Seismology - is the scientific discipline that studies P-waves are longitudinal waves that move through

seismic activity from various sources (tectonic, volcanic, earth’s interior in successive compression and
etc.), in particular, the propagation of seismic waves rarefaction (i.e., P-waves move material particles back
through the interior of the earth and their and forth parallel to their direction). Their average
environmental effects, such as ground shaking and speed through solids is approximately 6 km/s and slows
tsunamis. down when traveling through liquid, for example,
speeds in water are only about 2 km/s.
Engineering seismology - is the applied branch of
seismology that focuses on characterizing seismic S-waves can only travel through solids, at about 3 km/s.
hazards at a site or region in order to evaluate risks to Because of the slower speeds of S-waves, they travel at
various vulnerable infrastructure systems. a lower frequency, but larger amplitude, which makes
them more destructive than P-waves.
Epicenter - is the geographical point on the ground
surface where an earthquake is estimated to be SURFACE WAVES
centered.
1. RAYLEIGH WAVES
Fault Plane - The plane along which the rock ruptures 2. LOVE WAVES
and slips.
SURFACE WAVES - When body waves reach the ground
Strike Angle - The angle the fault plane makes with surface
respect to the north direction along the surface.
Rayleigh waves combine effects of both P- and S-waves
Dip Angle – Angle where the fault plane lies with on the earth’s surface and move disturbed material
respect to the ground surface. vertically and horizontally (in the direction of wave
propagation) simultaneously, similar to ocean waves.
Fault slip - The relative displacement between the two
These waves have low frequencies and large
sides of the fault plane.
amplitudes, and travel at average speeds of 3 km/s
Focal Depth - is used to classify earthquakes as: shallow
Love waves move the ground side to side on the surface
for focal depths less than 70 km (43 miles),
plane, perpendicular to the direction of the wave
intermediate for focal depths between 70 km (43 miles)
propagation, similar in character and speed to S-waves.
and 300 km (186 miles), and deep for focal depths
The shear motion of these waves is primarily
greater than 300 km (186 miles).
responsible for the ground shaking experienced during
Dip Slip – a fault slip with vertical movement. earthquakes.

Strike Slip – a fault slip with horizontal movement. MEASURING EARTHQUAKE - The duration and size of an
earthquake can be measured using several objective
Elastic Rebound Theory : Tectonic Plate Movement - and subjective methods, including relative strength
tectonic plates are forced to move by several (shaking intensity), amount of energy radiated during
mechanisms, including ridge push and slab pull, the fault rupture, and the magnitude of the largest
convection currents in the semimolten rock of the acceleration imparted to a site or a structure.
mantle, etc.
EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY - The intensity of an
Seismic waves- radiate from the focus and travel in earthquake is a subjective, nonempirical approach for
every direction. estimating the size of an earthquake based on the
BODY WAVES subjective assessment of human observations of the
effects of earthquake shaking on buildings (amount of
1. P-WAVES damage sustained by structures and land surface) and
2. S-WAVES on people.
Body waves naturally divide into two different types, P-
waves (primary or pressure) and S-waves (secondary or
shear), which are slower than the P-waves.
EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE - Whereas the intensity of a 4. Establishing the structural response to
given earthquake varies from one observation point to the effects from all nearby seismic
another, earthquakes can be associated with a single sources
value of magnitude.
5. Selecting the case that produces the
Richter scale- is also known as the local magnitude scale largest structural response.

PGA – Peak Ground Acceleration - is obtained from the

acceleration time history recorded with an
accelerometer (which is a recording of the variation of
acceleration amplitude with time) and is typically given
as a fraction of the acceleration due to gravity.

Ground acceleration- is generally resolved into a

vertical and two horizontal components. The vertical
component is approximately one-third of either of the
horizontal components; thus, the majority of the
damage is caused by the horizontal components of
acceleration

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS - Once seismic waves

have been modified for ground conditions at the site of
a structure, the structure responds to ground excitation
based on its inherent characteristics, as well as the age
of the structure and the quality of its construction.

EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ASSESSMENT - The intensity and

magnitude scales are simplified methods for reporting
the relative strength of an earthquake; however, these
quantities do not necessarily provide a measure of
seismic hazard at a particular site because not all
regions are susceptible to strong earthquakes (small
earthquakes occur all the time along active faults and
generally do not pose a hazard to structures or human
life). Also, intensity and magnitude are the
measurements of past earthquakes and might not
properly represent future ones.

The deterministic approach can be used in areas where

seismic activity is frequent and its sources are well
defined. The process is relatively simple and entails the
following:

1. Identifying nearby seismic sources

2. Identifying the distance to the structure

site from nearby seismic sources

3. Determining the magnitude and

characteristics of nearby seismic
sources