene.
Electronic sensors generate an electrical signal that corresponds to the energy variations in the
original scene. Video camera is an example of this system. By developing a photograph, we obtain a
record of its detected signals. Thus, the film acts as both the detecting and the recording medium.

In remote sensing, the term photograph is reserved exclusively for image that were detected as well
as recorded on film. The more generic term image is used for any pictorial representation of image
data. Interpretation of remote sensing data is the analysis of pictorial(image) and or digital data. The
visual interpretation is for pictorial image(hard copy). Visual techniques make use of the excellent
ability of the human mind to qualitatively evaluate spatial patterns in a scene. There are certain
limitations of visual interpretation techniques, therefore it is preferred to analyze digital image data.
Digital image is composed of a two-dimensional array of discrete picture element or pixel. The
intensity of each pixel corresponds to the average brightness or radiation measured electronically
over the ground area corresponding to each pixel. Depending on characteristics of sensor X rows
and Y columns of pixel form a scene. The average radiance measured in each pixel corresponds to a
value called digital number(DN). These values are simply positive integers that result from
quantizing the original electrical signal from the sensor into positive values using a process called
analog-to-digital(A to D) signal conversion.

Digital Data
In a most generalized way, a digital image is an array of numbers depicting spatial
distribution of a certain field parameters (such as reflectivity of EM radiation, emissivity, temperature
or some geophysical or topographical elevation. Digital image consists of discrete picture elements
called pixels. Associated with each pixel is a number represented as DN (Digital Number) that depicts
the average radiance of relatively small area within a scene. The range of DN values being normally 0
to 255. The size of this area effects the reproduction of details within the scene. As the pixel size is
reduced more scene detail is preserved in digital representation.
Remote sensing images are recorded in digital forms and then processed by the computers to
produce images for interpretation purposes. Images are available in two forms - photographic film
form and digital form. Variations in the scene characteristics are represented as variations in
brightness on photographic films. A particular part of scene reflecting more energy will appear bright
while a different part of the same scene that reflecting less energy will appear black. Digital image
consists of discrete picture elements called pixels. Associated with each pixel is a number represented
as DN (Digital Number), that depicts the average radiance of relatively small area within a scene. The

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size of this area effects the reproduction of details within the scene. As the pixel size is reduced more
scene detail is preserved in digital representation.

Data Formats For Digital Satellite Imagery

Digital data from the various satellite systems supplied to the user in the form of computer
readable tapes or CD-ROM. As no worldwide standard for the storage and transfer of remotely sensed
data has been agreed upon, though the CEOS (Committee on Earth Observation Satellites) format is
becoming accepted as the standard. Digital remote sensing data are often organised using one of the
three common formats used to organise image data . For an instance an image consisting of four
spectral channels, which can be visualized as four superimposed images, with corresponding pixels in
one band registering exactly to those in the other bands. These common formats are:
 Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP)
 Band Interleaved by Line (BIL)
 Band Sequential (BQ)

Digital image analysis is usually conducted using Raster data structures - each image is treated as an
array of values. It offers advantages for manipulation of pixel values by image processing system, as
it is easy to find and locate pixels and their values. Disadvantages becomes apparent when one needs
to represent the array of pixels as discrete patches or regions, where as Vector data structures uses
polygonal patches and their boundaries as fundamental units for analysis and manipulation. Though
vector format is not appropriate to for digital analysis of remotely sensed data.

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 Figure

4 : The Electromagnetic Spectrum

14 : Spectral response for different canopies in visible and near IR

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 Fig-15: Variation on reflectance with moisture content

Fig-16: Variation of spectral reflectance of soil with moisture content

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