FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE

BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE (B.ARCH)

NIDHI M
STRUCTURES IV PES1UG21BA014
UA21FA322B SEMESTER VI
 UNIT 1
1) DEFINITION OF BUILDINGS & TYPES OF BUILDINGS
HIGH RISE DEFINITION BY DIFFERENT BODIES & DEMANDS FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
HISTORY OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS, GENERATION OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS),
FACTORS AFFECTING TALL STRUCTURES,
DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF TALL BUILDINGS.

A BUILDING CAN BE DEFINED AS A STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF WALLS, FLOORS AND ROOFS TO

PROVIDED COVERED SPACE FOR DIFFERENT USES SUCH AS RESIDENCE, EDUCATION
HOSPITALIZATION, ENTERTAINMENT, WORSHIP ETC

TYPES OF BUILDING :
1 RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
2 EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS
3 INSTITUTIONAL BUILDINGS
4 ASSEMBLY BUILDING
5 BUSINESS BUILDING
6 MERCANTILE BUILDINGS
7 INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
8 STORAGE BUILDING
9 HAZARDOUS BUILDING

HIGH RISE STRUCTURE

THERE ARE DIFFERENT DEFINITION FOR HIGH RISE CONSTRUCTION BY DIFFERENT BODIES
EMPORIS STANDARDS --“A MULTI STORY STRUCTURE BETWEEN 35 100 METERS
TALL, OR A BUILDING OF UNKNOWN HEIGHT FROM 12 39 FLOORS IS TERMED ASHIGHRISE
BUILDING CODE OF HYDERABAD,INDIA A HIGH RISE BUILDING IS ONE WITH FOUR
FLOORS OR MORE, OR ONE 15 METERS OR MORE IN HEIGHT
THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FIRE SAFETY ––"ANY STRUCTURE WHERE THE
HEIGHT CAN HAVE A SERIOUS IMPACT ON EVACUATION
MASSACHUSETTS, UNITED STATES GENERAL LAWS A HIGH RISE IS BEING HIGHER THAN
70 FEET 21 M) BUILDINGS BETWEEN 75 FEET AND 491 FEET 23 M TO 150 M) HIGH ARE
CONSIDERED HIGH RISE. BUILDINGS TALLER THAN 492 FEET 150 M) ARE CLASSIFIED AS
SKYSCRAPERS

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DEMANDS FOR HIGH RISE BUILDING

1. SCARCITY OF LAND IN URBAN AREA

2. INCREASING DEMANDS FOR RESIDENTIAL
AND BUSINESS SPACE
3. ECONOMICAL GROWTH
4. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT
5. INNOVATION IN STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
6. DESIRE FOR AESTHETIC IN URBAN
SETTING
7. CONCEPT OF CITY SKYLINE
8. CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE AND PRESTIGE
9. HUMAN ASPIRATION TO BUILD HIGHER

HISTORY & GENERATIONS

OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

THERE ARE FOUR GENERATION OF HIGH-RISE BUILDING

1ST GENERATION HIGH-RISE BUILDING

THE FIRST GENERATION OF HIGH RISE BUILDING (IN THE EARLY 20TH
CENTURY) CONSISTED OF A DESIGN WHERE THE EXTERIORS OF THE
BUILDING WERE MADE OF STONE OR BRICK.
2ND GENERATION HIGH-RISE BUILDING
IN THE SECOND GENERATION OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS (MID-20TH
CENTURY) HIGH RISE BUILDINGS WERE BUILT BY HAVING A SKELETON
OF STEEL COLUMNS THAT RUN THROUGH THE ENTIRE BUILDING.
ASSEMBLY OF FIRE RESISTANCE
SHAFT ENCLOSURES
COMPARTMENTALIZATION
USE OF NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS

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 3RD GENERATION HIGH-RISE BUILDING
THE EXTERIOR WALL IS EITHER GLASS OR SOME SORT OF
STONE MATERIAL.
THESE THIRD-GENERATION BUILDINGS CAN BE DEFINED
AS WINDOWLESS AS THE COMMON HVAC SYSTEM IS USED.
4TH GENERATION HIGH-RISE BUILDING
THIS GENERATION STRUCTURES MAKE US SEE THE
RESURRECTION OF MANY FEATURES THAT ARE SEEN IN
THE SECOND GENERATION.

FACTORS AFFECTING TALL STRUCTURES

AVAILABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS, EQUIPMENT (MOBILE CRANES, PUMPS FOR

CONCRETE)
ADVANCEMENT IN NEW CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE AND LIGHT WEIGHT
FRAMEWORK
DEVELOPMENT OF SKELETON STRUCTURE
ADVANCEMENT IN ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TALL STRUCTURE
AVAILABILITY OF ADVANCE DESIGN SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURAL DESIGN
ENERGY DISSIPATION BASE ISOLATION TECHNIQUES
INCREASED SPEED OF ERECTION
SLIP FORM TECHNIQUE AND FLYING FORMWORK LIGHT PARTITIONS, GLASS CURTAIN WALLS
ETC.

DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF TALL BUILDINGS.

LOADING
FLOOR SYSTEM
STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS STOREY DRIFT
CREEP, SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT AND SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERATION
OTHER IMPORTANT SERVICES LIKE VENTILATION, ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY, AIR
CONDITIONING, HEATING, WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM, WASTE DISPOSAL, VERTICAL
TRANSPORTATION (LIFTS)

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 2) LIST OF TOP HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

MAKKAH CLOCK ROYAL

BURJ KHALIFA
TOWER
CITY : DUBAI
CITY : MAKKAH
FLOORS : 163
FLOORS : 95
HEIGHT : 828M
HEIGHT : 601M
YEAR : 2010
YEAR : 2012

SHANGAI WORLD
TAIPEI 101
FINANCIAL CENTRE
CITY : TAIPEI
CITY : SHANGAI
FLOORS : 101
FLOORS : 101
HEIGHT : 509M
HEIGHT : 492M
YEAR : 2004
YEAR : 2008

INTERNATINAL
PETRONAS TOWER 1 & 2
COMMERCE CENTRE
CITY : KUALALUMPUR
CITY : HONGKONG
FLOORS : 88
FLOORS : 118
HEIGHT : 452M
HEIGHT : 484M
YEAR : 1998
YEAR : 2010

NANJING GREENLAND WILLIS TOWER

FINANCIAL CENTER CITY : CHICAGO
CITY : NANJING FLOORS : 108
FLOORS : 66 HEIGHT : 442M
HEIGHT : 450M YEAR : 1974
YEAR : 2010

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 3) SKYSCRAPER CASE STUDY

NAME : PETRONAS TWIN

TOWERS

YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION :
1993 & DESIGNED BY CESAR
PELLI
TOTAL HEIGHT : 451.9 METRES

NUMBER OF FLOORS : 88

MATERIALS USED : THE 88-FLOOR TOWERS ARE CONSTRUCTED LARGELY OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE, WITH A STEEL AND GLASS FACADE DESIGNED TO RESEMBLE MOTIFS FOUND
IN ISLAMIC ART, A REFLECTION OF MALAYSIA'S MUSLIM RELIGION.

FOUNDATION DETAILS :
SKYSCRAPERS NEED STRONG, DEEP FOUNDATIONS THAT PENETRATE INTO THE GROUND
BELOW. GIVEN THE TREMENDOUS HEIGHT OF THE TOWERS, THE PETRONAS TWIN
TOWERS HAVE A GROUND-BREAKING 120 METERS (APPROX. 400 FT.) OF SOLID
FOUNDATION UNDERNEATH ITS DENSE CONCRETE FOOTINGS.
FOUNDATIONS BALSA TYPE WITH A THICKNESS OF 4.5M MADE WITH 13,200 M3
REINFORCED CONCRETE WEIGHING APPROXIMATELY 32,550T UNDER EACH TOWER AT
ABOUT 19M BELOW GROUND LEVEL. THE RAFT IS SUPPORTED ON STILTS 104 BARETTE
RANGING FROM 60 TO 115 M IN LENGTH UNDER THE BOX.

EACH OF THE TOWERS’ FLOOR PLATES IS BASED ON THE SIMPLE GEOMETRIC FORMS OF
TWO INTERLOCKING SQUARES WHICH CREATES AN 8-POINTED STAR SHAPE. THIS
REPRESENTS THE ISLAMIC PRINCIPLES OF ‘UNITY WITHIN UNITY, HARMONY, STABILITY
AND RATIONALITY’. THE RESULTING CURVED AND POINTED BAYS CREATE A FAÇADE
REMINISCENT OF TEMPLE TOWERS, AND THE BRIDGE AT THE 41ST FLOOR THAT LINKS
THE TWO TOWERS IS INTENDED TO EVOKE THE IDEA OF A DRAMATIC GATEWAY TO THE
CITY.BOTH TOWERS ARE 'INTELLIGENT' STRUCTURES, BUILT WITH A SYSTEM THAT
SEAMLESSLY AND SIMULTANEOUSLY COORDINATES TELECOMMUNICATIONS,
ENVIRONMENT CONTROL, POWER SUPPLY, LIGHTING, FIRE AND SMOKE CONTROL, AND
BUILDING SECURITY.

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 UNIT 2
1) CLASSIFICATION AND EXPLANATION OF TALL BUILDING STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS WITH
SKETCHES

A) BRACED FRAME SYSTEM

REFERS TO VERTICAL TRUSSES THAT LOADS PRIMARILY DIAGONAL MEMBERS TOGETHER WITH
GIRDERS, AND FORMS THEWEBOFTHE VERTICAL TRUSS.BRACING MEMBERS
ELIMINATEBENDINGIN BEAMS AND COLUMNS.

LOAD RESISTED BY THIS SYSTEM:

LATERAL LOADS

ADVANTAGES & SUITABILITY:

EFFICIENT & ECONOMICAL INDESIGN & FABRICATION
SUITABLEFORSTEELCONSTRUCTION
25–30STOREYS

LIMITATIONS:
MAY OBSTRUCT INTERNAL PLANNING AND AFFECTS THE LOCATION OFDOORS AND WINDOWS

B) RIGID FRAME SYSTEM

BEAMS AND COLUMNS ARE CONNECTED WITH RIGID JOINTS AS MOMENT-RESISTING
CONNECTIONS IN THIS STRUCTURAL SYSTEM. THIS UNBRACED FRAME IS CAPABLE OF
RESISTING LOAD BY THE BENDING O FBEAMS AND COLUMNS.

LOAD RESISTED BY THIS SYSTEM:

BENDING MOMENT, LATERAL FORCES ,VERTICAL LOADS.

ADVANTAGES & SUITABILITY:

IDEAL FOREIN FORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
ADVANTAGES OF PLANNING AND FITTING OF WINDOWS DUE TO OPENRECTANGULAR
ARRANGEMENT.
20–25 STOREYS

LIMITATIONS:
NOT SUITABLE FOR BUILDINGS OVER 30 FLOORS DUE TO DEFLECTION CAUSED BY BENDING
OF BEAMS & COLUMNS RESULTING INSWAY.
CONSTRUCTION OF THIS SYSTEM WITH STEEL IS EXPENSIVE.

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C) SHEAR WALL SYSTEM
IT IS A CONTINUOUS VERTICAL WALL CONSTRUCTED FROM REINFORCED CONCRETE OR MASONRY
WALL. COMMONLY, CONSTRUCTED AS A CORE OF BUILDINGS. SHEAR WALL SYSTEMS GENERALLY
CONSIST OF WALLS IN THE PERIMETER ALONG WITH COLUMNS.

LOAD RESISTED BY THIS SYSTEM:

SEISMIC AND LATERAL LOADS

ADVANTAGES&SUITABILITY:
•IDEAL FOR HOTEL&RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS WHERE THE FLOOR-BY FLOOR REPETITIVE
PLANNING ALLOWS THE WALLS TO BE VERTICALLY CONTINUOUS.
•EXCELLENT ACOUSTIC AND FIRE INSULATORS BETWEEN ROOMS AND APARTMENTS.
•30–35 STOREYS OR HIGHER

LIMITATIONS:
SYMMETRY IN PLAN IS PREFERRED TO AVOID TORSIONAL EFFECTS

D) OUTRIGGER SYSTEM

OUTRIGGER SYSTEMS FUNCTION BY TYING TOGETHER TWO STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS— A CORE

SYSTEM AND A PERIMETER SYSTEM TOGETHER. THE OUTRIGGERS ARE STRUCTURA LELEMENTS
CONNECTING THE CORE TO THE PERIMETER COLUMNS AT ONE OR MORE LEVELS THROUGHOUT
THE HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING SO AS TO STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE. THE OUTRIGGERS ARE IN THE
FORM OF WALLS IN ARE INFORCED CONCRETE BUILDING AND TRUSSES WHEN IT COMES TO
STEEL STRUCTURES.

LOAD RESISTED BY THIS SYSTEM:

LATERAL LOADS
IMPROVES OVERTURNING STIFFNESS & STRENGTH

ADVANTAGES & SUITABILITY:

GREATER EFFICIENCY INRESISTING FORCES
SUITABLE FOR BOTH STEEL & REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
70-150 STOREYS

E) HYBRID SYSTEMS

COMBINATION OF 2 OR MORE STRUCTURAL

SYSTEMS CREATING A SYSTEM OF ITS OWN.
STRENGTHS AND NUMBER OF STORIES DEPENDS
ON THE COMBINAT

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2) CORE DEFINITION-CHARACTERISTICS-TYPES OF SERVICE CORE WITH SKETCHES ,
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRAL CORE

THIS SYSTEM CONSISTS OF A REINFORCED CONCRETE CORE SHEARWALL.

IN CORESYSTEMS, FLOOR SLABS ARE CANTILEVERED FROM THE CORE SHEAR WALL
INDEPENDENTLY, OR CANTILEVERED MODULES OF FLOORS LABSAREUSED. THEBOTTOM SLAB
OF EACH MODULE IS A STRENGTHEN EDCANTILEVER FLOORS LAB WHICH SUPPORTS THE
PERIMETER COLUMNS OF THE UPPER STOREYS IN THE MODULE.

MEGA CORE: CONSIST OF REINFORCED CONCRETE OR COMPOSITE CORE SHEAR WALLS WITH
MUCH LARGER CROSS-SECTIONS THAN NORMAL, RUNNING CONTINUOUSLY
THROUGHOUTTHEHEIGHT OF THE BUILDING.

LOAD RESISTED BY THIS SYSTEM:

LATERAL LOADS

ADVANTAGES & SUITABILITY:

EFFICIENT & ECONOMICAL
GREATER STRENGTH
20 TO 60 STOREYS

3) SHEAR WALL DEFINITION- ARCHITECTURAL ASPECTS – APPLICATIONS , PLACEMENT OF

SHEAR
WALL – FUNCTIONS , ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES OF SHEAR WALL

C) SHEAR WALL SYSTEM

IT IS A CONTINUOUS VERTICAL WALL CONSTRUCTED FROM REINFORCED CONCRETE OR MASONRY
WALL.COMMONLY, CONSTRUCTED AS A CORE OF BUILDINGS. SHEAR WALL SYSTEMS GENERALLY
CONSIST OF WALLS IN THE PERIMETER ALONG WITH COLUMNS.

LOAD RESISTED BY THIS SYSTEM:

SEISMIC AND LATERAL LOADS

ADVANTAGES & SUITABILITY:

•IDEAL FOR HOTEL & RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS WHERE THE FLOOR-BY FLOOR REPETITIVE
PLANNING ALLOWS THE WALLS TO BE VERTICALLY CONTINUOUS.
•EXCELLENT ACOUSTIC AND FIRE INSULATORS BETWEEN ROOMS AND APARTMENTS.
•30–35 STOREYS OR HIGHER

LIMITATIONS:
SYMMETRY IN PLAN IS PREFERRED TO AVOID TORSIONAL EFFECTS.

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2) DESIGN SHEAR WALLS FOR A BUILDING WITH 7 FLOORS HAS 3 SHEAR WALLS IN Y-
DIRECTION
AND 4 WALLS IN X – DIRECTION. UNIT WEIGHT OF CONCRETE = 24 KN/M3 ,DEAD LOAD OF SLAB
= 14 KN/M2 AND GRADE OF CONCRETE IS M 30.

LENGTH OF SHEAR WALL = 4.0

HEIGHT OF SHEAR WALL = 4.0
THICKNESS OF SHEAR WALL = 0.30
STAIRWELL = 1.5 X 4. 0 M

STEP (1): FIND THE WEIGHT OF EACH FLOOR

• A- FIND THE WEIGHT OF SHEAR WALL (KN)
-WT.SW= NUMBER OF SW* H(HEIGHT OF SW)* L(LENGTH OF SW)*T(THICKNESS OF
SW) *THE DENSITY OF CONCRETE WT.SW 7*4*4*3*24 = 806.4 KN =807
NOTE THAT ALL THE NUMBER BE CLOSE TO THE LARGEST INTEGER
- WT OF SLAB =(AREA OF SLAB EXCLUDE THE OPENING AREA AS EXAMPLE
STAIRWELL AND SKYLIGHT..) * THE DEAD LOAD KN/M^2
WT OF SLAB = [(12.5*16)- (1.5*4)]*14=2716 KN
WT OF THE BUILDING = WEIGHT OF ONE FLOOR(SW+SLAB)* NUMBER OF STORY WT
OF THE BUILDING = (2716+807)*7= 24661 KN
STEP (2): FIND THE CENTER OF MASS(CM)&CENTER OF RIGIDITY (CR)
FIND THE CENTER OF MASS(CM)
WE TAKE ALL THE AREA CONVERT IT TO WEIGHTS THEN WE MULTIPLY THE WEIGHT
WITH CENTROID X ONCE THEN THE WEIGHT WITH CENTROID Y THE SECOND TIME

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• XM(THE X-COORDINATE OF CENTER OF MASS)= TOTAL WEIGHTS IN X DIRECTION /
TOTAL WEIGHTS IN THE FLOOR
XM=27675.2/3523= 7.86 M
• YM(THE Y-COORDINATE OF CENTER OF MASS)= TOTAL WEIGHTS IN Y DIRECTION /
TOTAL WEIGHTS IN THE FLOOR
YM=21293.8/3523= 6.04 M
FIND THE CENTER OF RIGIDITY (CR)
• FIRST WE CALCULATED THE STIFFNESS OF SHEAR WALL K=3EI/[H^3*(1+.6*(1+X)
*L^2/H^2)]
Y: PASSION'S RATIO OF CONCRETE =.25
I: MOMENT OF INERTIA BH^3/123*(4)^3/12-1.6 M^4
• MODULUS OF ELASTICITY E=4700*√FC'=4700 *√30 25743 MPA
• K-(3*25743*1.6)/[4^3*(1+.6*(1+.25)*4^2/4^2)]-1103.3 *10^6 N/M-1103.3 MN/M
THEN AFTER WE CALCULATED THE STIFFNESS FOR ONE WALL WHICH ARE THE SAME
VALUE FOR OTHERS WALLS) WE WANT TO FIND THE RIGIDITY COORDINTE (X,Y)
X-DIRECTION COORDINATE AND THE RIGIDITY V -DIRECTION COORDINATE
• X-DIRECTION

• Y-DIRECTION

XR(THE X-COORDINATE OF RIGIDITY) = TOTAL (K*XI)/TOTAL OF STIFFNESS XR = 26476.8 /

3309.6 = 8M
• YR(THE Y-COORDINATE OF RIGIDITY) =TOTAL (K*YI)/TOTAL OF STIFFNESS YR = 25925.24
/ 4412.8 = 5.88M

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 UNIT 3
1) EXPLAIN THE STEPS INVOLVED IN DESIGNING BUILDING FOR WIND LOAD.

STEP 1: CALCULATING DESIGN WIND SPEED

DESIGN WIND SPEED - Vz = Vb.K1.K2.K3
Vz= BASIC WIND SPEED AT ANY HEIGHT z IN m/s
K1= PROBABILITY FACTOR
K2= TERRAIN, HEIGHT AND STRUCTURE SIZE FACTOR
K3= TOPOGRAPHY FACTOR

STEP 2: CALCULATING DESIGN WIND PRESSURE

Pz= 0.6 x Vz x Vz N/sqm

STEP 3: CALCULATING DESIGN WIND LOAD

WIND LOAD CALCULATION- F=Ae x Pd x Cf
F= WIND LOAD
Ae= EFFECTIVE FRONTAL AREA OBSTRUCTING WIND, WHICH IS IDENTIFIED FOR EACH
STRUCTURE
Cf= FORCE COEFFICIENT
Pd= DESIGN WIND PRESSURE

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 UNIT 3
2) A COMPOSITE FLOOR CONSISTING OF A 150 MM THICK REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB
SUPPORTED ON STEEL BEAMS SPANNING 5 M AND SPACED AT 3 M C/C IS TO BE DESIGNED TO
CARRY AN IMPOSED LOAD OF 3.5 KN/M.THE SELF WEIGHT OF STEEL BEAMS IS 0.5 KN/M, FLOOR
FINISH = 1 KN/M. SLAB PANELS ARE SUPPORTED ON ALL FOUR EDGES. CALCULATE THE LOADS
ON A TYPICAL INTERNAL BEAM.

1. LOAD PATH
SLAB BEHAVES AS A ONE WAY CONTINUOUS SPANNING ACROSS BEAMS AS THE
LONGITUDINAL SLAB EDGES ARE NOT SUPPORTED
EACH INTERNAL BEAM SUPPORTS A UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD FROM A 3 M
WITH OF SLAB (HATCHED AREA) PLUS SELF-WEIGHT.
LOAD ON BEAM = LOAD FROM SLAB + SELF-WEIGHT OF BEAM
2. LOAD ON SLAB ( PER ME AREA)
LOAD CASE 1: DEAD LOAD (PERMANENT ACTION)
SELF-WEIGHT OF SLAB = 0.15 × 25 = 3.75 KN/M?
FLOOR FINISH = 1 KN/M?
TOTAL DEAD LOAD = 4.75 KN/M?
LOAD CASE 2: IMPOSED LOAD = 3.5 KN/M?
3. LOAD ON INTEMAL BEAM (PER M LENGTH)
LOAD CASE 1
FROM SLAB = 4.75 X 3 = 14.25 KN/M
SELF-WEIGHT OF BEAM = 0. 5 KN/M
TOTAL LOAD = 14.75 KN/M (UDL)
LOAD CASE 2: FROM SLAB = 3.5 X 3 = 10.5 KN/M (UDL)

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 UNIT 3
3) LOAD PATHS SKETCH AND LOAD TRANSFER BASED ON GEOMETRY AND IMPOSED FLOOR
LOADS FOR DIFFERENT OCCUPANCIES (CLAUSES 3.1, 3.1.1 AND 4.1.1) PG NO.7 (IS 875)

LOAD TRANSFER BASED ON GEOMETRY AND IMPOSED FLOOR LOADS FOR DIFFERENT
OCCUPANCIES (CLAUSES 3.1, 3.1.1 AND 4.1.1) PG NO.7 (IS 875

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 UNIT 3
4) GENERAL REASONS OF FAILURE OF RC STRUCTURES (EXPLAIN EACH WITH SKETCH)

GENERAL REASONS OF FAILURE OF RC STRUCTURES

1. SOFT STORIES
2. FLOATING COLUMNS
3. STRONG COLUMN WEAK BEAM
4. POOR QUALITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
5. FAULTY CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
6. POUNDING OF ADJACENT STRUCTURES
7. PLAN AND MASS IRREGULARITIES

1. SOFT STORIES:
• A SOFT STOREY IS ONE IN WHICH THE LATERAL STIFFNESS IS LESS
THAN 70% OF THE STOREY IMMEDIATELY ABOVE, OR
LESS THAN 80% OF THE COMBINED STIFFNESS OF THE THREE
STORIES ABOVE.
• A TYPICAL SOFT STORY BUILDING OF G+4 OR MORE STORIES
LOCATED OVER A GROUND LEVEL WITH LARGE OPENINGS,
SUCH AS A PARKING SPACE OR SERIES OF RETAIL BUSINESSES WITH
LARGE WINDOWS.

2.FLOATING COLUMNS:
USUALLY COLUMNS REST ON THE FOUNDATION TO TRANSFER
LOAD FROM SLABS AND BEAMS.
FLOATING COLUMN REST ON THE BEAM, MEANS THE BEAM WHICH
SUPPORT THE COLUMN IS ACT AS A FOUNDATION.
THAT BEAM IS CALLED AS TRANSFER BEAM.

3. STRONG COLUMN WEAK BEAM:

• DURING AN EARTHQUAKE, COLUMNS RECEIVE FORCES FROM
BEAMS, SO COLUMNS SHOULD BE STRONGER THAN BEAMS
AND FOUNDATIONS SHOULD BE STRONGER THAN COLUMNS.
• IF COLUMNS ARE MADE WEAKER THEN THEY SUFFER SEVERE
DAMAGE ESPECIALLY AT THE JOINTS OF LOWER STOREY.
• ON THE OTHER HAND, IF THE BEAMS ARE WEAKER THEN
DAMAGE WILL FIRST OCCUR IN THE BEAMS WHICH ARE
DUCTILE
ENOUGH AND CAUSE PROGRESSIVE DAMAGE. THERE WILL BE
LARGE DEFORMATIONS(DUCTILE FAILURE) IN THE BUILDING
BEFORE COLLAPSE.

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 UNIT 3
4. POOR QUALITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
• INFERIOR QUALITY OF STEEL OR WATER USED RESULT IN CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT
WHICH RESULT IN SPALLING OF
CONCRETE
• THE CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT IS ALSO CAUSED BY INSUFFICIENT COVER, POROUS
CONCRETE AND LESS
COMPACTION.

5. FAULTY CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

FAULTY CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES INCLUDE:
➢ IMPROPER PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE INGREDIENTS
➢ LOW CEMENT-SAND RATIO
➢ WRONG PLACEMENT OF STEEL BARS
➢ INADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
➢ IMPROPER SPLICING

6. POUNDING ADJACENT STRUCTURES:

• POUNDING EFFECT IS CAUSED DUE TO THE HAMMERING OF ADJACENT BUILDING OF DIFFERENT
HEIGHTS.
• BUILDINGS OF DIFFERENT HEIGHT HIT AGAINST EACH OTHER DAMAGING THE COLUMNS DUE TO
HAMMERING OF FLOORS
• DAMAGE DUE TO POUNDING MAY BE MINIMIZED BY PROVIDING PROPER SEPARATION OR BY
ALIGNING FLOORS OF
ADJACENT BUILDINGS.

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 UNIT 3
5) IRREGULARITIES IN A BUILDING ,TYPES OF IRREGULARITY (EXPLAIN EACH WITH SKETCH)

BASED ON THE STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION, EACH STRUCTURE SHALL BE DESIGNED AS A

REGULAR, OR IRREGULAR STRUCTURE AS DEFINED BELOW:
REGULAR STRUCTURE: REGULAR STRUCTURES HAVE NO SIGNIFICANT PHYSICAL
DISCONTINUITIES IN PLAN OR VERTICAL CONFIGURATION OR IN THEIR LATERAL FORCE
RESISTING
SYSTEMS.
IRREGULAR STRUCTURES: IRREGULAR STRUCTURES HAVE SIGNIFICANT PHYSICAL
DISCONTINUITIES
IN CONFIGURATION OR IN THEIR LATERAL FORCE RESISTING SYSTEMS. IRREGULAR STRUCTURES
HAVE EITHER VERTICAL IRREGULARITY OR PLAN IRREGULARITY OR BOTH IN THEIR STRUCTURAL
CONFIGURATIONS

TYPES OF IRREGULARITIES
STRUCTURAL IRREGULARITIES ARE BASICALLY DEMARCATED INTO TWO CATEGORIES:
PLAN IRREGULARITY
VERTICAL IRREGULARITY

I. PLAN IRREGULARITIES – REFERS TO ASYMMETRIC PLAN SHAPE OR DISCONTINUOUS IN

THE HORIZONTAL RESISTING ELEMENTS. SUCH AS OPENINGS AND RE-ENTRANT CORNER
AND OTHER CHANGES RESULTING IN TORSION.

II. VERTICAL IRREGULARITIES- SUDDEN CHANGE IN STRENGTH, STIFFNESS, GEOMETRY AND

MASS RESULTS IN IRREGULAR DISTRIBUTION OF FORCES OVER THE HEIGHT.

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 UNIT 3
6) DIFFERENT SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA ALONG WITH ZONE FACTORS,(05M), ASSUMPTIONS
MADE IN EQUIVALENT STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS (05M), LIMITATIONS OF EQUIVALENT STATIC
FORCE ANALYSIS(05M)

DIFFERENT SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA

ZONE 5 - ZONE 5 COVERS THE AREAS WITH THE HIGHEST RISKS ZONE THAT SUFFERS
EARTHQUAKES OF GREATER INTENSITY. THE IS CODE ASSIGNS ZONE FACTOR OF 0.36 FOR ZONE
5. STRUCTURAL DESIGNERS USE THIS FACTOR FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF
STRUCTURES IN ZONE 5. THE ZONE FACTOR OF 0.36 IS INDICATIVE OF EFFECTIVE (ZERO
PERIOD) LEVEL EARTHQUAKE IN THIS ZONE. IT IS REFERRED TO AS THE VERY HIGH DAMAGE
RISK ZONE. THE REGION OF KASHMIR, THE WESTERN AND CENTRAL HIMALAYAS, NORTH
BIHAR, THE NORTH-EAST INDIAN REGION AND THE RANN OF KUTCH FALL IN THIS ZONE.
GENERALLY, THE AREAS HAVING TRAP ROCK OR BASALTIC ROCK ARE PRONE TO EARTHQUAKES.
ZONE 4 - THIS ZONE IS CALLED THE HIGH DAMAGE RISK ZONE. THE IS CODE ASSIGNS ZONE
FACTOR OF 0.24 FOR ZONE 4. THE INDOGANGETIC BASIN AND THE CAPITAL OF THE COUNTRY
(DELHI), JAMMU AND KASHMIR FALL IN ZONE 4. IN MAHARASHTRA, THE FALTAN AREA
(KOYANANAGER) IS ALSO IN ZONE 4. IN BIHAR THE NORTHERN PART OF THE STATE LIKE-
RAKSAUL, NEAR THE BORDER OF INDIA AND NEPAL, IS ALSO IN ZONE 4.

ZONE 3 - THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS, PARTS OF KASHMIR, WESTERN HIMALAYAS
FALL UNDER THIS ZONE. THIS ZONE IS CLASSIFIED AS MODERATE DAMAGE RISK ZONE AND
ALSO 7.8 THE IS CODE ASSIGNS ZONE FACTOR OF 0.16 FOR ZONE 3.

ZONE 2 - THIS REGION IS LIABLE TO HAVE LESS INTENSITY AND IS CLASSIFIED AS THE LOW
DAMAGE RISK ZONE. THE IS CODE ASSIGNS ZONE FACTOR OF 0.10 (MAXIMUM HORIZONTAL
ACCELERATION THAT CAN BE EXPERIENCED BY A STRUCTURE IN THIS ZONE IS 10% OF
GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION) FOR ZONE 2.

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 UNIT 3
ZONE FACTORS

ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN EQUIVALENT STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS

EQUIVALENT STATIC LATERAL FORCE ANALYSIS IS BASED ON THE FOLLOWING ASSUMPTIONS,
1. ASSUME THAT STRUCTURE IS RIGID.
2. ASSUME PERFECT FIXITY BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND FOUNDATION.
3. DURING GROUND MOTION EVERY POINT ON THE STRUCTURE EXPERIENCE SAME
ACCELERATIONS
4. DOMINANT EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKE IS EQUIVALENT TO HORIZONTAL FORCE OF VARYING
MAGNITUDE OVER THE HEIGHT. APPROXIMATELY DETERMINES THE TOTAL HORIZONTAL
FORCE (BASE SHEAR) ON THE STRUCTURE.

LIMITATIONS OF EQUIVALENT STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS

1. IN THE EQUIVALENT STATIC FORCE PROCEDURE, EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS ARE USED TO

SPECIFY DYNAMIC INERTIAL FORCES AS STATIC FORCES.
2. THESE EMPIRICAL FORMULAS DO NOT EXPLICITLY ACCOUNT FOR THE DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICULAR STRUCTURE BEING DESIGNED OR ANALYZED.
3. THESE FORMULAS WERE DEVELOPED TO APPROXIMATELY REPRESENT THE DYNAMIC
BEHAVIOR OF WHAT ARE CALLED REGULAR STRUCTURES (STRUCTURES WHICH HAVE A
REASONABLY UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION OF MASS AND STIFFNESS).
4. STRUCTURES THAT ARE CLASSIFIED AS IRREGULAR VIOLATE THE ASSUMPTIONS ON WHICH
THE EMPIRICAL FORMULAS, USED IN THE EQUIVALENT STATIC FORCE PROCEDURE.

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 UNIT 3
7) TYPES OF SEISMIC ANALYSIS (EXPLAIN EACH TYPE), STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR
EQUIVALENT STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS, STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR RESPONSE SPECTRUM
METHOD.

TYPES OF SEISMIC ANALYSIS

A. EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE: SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF MOST OF THE STRUCTURES IS STILL
CARRIED OUT ON BASIS OF LATERAL FORCE ASSUMED TO BE EQUIVALENT TO THE ACTUAL
LOADING. THIS METHOD IS USUALLY CONSERVATIVE FOR LOW TO MEDIUM HEIGHT BUILDINGS
WITH REGULAR CONFORMATION.

B. RESPONSE SPECTRUM ANALYSIS:THIS METHOD IS APPLICABLE FOR THOSE STRUCTURES

WHERE MODES OTHER THAN THE FUNDAMENTAL ONE AFFECT SIGNIFICANTLY THE RESPONSE OF
THE STRUCTURE.

C. ELASTIC TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS: A LINEAR TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS OVERCOMES ALL THE
DISADVANTAGES OF MODAL RESPONSE SPECTRUM ANALYSIS, PROVIDED NON-LINEAR BEHAVIOR
IS NOT INVOLVED.

D. PUSH OVER ANALYSIS: THE PUSH OVER ANALYSIS OF A STRUCTURE IS A STATIC NONLINEAR
ANALYSIS UNDER PERMANENT VERTICAL LOADS AND GRADUALLY INCREASING LATERAL LOADS.

E. INELASTIC TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS: A SEISMICALLY DEFICIENT BUILDING WILL BE

SUBJECTED TO INELASTIC ACTION DURING DESIGN EARTHQUAKE MOTION. THE INELASTIC TIME
HISTORY ANALYSIS OF THE BUILDING UNDER STRONG GROUND MOTIONS BRINGS OUT THE
REGION OF WEAKNESS AND DUCTILITY DEMAND IN STRUCTURE. THIS IS MOST RATIONAL
METHOD AVAILABLE FOR ASSESSING BUILDING PERFORMANCE.

STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR EQUIVALENT STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS:

STEP 1: DEPENDING ON THE LOCATION OF THE BUILDING SITE, IDENTIFY THE SEISMIC ZONE
AND ASSIGN ZONE FACTOR (Z)
STEP-2: COMPUTE THE SEISMIC WEIGHT OF THE BUILDING (W).
• AS PER CLAUSE 7.4.2, IS-1893 (2002) – SEISMIC WEIGHT OF FLOORS
• AS PER CLAUSE 7.4.3, IS -1893 (2002) – SEISMIC WEIGHT OF THE BUILDING

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 UNIT 3
STEP 3: COMPUTE THE NATURAL PERIOD OF THE BUILDING (TA)

STEP 4: OBTAIN THE DATA PERTAINING TO TYPE OF SOIL CONDITIONS OF FOUNDATION OF THE
BUILDING
• ASSIGN TYPE, I FOR HARD SOIL, II FOR MEDIUM SOIL & III FOR SOFT SOIL.

STEP-5: USING TA AND SOIL TYPE (I / II / III), COMPUTE THE AVERAGE SPECTRAL ACCELERATION
( SA/G)
STEP-6: IMPORTANCE FACTOR, DEPENDING UPON FUNCTIONAL USE OF THE STRUCTURES,
CHARACTERIZED BY HAZARDOUS CONSEQUENCES OF IT FAILURE, POST-EARTHQUAKE
FUNCTIONAL NEEDS, HISTORICAL VALUE , OR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.

STEP-7: DEPENDS ON THE PERCEIVED SEISMIC DAMAGE PERFORMANCE OF THE STRUCTURE,

CHARACTERIZED BY DUCTILE OR BRITTLE DEFORMATION HOWEVER, THE RATIO (I/R) SHALL NOT
BE GREATER THAN 1.0

STEP-8: KNOWING Z, SA/G, R AND I COMPUTE DESIGN HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION

COEFFICIENT (AH) USING THE RELATIONSHIP,

STEP-9: USING AH AND W COMPUTE DESIGN SEISMIC BASE SHEAR (VB), FROM VB = AHW
STEP-10 : COMPUTE DESIGN LATERAL FORCE ( COMPUTE DESIGN LATERAL FORCE ( QI) OF ITH
FLOOR BY DISTRIBUTING THE DESIGN SEISMIC BASE SHEAR ( VB) AS PER THE EXPRESSION.

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STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR RESPONSE SPECTRUM METHOD:
STEP-1: DEPENDING ON THE LOCATION OF THE BUILDING SITE, IDENTIFY THE SEISMIC ZONE
AND ASSIGN ZONE FACTOR (Z)
• USE TABLE 2 ALONG WITH SEISMIC ZONES MAP OR ANNEX OF IS- 1893 (2002)

STEP-2: COMPUTE THE SEISMIC WEIGHT OF THE BUILDING (W)

• AS PER CLAUSE 7.4.2, IS-1893 (2002) – SEISMIC WEIGHT OF FLOORS (WI)

STEP-3: ESTABLISH MASS [M] AND STIFFNESS [K] MATRICES OF THE BUILDING USING SYSTEM OF
MASSES LUMPED AT THE FLOOR LEVELS WITH EACH MASS HAVING ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM.

STEP-4: USING [M] AND [K] OF PREVIOUS STEP AND EMPLOYING THE PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS
COMPUTE THE MODAL FREQUENCIES, {W} AND CORRESPONDING MODE SHAPES, [Φ] .

STEP-5: COMPUTE MODAL MASS MK OF MODE K USING THE FOLLOWING RELATIONSHIP WITH N
BEING NUMBER OF MODES CONSIDERED.

STEP-6: COMPUTE MODAL PARTICIPATION FACTORS PK OF MODE K USING THE FOLLOWING

RELATIONSHIP WITH N BEING NUMBER OF MODES CONSIDERED.

STEP-7: COMPUTE LATERAL DESIGN FORCE (QIK) AT EACH FLOOR IN EACH MODE USING,

STEP-8: COMPUTE STOREY SHEAR FORCES IN EACH MODE (VIK) ACTING IN EACH STOREY I IN
MODE K AS GIVEN BY,

STEP-9: COMPUTE STOREY SHEAR FORCES DUE TO ALL MODES CONSIDERED, VI IN STOREY I, BY
COMBINING SHEAR FORCES DUE TO EACH MODE IN ACCORDANCE CLAUSE 7.8.4.4 OF IS1893
(2002).

STEP-10: FINALLY COMPUTE DESIGN LATERAL FORCES AT EACH STOREY AS,

Froof= Vroof and
Fi= Vi - V(i+1)

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1) :DEFINITION OF PRESTRESS, BASIC CONCEPT, TERMINOLOGY USED

PRESTRESS IS DEFINED AS A METHOD OF APPLYING PRE-COMPRESSION TO CONTROL THE

STRESSES RESULTING DUE TO EXTERNAL LOADS BELOW THE NEUTRAL AXIS OF THE BEAM
TENSION DEVELOPED DUE TO EXTERNAL LOAD WHICH IS MORE THAN THE PERMISSIBLE
LIMITS OF THE PLAIN CONCRETE. THE PRE-COMPRESSION APPLIED (MAY BE AXIAL OR
ECCENTRIC) WILL INDUCE THE COMPRESSIVE STRESS BELOW THE NEUTRAL AXIS OR AS A
WHOLE OF THE BEAM C/S. RESULTING EITHER NO TENSION OR COMPRESSION.

BASIC CONCEPT
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE IS BASICALLY CONCRETE IN WHICH INTERNAL STRESSES OF A
SUITABLE MAGNITUDE AND DISTRIBUTION ARE INTRODUCED SO THAT THE STRESSES
RESULTING FROM THE EXTERNAL LOADS ARE COUNTERACTED TO A DESIRED DEGREE

TERMINOLOGY
1. TENDON: A STRETCHED ELEMENT USED IN A CONCRETE MEMBER OF STRUCTURE T
PRESTRESS TO THE CONCRETE
2. ANCHORAGE: A DEVICE GENERALLY USED TO ENABLE THE TENDON TO IMPART AND
MAINTAIN PRESTRESS IN CONCRETE.
3. PRETENSIONING: A METHOD OF PRESTRESSING CONCRETE IN WHICH THE TENDONS
ARE TENSIONED BEFORE THE CONCRETE IS PLACED. IN THIS METHOD, THE CONCRETE
IS INTRODUCED BY BOND BETWEEN STEEL & CONCRETE.
4. POST-TENSIONING: A METHOD OF PRESTRESSING CONCRETE BY TENSIONING THE
TENDONS AGAINST HARDENED CONCRETE. IN THIS METHOD, THE PRESTRESS IS
IMPARTED TO CONCRETE BY BEARING

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2) MATERIALS FOR PRESTRESS CONCRETE MEMBERS.

1. CEMENT:
THE CEMENT USED SHOULD BE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING
(A) ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT CONFORMING TO IS269
(B) PORTLAND SLAG CEMENT CONFORMING TO IS455. BUT THE SLAG CONTENT SHOULD NOT
BE MORE THAN 50%.
(C) RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT CONFORMING TO IS8041

2. CONCRETE:
PRESTRESS CONCRETE REQUIRES CONCRETE, WHICH HAS A HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
REASONABLY EARLY AGE WITH COMPARATIVELY HIGHER TENSILE STRENGTH THAN
ORDINARY CONCRETE. THE CONCRETE FOR THE MEMBERS SHALL BE AIR-ENTRAINED
CONCRETE COMPOSED OF PORTLAND CEMENT, FINE AND COARSE AGGREGATES,
ADMIXTURES AND WATER. THE AIR-ENTRAINING FEATURE MAY BE OBTAINED BY THE USE
OF EITHER AIR-ENTRAINING PORTLAND CEMENT OR AN APPROVED AIR-ENTRAINING
ADMIXTURE. THE ENTRAINED AIR CONTENT SHALL BE NOT LESS THAN 4 PERCENT OR MORE
THAN 6 PERCENT. 3 MINIMUM CEMENT CONTENT OF 300 TO 360 KG/M IS PRESCRIBED FOR
THE DURABILITY REQUIREMENT.
THE WATER CONTENT SHOULD BE AS LOW AS POSSIBLE.

3. STEEL
HIGH TENSILE STEEL, TENDONS, STRANDS OR CABLES
THE STEEL USED IN PRESTRESS SHALL BE ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING:-
(A) PLAIN HARD-DRAWN STEEL WIRE CONFORMING TO IS1785 (PART-I & PART-III)
(B) COLD DRAWN INDENTED WIRE CONFORMING TO IS6003
(C) HIGH TENSILE STEEL WIRE BAR CONFORMING TO IS2090
(D) UNCOATED STRESS RELIVED STRAND CONFORMING TO IS6006

3) DURABILITY, FIRE RESISTANCE & COVER REQUIREMENTS

FOR PSC MEMBERS

20 MM COVER FOR PRETENSIONED MEMBERS

30 MM OR SIZE OF THE CABLE WHICH EVER IS BIGGER FOR POST TENSIONED
MEMBERS.
IF THE PRESTRESS MEMBERS ARE EXPOSED TO AN AGGRESSIVE ENVIRONMENT, THESE
COVERS ARE INCREASED BY ANOTHER 10 MM.

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2) MATERIALS FOR PRESTRESS CONCRETE MEMBERS.

1. CEMENT:
THE CEMENT USED SHOULD BE ANY OF THE FOLLOWING
(A) ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT CONFORMING TO IS269
(B) PORTLAND SLAG CEMENT CONFORMING TO IS455. BUT THE SLAG CONTENT
SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 50%.
(C) RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT CONFORMING TO IS8041

2. CONCRETE:
PRESTRESS CONCRETE REQUIRES CONCRETE, WHICH HAS A HIGH COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH REASONABLY EARLY AGE WITH COMPARATIVELY HIGHER TENSILE
STRENGTH THAN ORDINARY CONCRETE. THE CONCRETE FOR THE MEMBERS SHALL BE
AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE COMPOSED OF PORTLAND CEMENT, FINE AND COARSE
AGGREGATES, ADMIXTURES AND WATER. THE AIR-ENTRAINING FEATURE MAY BE
OBTAINED BY THE USE OF EITHER AIR-ENTRAINING PORTLAND CEMENT OR AN
APPROVED AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURE. THE ENTRAINED AIR CONTENT SHALL BE
NOT LESS THAN 4 PERCENT OR MORE THAN 6 PERCENT. 3 MINIMUM CEMENT CONTENT
OF 300 TO 360 KG/M IS PRESCRIBED FOR THE DURABILITY REQUIREMENT.
THE WATER CONTENT SHOULD BE AS LOW AS POSSIBLE.

3. STEEL
HIGH TENSILE STEEL, TENDONS, STRANDS OR CABLES
THE STEEL USED IN PRESTRESS SHALL BE ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING:-
(A) PLAIN HARD-DRAWN STEEL WIRE CONFORMING TO IS1785 (PART-I & PART-III)
(B) COLD DRAWN INDENTED WIRE CONFORMING TO IS6003
(C) HIGH TENSILE STEEL WIRE BAR CONFORMING TO IS2090
(D) UNCOATED STRESS RELIVED STRAND CONFORMING TO IS6006

4) NESSECITY OF HIGH GRADE STEEL AND CONCRETE

HIGHER THE GRADE OF CONCRETE HIGHER THE BOND STRENGTH WHICH IS VITAL IN
PRETENSIONED CONCRETE, ALSO HIGHER BEARING STRENGTH WHICH IS VITAL IN POST-
TENSIONED CONCRETE. FURTHER CREEP & SHRINKAGE LOSSES ARE MINIMUM WITH HIGH-GRADE
CONCRETE.
GENERALLY MINIMUM M30 GRADE CONCRETE IS USED FOR POST-TENSIONED & M40 GRADE
CONCRETE IS USED FOR PRETENSIONED MEMBERS.
THE LOSSES IN PRESTRESS MEMBERS DUE TO VARIOUS REASONS ARE GENERALLY IN THE RANGE OF
250 N/MM² TO 400 N/MM². IF MILD STEEL OR DEFORMED STEEL IS USED THE RESIDUAL STRESSES
AFTER LOSSES IS EITHER ZERO OR NEGLIGIBLE. HENCE HIGH TENSILE STEEL WIRES ARE USED
WHICH VARIES FROM 1600 TO 2000 N/MM².

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5) HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSED

A PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURE IS DIFFERENT FROM A CONVENTIONAL

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE DUE TO THE APPLICATION OF AN INITIAL LOAD
ON THE STRUCTURE PRIOR TO ITS USE. THE INITIAL LOAD OR 'PRESTRESS' IS APPLIED
TO ENABLE THE STRUCTURE TO COUNTERACT THE STRESSES ARISING DURING ITS
SERVICE PERIOD.
THE PRESTRESSING OF A STRUCTURE IS NOT THE ONLY INSTANCE OF PRESTRESSING.
THE CONCEPT OF PRESTRESSING EXISTED BEFORE THE APPLICATIONS IN CONCRETE.
TWO EXAMPLES OF PRESTRESSING BEFORE THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE ARE PROVIDED.
FORCE-FITTING OF METAL BANDS ON WOODEN BARRELS:
THE METAL BANDS INDUCE A STATE OF INITIAL HOOP COMPRESSION, TO
COUNTERACT THE HOOP TENSION CAUSED BY FILLING OF LIQUID IN THE BARRELS.

6) FORMS OF PRESTRESSING STEEL

WIRES: PRESTRESSING WIRE IS A SINGLE UNIT MADE OF STEEL.

STRANDS: TWO, THREE OR SEVEN WIRES ARE WOUND TO FORM A PRESTRESSING STRAND
TENDON: A GROUP OF STRANDS OR WIRES ARE WOUND TO FORM A PRESTRESSING TENDON.
CABLE: A GROUP OF TENDONS FORM A PRESTRESSING CABLE.
BARS: A TENDON CAN BE MADE UP OF A SINGLE STEEL BAR. THE DIAMETER OF A BAR IS MUCH
LARGER THAN THAT OF A WIRE.
NATURE OF CONCRETE-STEEL INTERFACE

NATURE OF CONCRETE-STEEL INTERFACE

BONDED TENDON:
WHEN THERE IS ADEQUATE BOND BETWEEN THE PRESTRESSING TENDON AND CONCRETE, IT IS CALLED
A BONDED TENDON. PRE-TENSIONED AND GROUTED POST-TENSIONED TENDONS ARE BONDED
TENDONS.
UNBONDED TENDON:
WHEN THERE IS NO BOND BETWEEN THE PRESTRESSING TENDON AND CONCRETE, IT IS CALLED
UNBONDED TENDON. WHEN GROUT IS NOT APPLIED AFTER POST-TENSIONING, THE TENDON IS AN
UNBONDED TENDON.

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7) ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF PRESTREESING.

ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING
THE PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE HAS SEVERAL ADVANTAGES AS COMPARED TO TRADITIONAL REINFORCED
CONCRETE (RC) WITHOUT PRESTRESSING. A FULLY PRESTRESSED CONCRETE MEMBER IS USUALLY SUBJECTED TO
COMPRESSION DURING SERVICE LIFE. THIS RECTIFIES SEVERAL DEFICIENCIES OF CONCRETE.
THE FOLLOWING TEXT BROADLY MENTIONS THE ADVANTAGES OF A PRESTRESSED CONCRETE MEMBER WITH AN
EQUIVALENT RC MEMBER. FOR EACH EFFECT, THE BENEFITS ARE LISTED.

1) SECTION REMAINS UNCRACKED UNDER SERVICE LOADS

REDUCTION OF STEEL CORROSION
• INCREASE IN DURABILITY.
FULL SECTION IS UTILISED
• HIGHER MOMENT OF INERTIA (HIGHER STIFFNESS)
• LESS DEFORMATIONS (IMPROVED SERVICEABILITY).
INCREASE IN SHEAR CAPACITY.
SUITABLE FOR USE IN PRESSURE VESSELS, LIQUID RETAINING STRUCTURES.
IMPROVED PERFORMANCE (RESILIENCE) UNDER DYNAMIC AND FATIGUE LOADING.

2) HIGH SPAN-TO-DEPTH RATIOS

LARGER SPANS POSSIBLE WITH PRESTRESSING (BRIDGES, BUILDINGS WITH LARGE COLUMN-FREE SPACES)
TYPICAL VALUES OF SPAN-TO-DEPTH RATIOS IN SLABS ARE GIVEN BELOW.

3) SUITABLE FOR PRECAST CONSTRUCTION

THE ADVANTAGES OF PRECAST CONSTRUCTION ARE AS FOLLOWS.
• RAPID CONSTRUCTION
• BETTER QUALITY CONTROL
• REDUCED MAINTENANCE
• SUITABLE FOR REPETITIVE CONSTRUCTION
• MULTIPLE USE OF FORMWORK
REDUCTION OF FORMWORK
AVAILABILITY OF STANDARD SHAPES

4) THE CROSS-SECTION IS UTILIZED MORE EFFICIENTLY IN PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE AS COMPARED TO

REINFORCED CONCRETE.
5) PRE STRESSED CONCRETE ALLOWS FOR A LONGER SPAN.
6) PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE MEMBERS OFFER MORE RESISTANCE AGAINST SHEAR FORCE.
7) CONSIDERING SAME DEPTH OF CONCRETE MEMBER, A PRE STRESSED CONCRETE MEMBER IS STIFFER THAN
THE REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBER UNDER WORKING LOADS.
8) THE USE OF HIGHER STRENGTH CONCRETE AND HIGH STRENGTH STEEL RESULTS IN SMALLER CROSS- SECTION.

LIMITATIONS OF PRESTRESSING:
ALTHOUGH PRESTRESSING HAS ADVANTAGES, SOME ASPECTS NEED TO BE CAREFULLY ADDRESSED.
• PRESTRESSING NEEDS SKILLED TECHNOLOGY. HENCE, IT IS NOT AS COMMON AS REINFORCED CONCRETE.
• THE USE OF HIGH STRENGTH MATERIALS IS COSTLY.
• THERE IS ADDITIONAL COST IN AUXILIARY EQUIPMENTS.
• THERE IS NEED FOR QUALITY CONTROL AND INSPECTION.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SECTIONS ARE LESS FIRE RESISTANT.

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7) LATERAL LOAD RESISTING SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATION (WITH SKETCHES)

1) HORIZONTAL IRREGULARITY
THE IRREGULARITY IN THE BUILDING STRUCTURES MAY BE DUE TO IRREGULAR
DISTRIBUTIONS
IN THEIR MASS, STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS ALONG THE HEIGHT OF BUILDING. WHEN
SUCH
BUILDINGS ARE CONSTRUCTED IN HIGH SEISMIC ZONES, THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
BECOMES MORE COMPLICATED. THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF IRREGULARITIES :-
1. PLAN IRREGULARITIES
2. VERTICAL IRREGULARITIES

FACTORS THAT AFFECT HORIZONTAL STABILITY

➢ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN CONCEPT
➢COMPATIBILITY WITH SITE
➢BUILDING PROGRAMME
➢DESIRABILITY OF INTRODUCING LIGHT AND VENTILATION
➢EXPLOITING POTENTIAL VIEWS

I) TORSIONAL IRREGULARITY
BECAUSE OF THE DESTRUCTIVE EFFECT IT CREATES, ONE OF THE MOST FREQUENTLY
OBSERVED TYPES OF IRREGULARITY INEARTHQUAKE CALCULATIONS IS TORSIONAL
IRREGULARITY.
THE MAIN FACTORS AFFECTING TORSIONAL IRREGULARITY ARE THE PLANAR
DISTRIBUTION OF THE
STIFFNESS VARIATION OF VERTICAL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND THE PLANAR
GEOMETRY OF THE
STRUCTURE.
IN THE FLOOR PLAN, IT IS IMPORTANT TO KEEP THE ECCENTRICITY BETWEEN THE
RIGIDITY CENTRE AND THE MASS CENTRE TO A MINIMUM. IN THE CASE OF
ECCENTRICITY
BETWEEN THE RIGIDITY CENTRE AND THE MASS CENTRE UNDER THE EFFECT OF THE
LATERAL
FORCES, TORSION MOMENT OCCURS AT THE FLOOR LEVEL.

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II) DIAPHRAGMS DISCONTINUITY IRREGULARITY
THE HORIZONTAL LOADS ON THE BUILDINGS ARE MAINLY CONCENTRATED AT THE
SLABS, AND
THE HORIZONTAL LOADS ARE DISTRIBUTED TO THE VERTICAL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
BY THE
SLABS. FOR THIS REASON, IT IS NECESSARY TO TRANSFER THE INERTIAL FORCES
CAUSED BY THE
EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS TO THE SLABS AND THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM ELEMENTS SUCH
AS
BEAMS, COLUMNS AND SHEAR WALLS FROM THE SLABS.

III) HORIZONTAL GEOMETRIC IRREGULARITIES

THE BEHAVIOR OF A BUILDING DURING AN EARTHQUAKE FIRST DEPENDS ON THE
GENERAL
SHAPE THAT INFLUENCES THE DESIGN OF THE VERTICAL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS,
GEOMETRY
AND SIZE OF THE BUILDING. A SIMPLE ARRANGEMENT OF THE STRUCTURE ALLOWS A
HIGH
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE, AND AVOIDING THE IRREGULARITIES THAT CAN OCCUR IN
THE PLAN
GEOMETRY DURING THE DESIGN PHASE IS CRUCIAL REGARDING STRUCTURAL
BEHAVIOR .

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IV) RE-ENTRANT CORNER IRREGULARITY
IN ARCHITECTURAL PLANNING, SETBACKS ON THE FACADE, SECTIONS OR PARTS PLACED AT
DIFFERENT ANGLES, DIFFERENT PLAN SOLUTIONS COMPARED TO BASIC GEOMETRIES TO
ADAPT
TO THE LAND ARE COMMON DESIGN CHOICES. THE SHAPE OF H, L, T, U, Y, CROSS, OR A
COMBINATION OF THESE FORMS ARE THE TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF BUILDING
CONFIGURATION
WHICH HAVE PROJECTIONS OR WINGS IN PLAN CONSTITUTING RE-ENTRANT CORNERS. THE
BUILDING CORNERS FORMED INWARDS, OR OUTWARDS ARE ONE OF THE MOST COMMON
APPLICATIONS OF GEOMETRIC IRREGULARITIES.

V) DIMENSIONS RATIO IRREGULARITY IF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE STRUCTURES ARE CLOSE

TO EACH OTHER, THE STRUCTURE
EXHIBITS A STABLE BEHAVIOUR UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF HORIZONTAL LOADS.
INCREASING
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DIMENSIONS INCREASES THE SLENDERNESS IN THE PLAN,
AND THE EFFECT OF THE SLENDERNESS IN THE PLAN CREATES DIFFERENT BEHAVIORS IN
THE
STRUCTURE DUE TO VIBRATION, HEAT, SHRINKAGE AND DIFFERENT SETTLEMENTS.

VI) NON-PARALLEL SYSTEM IRREGULARITY

THE SYMMETRY OF STRUCTURES IS IMPORTANT IN THE CONCEPT OF
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING. NON-PARALLEL SYSTEM IRREGULARITY EXISTS IF THE
VERTICAL
LATERAL FORCE-RETAINING ELEMENTS ARE NEITHER PARALLEL NOR SYMMETRIC WITH
MAIN ORTHOGONAL AXES OF THE EARTHQUAKE-RETAINING AXIS SYSTEM. THIS TYPE
OF IRREGULARITY IS COMMONLY SEEN AS A RESULT OF THE STREET INTERSECTIONS
OR REQUIREMENTS OF THE SPACE ORGANIZATION IN DESIGN.

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VI) OUT OF PLANE-OFFSET IRREGULARITY
THE PLACEMENT OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ON THE AXES AND THE CONTINUATION OF
THESE AXES ALONG THE HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING IS AN IMPORTANT CRITERION FOR THE
RATIONAL STRUCTURE BEHAVIOUR. UNLIKE THE VERTICAL MEMBER DISCONTINUITY
IRREGULARITY OF THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM, OUT OF PLANE-OFFSET IRREGULARITY REFERS
TO THE
FACT THAT THE VERTICAL MEMBERS BEARING HORIZONTAL FORCE ARE LOCATED ON
ANOTHER
AXIS RATHER THAN ITS OWN AXIS CONTINUING ALONG THE HEIGHT OF THE STRUCTURE.

DISCONTINUITIES IN A LATERAL FORCE RESISTANCE PATH, SUCH AS OUT-OF-PLANE

OFFSETS OF
VERTICAL ELEMENTS.
IN A BUILDING WITH OUT-OF-PLANE OFFSETS IN VERTICAL ELEMENTS,
A) SPECIALIST LITERATURE SHALL BE REFERRED FOR DESIGN OF SUCH A BUILDING, IF THE
BUILDING IS LOCATED IN SEISMIC ZONE II; AND
B) THE FOLLOWING TWO CONDITIONS SHALL BE SATISFIED, IF THE BUILDING IS LOCATED IN
SEISMIC ZONES III, IV AND V:
1) LATERAL DRIFT SHALL BE LESS THAN 0.2 PERCENT IN THE STOREY HAVING THE OFFSET
AND
IN THE STOREYS BELOW; AND
2) SPECIALIST LITERATURE SHALL BE REFERRED FOR REMOVING THE IRREGULARITY
ARISING DUE
TO OUT- OFPLANE OFFSETS IN VERTICAL ELEMENTS.

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