Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Characterization and performance of building composites made from

gypsum and woody-biomass ash waste: A product development and
application study
Manuel Alejandro Pedreño-Rojas a, César Porras-Amores a, Paola Villoria-Sáez a, *, María
Jesús Morales-Conde b, Inês Flores-Colen c
a
TEMA Research Group, ETS Edificación, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Av. Juan de Herrera 6, Madrid 28040, Spain
b
Departamento de Construcciones Arquitectónias I, ETS Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, Av. Reina Mercedes 2, Seville 41013, Spain
c
CERIS, Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environment, IST, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, Lisbon 1049-001, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aim of this study is to explore the potential of using biomass-ash waste as a secondary raw material for
Plaster building composites. The waste is generated by a thermal power plant that burns woody biomass and would
Recycling otherwise be disposed of in landfills. The study investigates the physical and mechanical properties of gypsum-
Circular economy
based composites containing different proportions of biomass-ash waste and compares them with the reference
Wood
and regulatory documents. The study also proposes some possible building applications for the optimal com­
Ash
Construction posite and evaluates its performance through simulations. The results indicate that adding up to 25% wood ash
can improve the mechanical strength of the composites, exceeding the reference and minimum requirements.
The proposed building applications using the new composite reach a reduction in the environmental impact and
an improvement in the energy efficiency of the building envelope.

1. Introduction efficient circular model driving the research toward the minimizing,
recycling, and reusing of waste streams [2,25]. In this way, CE has the
The construction industry is the single largest global consumer of ultimate goal of retaining materials and resources circulating at their
resources and raw materials [40]. This is not the only negative impact, highest value within planetary boundaries, in a way that additional
but also, in most cases, the construction process comes from natural resources are unnecessary to produce goods, and the discarded
non-renewable resources, and uses considerable amounts of energy, materials are not viewed as waste [22].
since some of the materials are subjected to energy-intensive Since 2015, the European Commission has adopted several Circular
manufacturing process, along with the significant volume of emissions Economy Action Plans in order to help stimulate Europe’s transition to a
of all types of pollutants. Therefore, several researchers have claimed circular economy, by proposing a global alliance to identify knowledge
that buildings are responsible of accounting for around 40% of total and future challenges in advancing towards a global circular economy
energy use, consume 12% of the world’s drinkable water, and produce [17].
almost 40% of global carbon dioxide emissions in Europe [12]. In this regard, developing new regulations and policies, decreasing
This situation is expected to worsen, as the world’s consumption of the exploitation of natural resources, optimizing production processes,
raw materials is set to nearly double by 2060 as the global economy establishing commercial competitiveness for recovered and recycled
expands and living standards rise [26]. In this way, the construction materials, as well as diminishing the use of natural resources throughout
industry needs to change and move toward other activities that promote the entire construction process are actions aligned with CE that need to
positive impacts on society and the environment [13]. be considered by government agencies, private companies, and
In the attempt to provide an alternative to the traditional and researchers.
dominant model featured at consuming and disposing of resources, the In this context, investigating the potential to reduce material used in
Circular Economy (CE) initiative emerges for transitioning to a more this sector, by consuming secondary or waste products, will significantly

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Villoria-Sáez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135435
Received 30 October 2023; Received in revised form 22 January 2024; Accepted 9 February 2024
Available online 20 February 2024
0950-0618/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M.A. Pedreño-Rojas et al. Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

impact global raw material consumption and reduce the pressure on properties than conventional ones. They are characterized for having:
natural resources, favoring the transition towards CE [22].
For this purpose and aiming to reduce the construction industry’s • higher mechanical performance;
impacts, the use of recovered and recycled materials to produce new • low thermal conductivity;
construction products has arisen in the past decade. Current statistics • good fire reaction; and
show that the EU’s circularity rate has risen during the last ten years, • improved acoustic insulation.
from 10.8% in 2010 to 11.7% in 2021 [18]. A higher circularity rate
value indicates a higher primary raw materials substitution by second­ Based on these findings some authors have explored the viability of
ary materials. However, this rate is well below the target set by the EU combining a mix of various ashes. Resulting in similar properties than
for 2030 (24.3%) and therefore new options for waste recovery and the ones above, such as higher water retention [38], acceptable and
recycling should be encouraged. improved mechanical properties [8,38] and good thermal and fire re­
Currently, as a recycling strategy, building products incorporate a action [8].
fraction of recycled materials such as concrete, glass, plastics, tires, However, it is necessary to study the incorporation of other types of
wood, among others, in an effort of recovering what is often discarded. biomass ashes in gypsum since, having a very different composition, it
In this way, with the ever-increasing need to reduce the dependency on will provide different properties [38]. In this sense, despite the
fossil fuel combustion and lower greenhouse gas emissions, the use of numerous investigations found adding ashes, no previous investigations
biomass for heat and electricity production have increased substantially, have been found incorporating biomass ash from wood in plaster
resulting in an increase of ash waste generation. Almost 500 million tons composites.
of biomass ash are produced per year worldwide, and for the most part Given the above background, this work aims to contribute to the
(around 70%) are disposed of in landfills [14] and the rest is used for soil development of sustainable materials by developing a gypsum material
pH correction and/or fertilization or for incorporation in cementitious containing woody biomass waste to improve the characteristics of reg­
materials for building and road constructions. ular gypsums. Therefore, the objective of the study is to assess the me­
chanical behavior of gypsum composites incorporating woody biomass
2. Literature review ash waste and analyze the possible building application.

Many researchers have focused on the addition of waste ashes as 3. Materials and methods
alternative raw material to produce building materials and products.
Among these studies, those incorporating ashes from the agricultural, 3.1. Materials
wood or other industrial sectors can be highlighted (Table 1).
Regarding the waste from the agro-industrial sector, ashes from the The materials used for this study were: gypsum, woody biomass ash,
production of olives, rice husk, and palm oil have been widely used for and water:
building applications showing lower densities and improved thermal
properties in the developed composites [15,31]. In particular, up to 8% • Gypsum: The gypsum used is high purity gypsum named Iberyola E-
of rice husk ash can be incorporated in gypsum keeping an adequate 30/E-35, which is compliant with the standard UNE-EN 13279-1 [4]
workability, reducing the density and improving the thermal properties and classified as type A by the European classification. It was pro­
of traditional building plasters [28]. In addition, a good fire reaction was vided by Placo Saint-Gobain.
observed when olive pomace or palm oil ashes were used to develop • The biomass ash shown in Fig. 1 was collected from a district heating
building panels and boards [10,30]. A high water retention capacity was power plant - fueled by woody biomass - placed in Móstoles (Spain).
achieved when ashes from the palm oil extraction were used to manu­ Its real density, determined by Mastersizer equipment, was 2.4108
facture boards containing clay, gypsum and vermiculite [10]. g/cm3, with a coefficient of variation of 0.0564%. The particle size
Other authors analyzed the viability of incorporating other industrial distribution of the ash was also obtained, and it is represented in
ashes in building materials to improve some properties [27,34,35,41]. Fig. 2. The chemical composition of the biomass ash was obtained by
Low thermal conductivity coefficients and higher sound-absorbing a PANalytical XRD equipment, as it is shown in Fig. 3, were the major
properties were observed by Leiva et al. [29] when fly ash from coal components were graphite and quartz followed by portlandite and
combustion was incorporated in a gypsum matrix, keeping similar me­ calcite.
chanical properties to other lightweight commercial gypsum products. • Water: Regular water from Canal de Isabel II was used.
By contrast, lower mechanical properties were achieved when 60% of
the natural gypsum was substituted by white slag ash [9], but they were 3.2. Experimental plan
all above the minimum set by the regulations. Despite the lower me­
chanical resistances, a substantial improvement of the fire reaction was The experimental plan was developed following the next phases:
observed when higher amount of slag ash was incorporated.
Furthermore, several publications were found incorporating wooden 1. Samples’ preparation;
biomass ash in building materials. Fořt et al. [19] explored the effect of 2. Physical and mechanical characterization;
replacing 50% of wooden biomass ash in lime plasters to be applied as an 3. Raw material consumption and selection of best composite;
exterior surface layer in buildings. A considerably improvement on the 4. Proposal for building applications and further characterization.
mechanical properties was observed, whereas the hygric properties were
kept similar to the reference. In addition, better mechanical improve­
ments (around 17% compared to the reference) were also observed 3.2.1. Samples’ preparation
when 20% of wooden biomass ash was incorporated in cement [21]. Fořt The samples’ preparation followed the standard UNE-EN 13279–1
et al. [20] also explored the viability of using wooden biomass ash as [4], and it began with the elaboration of the reference (without any
supplementary cementitious material, by replacing up to 30% of coal fly waste) and continued with the preparation of composites incorporating
ash in the fabrication of blended cements. different percentages of ash waste (5%; 10%; 15%; 20% and 25%) over
Table 1 summarizes the key findings from the literature review the weight of gypsum. A total of six different composites were analyzed
conducted to determine what has been previously investigated on the (Table 2). According to the studies found in the literature review
incorporation of ash waste in building materials. In general, the findings (Table 1) and the supplier’s recommendation, the water/gypsum (w/g)
obtained by the studies shown in Table 1 have similar or slightly better ratio used in this research was 0.8.

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 M.A. Pedreño-Rojas et al.
Table 1
Key findings of previous research works incorporating waste ashes in gypsum composites.
Waste Reference Waste ash % waste Matrix Building application Key findings
origin

Agro- Vilches et al. [38] Biomass ash: Olive 69% pomace. 1% rice- Gypsum Insulating plates with fire-resistance The developed product presents similar fire resistance and physical and
industrial pomace and rice-husk husk. 1% glass fiber properties mechanical properties to other commercial products used in passive fire
protection in buildings and industrial installations
Leiva et al. [30] Biomass ash: olive oil 60% ash. Gypsum Low-density panels (800 kg/m3) for Good fire resistance due to their high-water retention capacity (similar to
extraction process. 9.5% vermiculite 0.5% internal partitions in buildings gypsum plasterboard). It did not show noticeable deformation, crumbling, or
fiber cracking.
Alba et al. [8] Fly ash from olive oil 50% ash. Gypsum, clay, and Internal wall partitions or limited Low density. Resistance strength decreases with more addition of ash
extraction cement with fibers load-bearing properties
Amat et al., [10] Fly ash from oil palm < 20% ash Gypsum Wallboard use for on walls, ceilings, biomass ash panel board can retain more than 2 h fire resistance in standard
extraction or partitions conditions of room temperature by fire laboratory and panels showing a
compressive strength of 3.54 MPa
Leiva Aguilera y Del Rice husk ash 8% ash Gypsum Suspended ceiling Reduced density and improved thermal behavior and mechanical properties
Río Merino (2014) keeping a good workability.
Other Rodríguez et al. Ladle furnace slag 30% Cement Masonry mortars Higher mechanical properties are achieved when higher % of ash is incorporated.
3

industries (2009)
Leiva et al. [29] Fly-ash from coal 60% ash Gypsum Fly-ash boards Good physical and mechanical properties. Sound-absorbing material. Low
combustion Vermiculite thermal conductivity and high fire reaction.
Fibres
Rahamma et al. Fly-ash 30% Cement Cement binders Higher amount of fly ash required grater water to keep the workability and
(2015) higher setting time.
Záleská (2018) Sewage sludge 30% ash Cement Lime and cement binders The increase in porosity up to 6% and decrease in compressive strength up to 3%
were satisfactory.
Alonso et al. [9] White slag 60% ash Gypsum Indoor partitions or protection in Mechanical results decreased compared to reference. Better behavior before fire.
areas with aggressive thermal
requirements
Kua and Choo [27] Biochar-coated pellets 0.38% Lime Indoor lime plasters The paper evaluates the potential of removing CO2 when biochar is used and
aggregate in indoor plasters.

Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

Wood Fořt et al. [19] Wooden biomass ash 50% ash Lime Exterior superficial layer Mechanical performance improved considerably, and the rest of the results
(hygric and porosity) were kept similar to the reference in all cases.
Fořt et al. [21] Wooden biomass ash 70% ash Cement Non-structural concrete Higher mechanical resistance when up to 30% of the cement was replaced
Fořt et al. [20] Wooden biomass ash 30% ash Cement Cement mortars Wooden biomass ash can be used as supplementary cementitious material and
substitute up to 30% of coal fly ash.
M.A. Pedreño-Rojas et al. Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

3.2.2. Physical and mechanical characterization

Experimental tests in the laboratory were conducted aiming to
determine the physical and mechanical properties of the composites.
The following tests were carried out: dry bulk density, superficial
hardness, flexural strength, compressive strength; bonding strength, and
thermal conductivity test, following the UNE EN 102042 [7], UNE EN
13279–2 [3] and ASTM D5334–08 [11] standards.
Three specimens 4×4x16 cm3 of each composite were tested for dry
bulk density, superficial hardness, flexural and compressive strength (a
total of 18 specimens were tested in each test). For this, a Gibertini
Europe3000HR scale was used for the bulk density, a Shore C durometer
for the superficial hardness and the universal testing machine Ibertest
Autotest 20 was used for the flexion and compression strength.
For the bonding test, each composite –in fresh state– was layered
over a ceramic-based support creating a coating of 1 cm thick. Then,
nine circular segments were marked on the surface of each composite (a
total of 54 samples), and metallic discs with a diameter of 5 cm were
Fig. 1. Woody biomass ash (WBA).
fixed on top. Then, a Dynatest DTH 500 device was used to perform the
test and record each value following the UNE EN 13279–2 [3] standard.
To obtain the thermal conductivity coefficient, one specimen of
6×6x3 cm3 per composite (a total of 6 samples) was developed and
tested (3 measurements) using an ISOMET 2114 transient equipment to
measure the thermal conductivity coefficient under laboratory condi­
tions, following the procedure defined by ASTM D5334–08 [11].
Results were recorded and the mean value was achieved for each
composite. Results were compared with the reference sample and with
the minimum values set by the standards.
Finally, in order to justify the obtained results, SEM analysis of the
composites was conducted using a FEI TENEO, an ultra-high-resolution
analytical Scanning Electron Microscope.

3.2.3. Analysis of the consumption of natural gypsum and selection of

composite
In this section, the most sustainable composite was selected consid­
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution for the woody biomass ash (WBA).
ering the environmental performance (higher waste content) and me­
chanical behavior (good mechanical properties fulfilling gypsum
composites regulations).
For this, an analysis of the raw material consumption was explored
following the method used by previous research works [32,36,39]. The
reduction in percentage of the consumption of natural gypsum
compared to the reference sample was calculated for all the composites.
After that, the environmental benefits of the achieved gypsum reduction
was calculated using the Global Warming Potential (GWP) and
Embodied Energy (EE) impacts according to ITeC-BEDEC database [24].

3.2.4. Proposal for building product and further characterization

After selecting the most suitable composite, a new building product
Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction obtained for the woody biomass ash (WBA).
for interior coatings in buildings were experimentally and numerically
evaluated. In a first phase, a laboratory procedure was conducted, in
Table 2 which two 60×40×1.5 cm3 panels were developed using the selected
Composite’s composition for 1 kg of gypsum powder. composite and the reference composition and were further tested
regarding their mechanical resistance to bending following UNE-EN
Composite Gypsum Water W/G Wooden biomass ash (WBA)
[g] [g] ratio [g] 12859 [6].
After that, trying to evaluate other commercial panel dimensions,
Ref 1000 800 0.8 0
WBA5 1000 800 0.8 50 (5 wt%)
finite elements models were elaborated, and using the breaking test
WBA10 1000 800 0.8 100 (10 wt%) results above described to calibrate them, a mechanical simulation of a
WBA15 1000 800 0.8 150 (15 wt%) bending test was conducted using SAP2000 software. On it, three
WBA20 1000 800 0.8 200 (20 wt%) different panel dimensions were evaluated for both compositions:
WBA25 1000 800 0.8 250 (25 wt%)
60×40×1.5 cm3 (the one tested in laboratory), 60×60×1.5 cm3 (stan­
dard size for suspended ceiling tiles) and 60×120×1.5 cm3 (typical in
Samples were left to harden for seven days at room temperature in continuous ceilings pieces). The achieved values were compared and
the laboratory with a temperature of 23 ± 2 ◦ C and air relative humidity checked with the standard requirements for each case.
around 50 ± 5%. On the seventh day, they were introduced and kept in
the oven at 40ºC for 24 h before testing. 3.2.5. Proposal for building product and energy efficiency
A building energy simulation was also done using Design Builder
software to evaluate the energy efficiency potential when recycled

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M.A. Pedreño-Rojas et al. Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

material is applied to a reference building. The simulation model Also, it should be noted that none of the composites can be considered
developed will serve to quantify the energy savings involved in lightweight composites as the bulk density surpass 0.8 g/cm2 in all cases
including the same recycled material in different building applications [1].
(gypsum plaster, laminated gypsum board, and gypsum block) replacing Fig. 6 shows the superficial hardness of each composite. Low amount
traditional materials. of waste additions –WBA5 and WBA10- result in similar or even lower
For this purpose, a virtual reference building has been developed superficial hardness than the reference (− 11% for WBA10 and − 5% for
with representative characteristics of a large part of the buildings built WBA5). By contrast, when more than 10% of WBA is added, higher
in Spain. The reference building includes the most common construction superficial hardness is recorded, reaching around + 11% of increase for
characteristics in Spain [23] and the regulatory requirements estab­ the WBA25 composite and + 4% for the WBA20 composite, compared to
lished in the Technical Building Code [37]. All details of the construc­ the reference sample. All of the achieved values are above the minimum
tion model, as well as the settings of the energy simulation used, can be value − 45 Shore C units- required by the regulation [3,16].
consulted in the article previously published by Porras-Amores et al. Regarding the results for flexural strength (Fig. 7), all the composites
[33]. In this sense, the composition of the façade of the building has been showed a decrease compared to the reference mixture. In this case,
slightly modified to adapt the case study to the new recycled materials WBA10 composite presented the lowest value with a decrease by up to
included in this research and carry out the comparative study. − 49% or WBA25 composite with a decrease of − 46%. On the other
The building has been virtually located and simulated in a cold hand, WBA5 and WBA15 results experimented a drop of-37% and
climate (Soria) and a warm climate (Seville), which represent the − 38% respectively compared to the reference mixture. In the middle,
climate variability in Spain, in order to study the potential of the recy­ WBA20 composite showed a decrease of − 40% according to the refer­
cled materials in different climate conditions. According to the Köppen ence composite value. Despite these drops in resistance, the values al­
climate classification, Soria corresponds to a temperate oceanic climate ways remained above the minimum value − 1 MPa- required by the
(Cfb) and Seville to a typical Mediterranean climate (Csa). regulation UNE-EN 13279–1 [4]. These results are in line with previous
Fig. 4 shows the geometry of the simulation model developed. The research works. In particular, a reduction in the flexural strength was
reference building has four floors with a free height of 2.7 m each and also observed by Alonso et al. [9], when white slag ash was incorporated
there are no floors below ground level. Each floor is made up of six equal in gypsum composites.
dwellings of 110 m2 each, resulting in a total useful area of 2640 m2 in Similarly, the same tendency was observed for the values obtained in
the building. The total façade area is 1484 m2 while the glazing area is the compressive strength test (Fig. 8), decreasing up to 49% - also for the
287 m2 (20% of the total). WBA10 composite -, when compared to the reference value (4.08 MPa).
In this case, WBA15 and WBA25 composites showed similar drops in
4. Results and discussion resistance, around − 40% compared to the reference mixture. However,
it should be noted that they all remained above 2 MPa, which is the
4.1. Physical and mechanical characterization minimum required by the standard UNE-EN 13279–1 [4,5]. Except for
the reference, the best performing composite was WBA20, achieving
The results of the physical and mechanical tests performed for the 5.58 MPa (33.7% lower than the reference).
composites’ characterization are shown in Table 3. Fig. 9 presents the results obtained for the bonding strength of the
The obtained results of the dry bulk density, with uncertainty, are composites, obtained using the adhesive pull-off test, which are similar
represented in Fig. 5. As shown in the graph, samples with WBA have to those of the reference. The composites with higher bonding strength
slightly higher bulk density compared to the reference without any ad­ were WBA15 and WBA20 (+ 8.33% and +16.7%, respectively if
ditions. The sample with the highest density value was WBA20, with compared to the reference). By contrast, the composite with the lowest
around + 21% higher density than the reference sample, + 12% higher bonding strength was WBA25 (− 8.3%).
than WBA5 and + 7% related to WBA10 and WBA15 composites. On the Fig. 10 shows the results obtained for the thermal conductivity
other hand, WBA25 composite experienced a drop in density of 10% measurement. As it can be noticed, an improvement of the thermal
compared to WBA20 being only + 9% higher than the reference sample. behavior of the composite was observed when the amount of wood

Fig. 4. Building energy simulation model.

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M.A. Pedreño-Rojas et al. Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

Table 3
Results of the physical and mechanical tests, including coefficient of variation [%].
Sample Dry bulk density Superficial hardness Flexural strength Compressive strength Bonding strength Thermal conductivity [W/ (m⋅K)]
[g/cm3] [Shore C] [MPa] [MPa] [kN]

Ref 0.988 (4.72%) 68.192 (4.63%) 3.554 (6.17%) 8.423 0.300 0.300
(5.98%) (6.29%)
WBA5 1.071 (5.07%) 65.067 2.245 (6.38%) 4.583 0.288 0.281
(4.87%) (6.11%) (6.45%)
WBA10 1.121 (5.21%) 60.700 1.843 (6.64%) 4.083 0.300 0.278
(5.19%) (6.29%) (6.78%)
WBA15 1.121 (5.40%) 68.700 2.209 (7.11%) 5.032 0.325 0.262
(5.38%) (6.86%) (7.12%)
WBA20 1.202 (5.68%) 70.900 2.133 (6.98%) 5.584 0.350 0.257
(5.41%) (6.70%) (7.33%)
WBA25 1.084 (5.73%) 75.867 1.907 (7.19%) 5.195 0.275 0.247
(5.59%) (7.01%) (7.41%)

Fig. 5. Dry bulk density results of the composites with coefficient of variation.
Fig. 8. Compressive strength results for each composite with coefficient
of variation.

Fig. 6. Superficial hardness results for each composite with coefficient

of variation.
Fig. 9. Bonding strength results for each composite with coefficient
of variation.

Fig. 7. Flexural strength results for each composite with coefficient

of variation.

Fig. 10. Thermal conductivity coefficient results.

biomass ash increased in the mixture, achieving the best the perfor­
mance with 25% of WBA addition (WBA25) (− 17.7%, if compared to the
reference value). In this case, it must be noted that no significance

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standard deviation was observed for any composites when the three 4.4. Discussion of energy efficiency potential
measurements values were evaluated. An improvement in the thermal
conductivity was also found by previous research works incorporating Once the characteristics of the reference building were defined and
ashes from the olive and rice production, which claimed lower thermal the thermal properties of the recycled material estimated (Fig. 10), the
conductivity coefficients compared to the reference [10,28,30]. set of energy simulations began. To evaluate the energy efficiency po­
Fig. 11 shows the relation between the dry bulk density and the tential of recycled material, only the composite with the best thermal
thermal conductivity of each composite. Results show that the observed insulation properties (WBA25) was used.
drop on the thermal conductivity of the plaster was only explained by Two simulations were carried out for each location (Seville and
the increase on the percentage of WBA added to the compositions. Soria), one with the reference building (REF) using traditional materials
However, not for all the plasters, the drop on the dry bulk density did not and another incorporating recycled materials (WBA25) replacing some
follow the same tendency for the thermal behavior. traditional materials of the interior cladding of the facade and roof.
Finally, to justify some of the noticed mechanical behavior on the Specifically, the “double hollow brick” and the “gypsum plaster” of the
plasters, SEM analysis was conducted. Fig. 12 presents two SEM images façade were replaced by the “plaster block with 25% WBA” and the
taken from WBA25 plaster. As in can be seen, the addition of wood “gypsum plaster with 25% WBA”, respectively. In the same way, the
biomass ash increases the porosity of the plaster, improving its thermal “laminated gypsum board” of the false ceiling of the roof was replaced
performance. Furthermore, the lack of adherence between the WBA by the “laminated gypsum board with 25% WBA”.
particles and the gypsum matrix could justify the drop on the mechan­ Table 5 and Table 6 detail the materials used in the façade and flat
ical properties of the new composites. roof of the reference building, together with the necessary data for the
simulations (thickness, density, and thermal conductivity). The char­
acteristics of the materials (thickness, density, and thermal conductiv­
4.2. Analysis of the consumption of natural gypsum ity) have been obtained according to information published by Spanish
official institutions [37].
The addition of WBA particles of the gypsum matrix means a Both building elements incorporate plaster materials, which were
reduction on the consumption of natural gypsum on the plasters. Thus, replaced by recycled materials in the second simulation. The materials
Table 4 presents the reduction on the consumption of natural gypsum for highlighted in green were used in the first simulation (REF) and later
a kg. of each composite and its implication in terms of GWP and EE [24]. replaced by those highlighted in orange in the second simulation
As it was expected, the highest reduction was obtained for the (WBA25). In contrast, the same materials were used in the basement in
WBA25 composite, achieving a reduction of − 0.012 kg CO2 eq. and contact with the ground, in all simulations [33]. The recycled material
− 0.131 MJ of primary energy. This fact justifies the highest contribu­ has been included in the following building applications: gypsum plas­
tion of the gypsum powder in the environmental impact of the com­ ter, laminated gypsum board, and gypsum block.
posites, improving them when waste is added as aggregate to the Before analyzing the results, it is worth remembering that energy
mixtures (reducing the amount of gypsum used). losses in a building can occur due to the transfer of heat by transmission
through the enclosure, or due to the heat transfer by transmission in the
envelope. In the Spanish context, the Technical Building Code estab­
4.3. Discussion on building applications – mechanical performance lishes that new buildings must comply with a minimum rate of air
changes per hour that must be maintained naturally or mechanically.
As it was mentioned, the developed composites were used for the Furthermore, buildings always have water leakages that depend on
generation of gypsum plates for the cladding of buildings. Thus, on a multiple variables, such as the age of the building, the number of
first phase, Reference and WBA25 plates (60 ×40×1.5 cm3) were pro­ openings, or the quality of the execution of the construction elements.
duced and tested in laboratory, as it is shown in Fig. 13. In this pro­ Although the selected reference building is considered representative
cedure, the pieces were submitted to a bending strength test, reaching as it includes the most common construction characteristics in Spain,
1.12 and 0.74 MPa respectively. after carrying out several preliminary simulations, it has been seen that
Considering the bending strength tests results, after the laboratory heat transfer in the building is mainly produced by air renewals.
breakage, a numerical finite element simulation of the bending strength Therefore, the potential for energy savings is conditioned by the high
test of the plates was conducted using SAP2000 software. To do it, three rate of air renewals in the building, with 79% of energy consumption
different plates length were tested: 40, 60 and 120 cm (Fig. 14). As it is due to air renewals compared to 21% due to heat transfer through the
shown in Fig. 15, all the simulation passed the values obtained for the envelope. This is mainly due to the current regulatory requirement of the
tensile strength of the composites. Thus, it can be concluded that all the Spanish Building Code [37] that requires permanent ventilation in the
developed composites are suitable for its usage in gypsum covering building for health reasons of the occupants.
plates for multiple uses according to the different sizes of the pieces: Therefore, it is important to remember that the energy savings po­
suspended ceiling tiles, continuous ceiling pieces, etc. tential of recycled materials will be much higher in other buildings that
have low air renewal rates, compared to those obtained in this research.
Table 7 compares the total savings in heating, cooling, and the sum of
both in the two Spanish cities under study.
The results show that the recycled material improves the energy ef­
ficiency of buildings while offering a second life to an industrial by-
product. The energy savings obtained in a standard Spanish building
following the current building regulations range from 5% (warm
climate) to 3% (cold climate), being greater in heating than in cooling in
absolute terms. For example, in Soria, the incorporation of recycled
material to replace traditional material has led to energy savings of 1630
kwh in heating and 106 kwh in cooling.
Furthermore, the economic savings of reducing energy consumption
in cooling can reach 6% (Seville) to 15% (Soria), while in heating it can
Fig. 11. Relationship between dry bulk density and thermal conductivity for reach 3% (Soria) to 5% (Seville). These values could increase consid­
each composite. erably in buildings or constructions with low ventilation rates, such as,

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M.A. Pedreño-Rojas et al. Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

Fig. 12. SEM images obtained for the Reference (a) and WBA25 (b) composites.

according to the Köppen climate classification. The determination of the

Table 4
degree of energy efficiency of the new recycled composite is essential for
Results of the reduction of natural gypsum consumption per kg of composite and
architects and engineers to make decisions when choosing a construc­
environmental repercussion.
tion material in the building envelope. Also, the dosages of the new
Sample Reduction of natural Global Warming Embodied recycle composites according to the degree of energy efficiency of the
gypsum consumption Potential (GWP) Energy (EE)
[wt%] [kg CO2 eq.] [MJ]
material is interesting so that manufacturers can reproduce and market
these materials.
Ref - - -
The strategy of including recycled materials in buildings to reduce
WBA5 2.8 0.005 0.051
WBA10 3.4 0.006 0.061 energy consumption presents great potential. It is recommended that
WBA15 4.7 0.008 0.085 more research is conducted focused on the characterization of new
WBA20 6.2 0.010 0.112 recycled materials as aggregates to optimize energy savings in buildings.
WBA25 7.3 0.012 0.131 In this study was focused on internal applications. For outdoor appli­
cations it is recommended to use other binders (cement and lime) so that
the recycled materials could also be applied in outdoor areas because of
their higher resistance to water than gypsum.

5. Conclusions

The key objective of this study was to characterize and assess the
feasibility of incorporating biomass-ash into gypsum composites,
following circular economy criteria. The main conclusions are:

Fig. 13. Panel setting and bending strength test of 60 × 40×1.5 cm3 gyp­
sum panels.

for example, in warehouses that do not need ventilation or in countries

exempt from regulations that require ventilation (or with low
requirements).
Results from the energy simulations are applicable to a temperate Fig. 15. Comparison of Material Tensile Strength and Maximum Tensile Stress
oceanic climate (Cfb) and to a typical Mediterranean climate (Csa), in the tested plates with different width dimensions: 40, 60 and 120 cm.

Fig. 14. Numerical finite element simulation of the bending strength test of plates with different width dimensions: 40, 60 and 120 cm.

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M.A. Pedreño-Rojas et al. Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

Table 5 • It was viable to use the new composites for the generation of new
Characteristics of the construction system in the façade. eco-efficient gypsum plates. Its usage means a reduction on the
Material Bulk Thermal Thickness (m) environmental impact of the material (up to 7.3%) and an
Density conductivity improvement on the energy efficiency of the building (up to 5%).
Seville Soria
(kg/ (W/(m⋅K)) • SDGs such as 8, 9, 11, 12 and 15 are positively affected by the uti­
m3)
lization of alternative materials incorporating waste since it prolongs
Single-layer cement 1900 1.300 0.015 0.015 the life cycle of the latter and alleviates landfill waste disposal,
mortar among others.
Perforated ceramic 900 0.500 0.115 0.015
brick
Cement mortar 1700 1.000 0.01 0.01 These results indicate that while often alternative materials do in fact
plastering show promise for reducing environmental impacts of the built envi­
Non-ventilated air 1.2 0.220 0.04 0.04 ronment, by how much can be a challenging question to quantify and
chamber
depends on a variety of factors. Nevertheless, the reutilization and
Mineral wool 45 0.022 0.03 0.05
REF Double hollow 900 0.500 0.09 0.09 valorization of biomass ash is always going to have a better environ­
brick mental performance than ash landfilling.
REF Gypsum plaster 988 0.300 0.015 0.015 Considering the obtained results, it can be concluded that it is
WBA25 Plaster block + 25% 1084 0.247 0.1 0.1 feasible to incorporate biomass-ash waste into gypsum for non-load
WBA
WBA25 Gypsum plaster 1084 0.247 0.015 0.015
bearing applications in the construction sector, such as gypsum paste
+ 25% WBA for continuous coating or prefabricated gypsum boards.
This research leaves several research lines that can be further
addressed in the future, such as the performance of the compound in
Table 6
terms of durability, market/regulatory barriers to acceptance of mate­
Characteristics of the construction system in the flat roof. rials including biomass ash, LCA analysis or the viability of recycling the
new waste-containing composites.
Material Bulk Thermal Thickness (m)
Density Conductivity
Seville Soria CRediT authorship contribution statement
(kg/m3) (W/m⋅K)

Ceramic flooring 2400 1.900 0.01 0.01

Gripping cement 1700 1.000 0.01 0.01 Flores-Colen Inês: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.
mortar Pedreño-Rojas Manuel Alejandro: Writing – review & editing, Writing
Cement mortar 1700 1.000 0.03 0.03 – original draft, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis,
Extruded polystyrene 35 0.034 0.04 0.055
Data curation, Conceptualization. Porras-Amores César: Writing – re­
(XPS)
Waterproofing. 2100 0.700 0.01 0.01 view & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Resources, Meth­
Bituminous sheet odology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation,
Lightened slope 700 0.220 0.12 0.12 Conceptualization. Villoria-Saez Paola: Writing – review & editing,
mortar with Writing – original draft, Validation, Resources, Methodology, Investi­
expanded clay
Concrete slab 1110 0.938 0.30 0.30
gation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Morales-
Non-ventilated air 1.2 0.560 0.15 0.15 Conde María Jesús: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
chamber draft, Validation, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal anal­
REF Laminated gypsum 988 0.300 0.015 0.015 ysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
board
WBA25 Laminated gypsum 1084 0.247 0.015 0.015
+ 25% WBA board Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­

• Compared to the reference composite, gypsum composites incorpo­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
rating biomass-ash showed similar physical and mechanical prop­
Cesar Porras-Amores reports travel was provided by Government of
erties, which flexural and compression strength values above the
Spain Ministry of Universities. Paola Villoria-Saez reports travel was
norm as well as greater superficial hardness.
provided by Government of Spain Ministry of Universities. Maria Jesus
• Since its preliminary tests results were acceptable and it incorpo­
Morales-Conde reports travel was provided by Government of Spain
rated the highest percentage of waste, the best composite was the
Ministry of Universities. If there are other authors, they declare that they
25%-waste-containing sample.
have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Table 7
Energy consumption due to the heat transfer of air renewals and through the envelope of the building located in Seville and Soria.
Heat transfer type Heating Cooling Heating + Cooling

Consumption (kWh) Savings Consumption (kWh) Savings Consumption (kWh) Percentage

SEVILLE
REF Renovations 63,902 26,348 90,250
WBA25 Renovations 62,762 2% 25,628 3% 88,390 2%
REF Envelope 16,707 6889 23,596
WBA25 Envelope 15,917 5% 6500 6% 22,417 5%
SORIA
REF Renovations 246,380 3139 249,519
WBA25 Renovations 245,891 0% 2752 12% 248,643 0%
REF Envelope 56,824 724 57,548
WBA25 Envelope 55,194 3% 618 15% 55,812 3%

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M.A. Pedreño-Rojas et al. Construction and Building Materials 419 (2024) 135435

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