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Fundamentals of Human Resource Management

2
To my wife, Marie, and our six children,

Jesse, Justin, Danielle, Nicole, Brian, and Renee

R.N.L.

For my father, Charles “Chuck” Hendon, who taught me perseverance

J.R.H.

3
Fundamentals of Human Resource Management
Functions, Applications, Skill Development

Robert N. Lussier
Springfield College
John R. Hendon
University of Arkansas at Little Rock

4
FOR INFORMATION:

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lussier, Robert N., author. | Hendon, John R., author.

Title: Fundamentals of human resource management: functions, applications, skill development / Robert N. Lussier, John R. Hendon.

Description: Los Angeles : Sage, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2015035721 | ISBN 978-1-4833-5850-5 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Personnel management.

Classification: LCC HF5549 .L8247 2017 | DDC 658.3--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015035721

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Acquisitions Editor: Maggie Stanley

Associate Editor: Abbie Rickard

Editorial Assistant: Nicole Mangona

5
eLearning Editor: Katie Bierach

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Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.

Proofreader: Dennis W. Webb

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Cover Designer: Gail Buschman

Marketing Manager: Ashlee Blunk

6
Brief Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
PART I 21st Century Human Resource Management Strategic Planning and Legal Issues
Chapter 1. The New Human Resource Management Process
Chapter 2. Strategy-Driven Human Resource Management
Chapter 3. The Legal Environment and Diversity Management
PART II Staffing
Chapter 4. Matching Employees and Jobs: Job Analysis and Design
Chapter 5. Recruiting Job Candidates
Chapter 6. Selecting New Employees
PART III Developing and Managing
Chapter 7. Training, Learning, Talent Management, and Development
Chapter 8. Performance Management and Appraisal
Chapter 9. Employee Rights and Labor Relations
PART IV Compensating
Chapter 10. Compensation Management
Chapter 11. Employee Incentives and Benefits
PART V Protecting and Expanding Organizational Outreach
Chapter 12. Workplace Safety, Health, and Security
Chapter 13. Organizational Ethics, Sustainability, and Social Responsibility
Chapter 14. Global Issues for Human Resource Managers
Appendix
Glossary
Notes
Index

7
8
Detailed Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
PART I 21st Century Human Resource Management Strategic Planning and Legal Issues
Chapter 1. The New Human Resource Management Process
Why Study Human Resource Management (HRM)?
21st Century HRM
HRM Then and Now
HRM Challenges
Critical Dependent Variables
Technology and Knowledge
Labor Demographics
Disciplines Within HRM
The Legal Environment: EEO and Diversity Management
Staffing
Training and Development
Employee Relations
Labor and Industrial Relations
Compensation and Benefits
Safety and Security
Ethics and Sustainability
HRM Responsibilities
Line Versus Staff Management
Major HR Responsibilities of HR Staff and Line Management
HRM Skills
Technical Skills
Human Relations Skills
Conceptual and Design Skills
Business Skills
HRM Careers
Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM)
Other HR Organizations
Professional Liability
Practitioner’s Model for HRM
The Model
Trends and Issues in HRM
Creating an Engaged Workforce

9
 Reverse Discrimination Rulings Continue to Evolve
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 1-1 Ba-Zynga! Zynga Faces Trouble in Farmville
Skill Builders
Chapter 2. Strategy-Driven Human Resource Management
Strategy and Strategic Planning in the 21st Century: The Organization and the
Environment
The External Environment
Strategy
What Is Strategy?
Visions, Missions, and Objectives
Types of Strategies
How Strategy Affects HRM
How HRM Promotes Strategy
Structure
Basics of Organizational Structure
How Does Structure Affect Employee Behavior?
How Does Structure Affect HRM?
Organizational Culture
What Is Organizational Culture?
How Culture Controls Employee Behavior in Organizations
Social Media and Culture Management
An Introduction to Data Analytics for HRM
A Brief on Data Analytics
HR Analytics
Desired Outcomes
Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS)
What Are HRIS?
How Do HRIS Assist in Making Decisions?
Measurement Tools for Strategic HRM
Economic Value Added (EVA)
Return on Investment (ROI)
Trends and Issues in HRM
Everything Old Is New Again: Managing Data for HRM Decision Making
Continuing Globalization Increases the Need for Strategic and HRM Planning
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills

10
 Case 2-1 Strategy-Driven HR Management: Netflix, A Behind-The-Scenes Look At
Delivering Entertainment
Skill Builders
Chapter 3. The Legal Environment and Diversity Management
The Legal Environment for HRM: Protecting Your Organization
A User’s Guide to Managing People: The OUCH Test
Objective
Uniform in Application
Consistent in Effect
Has Job Relatedness
Major Employment Laws
Equal Pay Act of 1963
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (CRA)
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA)
Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 (VEVRAA)
Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 (PDA)
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), as Amended in 2008
Civil Rights Act of 1991
Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act of 1994 (USERRA)
Veterans Benefits Improvement Act of 2004 (VBIA)
Title II of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA)
Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 (LLFPA)
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
What Does the EEOC Do?
Employee Rights Under the EEOC
Employer Rights and Prohibitions
EEO, Affirmative Action, and Diversity: What’s the Difference?
Affirmative Action (AA)
Diversity in the Workforce
Sexual Harassment: A Special Type of Discrimination
Types of Sexual Harassment
What Constitutes Sexual Harassment?
Reducing Organizational Risk From Sexual Harassment Lawsuits
Religious Discrimination
Trends and Issues in HRM
Federal Agencies Are Becoming More Activist in Pursuing Discrimination Claims
The ADA and the ADA Amendments Act (ADAAA)
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills

11
 Case 3-1 English-Only: One Hotel’s Dilemma
Skill Builders
PART II Staffing
Chapter 4. Matching Employees and Jobs: Job Analysis and Design
Employee and Job Matching
Workflow Analysis
Organizational Output
Tasks and Inputs
Job Analysis
Why Do We Need to Analyze Jobs?
Databases
Job Analysis Methods
Outcomes: Job Description and Job Specification
Job Design/Redesign
Organizational Structure and Job Design
Approaches to Job Design and Redesign
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
Designing Motivational Jobs
Job Simplification
Job Expansion
Job Design for Flexibility
HR Forecasting
Forecasting Methods
Reconciling Internal Labor Supply and Demand
Options for a Labor Surplus
Options for a Labor Shortage
Trends and Issues in HRM
O*Net as a Tool for Job Analysis
Workflows and Job Design for Sustainability
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 4-1 Gauging Employment at Honeywell
Skill Builders
Chapter 5. Recruiting Job Candidates
The Recruiting Process
External Forces Acting on Recruiting Efforts
Organizational Recruiting Considerations
What Policies to Set
When to Recruit

12
 Alternatives to Recruitment
Reach of the Recruiting Effort
Social Media Recruiting
Internal or External Recruiting?
Internal Recruiting
External Recruiting
Challenges and Constraints in Recruiting
Budgetary Constraints
Policy Constraints and Organizational Image
Job Characteristics and the Realistic Job Preview (RJP)
The Recruiter–Candidate Interaction
Evaluation of Recruiting Programs
Yield Ratio
Cost per Hire
Time Required to Hire
New Hire Turnover
New Hire Performance
Trends and Issues in HRM
Talent Wars
Global Knowledge Workers as an On-Demand Workforce
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 5-1 LINKEDIN: How Does the World’s Largest Professional Network Network?
Skill Builders
Chapter 6. Selecting New Employees
The Selection Process
The Importance of the Selection Process
Steps in the Selection Process
Looking for “Fit”
Personality-Job Fit
Ability-Job Fit
Person-Organization Fit
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures
What Qualifies as an Employment Test?
Valid and Reliable Measures
Applications and Preliminary Screening
Applications and Résumés
Pre-employment Inquiries
Testing and Legal Issues

13
 The EEOC and Employment Testing
Polygraph and Genetic Testing
Written Testing
Physical Testing
Selection Interviews
Interviewing
Types of Interviews and Questions
Preparing for and Conducting the Interview
Background Checks
Credit Checks
Criminal Background Checks
Reference Checks
Web Searches
Selecting the Candidate and Offering the Job
Hiring
Trends and Issues in HRM
Selection With a Global Workforce
HRIS and the Selection Process
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 6-1 Not Getting Face Time at Facebook—and Getting the Last Laugh!
Skill Builders
PART III Developing and Managing
Chapter 7. Training, Learning, Talent Management, and Development
The Need for Training and Development
Training and Development
When Is Training Needed?
The Training Process and Needs Assessment
Steps in the Training Process
Needs Assessment
Employee Readiness
Learning and Shaping Behavior
Learning
Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement
Shaping Behavior
Design and Delivery of Training
On-the-Job Training (OJT)
Classroom Training
Distance or E-Learning

14
 Assessing Training
Assessment Methods
Choosing Assessment Methods
Talent Management and Development
Careers
Common Methods of Employee Development
A Model of Career Development Consequences
Trends and Issues in HRM
The Gamification of Training and Development
Outsourcing Employee Training and Development
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 7-1 Google Search: Building the Program that Writes the Code to Find Female
Talent
Skill Builders
Chapter 8. Performance Management and Appraisal
Performance Management Systems
Performance Management Versus Performance Appraisal
The Performance Appraisal Process
Accurate Performance Measures
Why Do We Conduct Performance Appraisals?
Communication (Informing)
Decision Making (Evaluating)
Motivation (Engaging)
What Do We Assess?
Trait Appraisals
Behavioral Appraisals
Results Appraisals
How Do We Use Appraisal Methods and Forms?
Critical Incidents Method
Management by Objectives (MBO) Method
Narrative Method or Form
Graphic Rating Scale Form
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) Form
Ranking Method
Which Option Is Best?
Who Should Assess Performance?
Supervisor
Peers

15
 Subordinates
Self
Customers
360-Degree Evaluations
Performance Appraisal Problems
Common Problems Within the Performance Appraisal Process
Avoiding Performance Appraisal Process Problems
Debriefing the Appraisal
The Evaluative Performance Appraisal Interview
The Developmental Performance Appraisal Interview
Trends and Issues in HRM
Is It Time to Do Continuous Appraisals?
Competency-Based Performance Management
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 8-1 Amazon.com: Selling Employee Performance With Organization and Leadership
Review
Skill Builders
Chapter 9. Employee Rights and Labor Relations
Managing and Leading Your Workforce
Trust and Communication
Job Satisfaction
Measuring Job Satisfaction
Determinants of Job Satisfaction
Commonly Accepted Employee Rights
Right of Free Consent
Right to Due Process
Right to Life and Safety
Right of Freedom of Conscience (Limited)
Right to Privacy (Limited)
Right to Free Speech (Limited)
Management Rights
Codes of Conduct
Employment-at-Will
Coaching, Counseling, and Discipline
Coaching
Counseling
Disciplining
Legal Issues in Labor Relations

16
 The Railway Labor Act (RLA) of 1926
The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) of 1935 (Wagner Act)
The Labor Management Relations Act (LMRA) of 1947 (Taft-Hartley Act)
The Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 (WARN Act)
Unions and Labor Rights
Union Organizing
Labor Relations and Collective Bargaining
Grievances
Decertification Elections
Trends and Issues in HRM
Facebook, Twitter, etc. @ Work: Are They Out of Control?
Nonunion Worker Protection and the NLRB
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 9-1 Off-Duty Misconduct
Skill Builders
PART IV Compensating
Chapter 10. Compensation Management
Compensation Management
The Compensation System
Motivation and Compensation Planning
Organizational Philosophy
Ability to Pay
What Types of Compensation?
Pay for Performance or Pay for Longevity?
Skill-Based or Competency-Based Pay?
At, Above, or Below the Market?
Wage Compression
Pay Secrecy
Legal and Fairness Issues in Compensation
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (Amended)
Pay Equity and Comparable Worth
Other Legal Issues
Job Evaluation
External Method
Job Ranking Method
Point-Factor Method
Factor Comparison Method
Developing a Pay System

17
 Job Structure and Pay Levels
Pay Structure
Trends and Issues in HRM
A Shift From Base Pay to Variable Pay
The Technology of Compensation
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 10-1 Employee Red-Lining at CVS: The Have and the Have Not
Skill Builders
Chapter 11. Employee Incentives and Benefits
The Value of Incentives and Benefits
Individual Incentives
Advantages and Disadvantages of Individual Incentives
Individual Incentive Options
Group Incentives
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Incentives
Group Incentive Options
Executive Compensation
The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010
Executive Incentives
Statutory Benefits
Social Security and Medicare
Workers’ Compensation
Unemployment Insurance
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA)
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 (ACA)
Statutory Requirements When Providing Certain Voluntary Benefits
Voluntary Benefits
Paid Time Off
Group Health Insurance
Retirement Benefits
Other Employee Benefits
Flexible Benefit (Cafeteria) Plans
Trends and Issues in HRM
Incentives to Act Unethically?
Personalization of Health Care
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills

18
 Case 11-1 Google Searches SAS for the Business Solution to How to Create an Award-
Winning Culture
Skill Builders
PART V Protecting and Expanding Organizational Outreach
Chapter 12. Workplace Safety, Health, and Security
Workplace Safety and OSHA
The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act)
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
What Does OSHA Do?
Employer and Employee Rights and Responsibilities Under OSA
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Employee Health
Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) and Employee Wellness Programs (EWPs)
Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)
Safety and Health Management and Training
Stress
Functional and Dysfunctional Stress
Stress Management
The Stress Tug-of-War
Workplace Security
Cyber Security
General Security Policies, Including Business Continuity and Recovery
Workplace Violence
Social Media for Workplace Safety and Security
Employee Selection and Screening
Trends and Issues in HRM
Employee Wellness
Bullying in the Workplace
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 12-1 Nike: Taking a Run at Fixing Outsourced Worker Safety
Skill Builders
Chapter 13. Organizational Ethics, Sustainability, and Social Responsibility
Ethical Organizations
Ethics Defined
Contributing Factors to Unethical Behavior
Ethical Approaches
Codes of Ethics
Creating and Maintaining Ethical Organizations

19
 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
CSR Defined
Stakeholders and CSR
Levels of Corporate Social Responsibility
Sustainability
HR and Organizational Sustainability
Sustainability Training
The Sustainable 21st Century Organization
Trends and Issues in HRM
Sustainability-Based Benefits
Does Diversity Training Work?
Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 13-1 Microsoft, Nokia, and the Finnish Government: A Promise Made, A Promise
Broken?
Skill Builders
Chapter 14. Global Issues for Human Resource Managers
Globalization of Business and HRM
Reasons for Business Globalization
Is HRM Different in Global Firms?
Legal, Ethical, and Cultural Issues
International Labor Laws
US Law
National Culture
Global Staffing
Skills and Traits for Global Managers
Staffing Choice: Home-, Host-, or Third-Country Employees
Outsourcing as an Alternative to International Expansion
Developing and Managing Global Human Resources
Recruiting and Selection
Expatriate Training and Preparation
Repatriation After Foreign Assignments
Compensating Your Global Workforce
Pay
Incentives in Global Firms
Benefit Programs Around the World
Trends and Issues in HRM
Globalization of Business Is a Trend!
The Worldwide Labor Environment

20
 Chapter Summary
Key Terms Review
Communication Skills
Case 14-1 IBM (I’ve Been Moved) at HSBC: Keeping Compensation Competitive With
ECA International
Skill Builders
Appendix
Glossary
Notes
Index

21
Preface

In his book Power Tools, John Nirenberg asks, “Why are so many well-intended students learning so much
and yet able to apply so little in their personal and professional lives?” The world of business and human
resource management (HRM) has changed, and so should how it is taught. Increasing numbers of students
want more than lectures to gain an understanding of the concepts of HRM. They want their courses to be
relevant and to apply what they learn, and they want to develop skills they can use in their everyday life and at
work. It’s not enough to learn about HRM; they want to learn how to be HR managers. This is why we wrote
the book. After reviewing and using a variety of HRM books for more than a decade, we didn’t find any that
(1) could be easily read and understood by students and (2) effectively taught students how to be HR
managers. We wrote this text out of our desire to prepare students to be successful HR managers and/or to
use HRM skills as line managers or employees. As the subtitle states, this book not only presents the
important HRM concepts and functions, but also takes students to the next level by actually engaging them
by teaching them to apply the concepts through critical thinking and to develop HRM skills they can use in
their personal and professional lives.

22
Market and Course
This book is for undergraduate and graduate-level courses in human resource management (HRM) including
personnel management. It is appropriate for a first course in an HRM major, as well as required and elective
courses found in business schools. This textbook is also appropriate for HRM courses taught in other
disciplines such as education and psychology, particularly Industrial Psychology and Organizational
Psychology, and can be utilized for training courses in Supervision. The level of the text assumes no prior
background in business or HRM. This book is an excellent choice for online and hybrid courses in HRM.

23
Learning By Doing: A Practical Approach
I (Lussier) started writing management textbooks in 1988—prior to the calls by the Association to Advance
Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) for skill development—to help professors teach their students how
to apply concepts and develop management skills. Pfeffer and Sutton (The Knowing-Doing Gap, 2000)
concluded that the most important insight from their research is that knowledge that is actually implemented
is much more likely to be acquired from learning by doing than from learning by reading, listening, or
thinking. We designed this book to give students the opportunity to “learn by doing” with the following
approaches:

A practical “how-to-manage” approach which is strategy driven.

The only HR text where primary content areas identified in the Society of Human Resource
Management 2013 Curriculum Guidebook as required for undergraduate students is specifically
identified in the text where the material is covered (over 150 items). In addition, many of the secondary
and graduate students only items are also identified as they occur in the text.
Six types of high-quality application materials use the concepts to develop critical-thinking skills.
Four types of high-quality skill-builder exercises help to actually develop HR management skills that
can be utilized in students’ professional and personal lives.
A selection of videos that reinforce HRM-related abilities and skills.
A flexible approach which meets the preferred teaching style of professors and learning styles of today’s
students who want to be engaged with active learning.

24
A New Generation of Learners
Today’s students, including “Millennials” and “Generation Z” or the Postmillennials, succeed when they are
fully engaged in learning on multiple levels; traditional methods of teaching do not always meet their needs.
Our text is flexible enough to accompany lecture-based teaching, and also offers a wide range of engaging
activities which accommodate a variety of contemporary learning styles. Many of the specific learning
preferences of today’s students have been addressed in the book’s overall approach, organization, and
distinctive features:

Active Learning

A desire for active learning is addressed with a large variety of activities and skill-building tools.

Practical Approaches

A desire for application and skills in personal and professional realms is addressed by a variety of
features throughout the text. Immediate application and ongoing self-assessment are found in the
Work Application prompts and self-assessment tools. Organization tools such as checklists, summaries,
and “how to” instructions are integrated throughout: for example, the marginal references to SHRM
curriculum guidelines.

Accessible Content

Chunking of content into easily digested segments helps students to organize study time. Visual
learning preferences are accommodated in colorful exhibits, models, and figures throughout the text,
along with an ancillary package which includes visual learning options. Internet learning preferences are
recognized in a robust web-based package which includes video and interactive features for students.

25
A Three-Pronged Approach
We have created a concise textbook intended to develop the full range of HRM competencies. As the title of
this book implies, we provide a balanced, three-pronged approach to the curriculum:

26
Concepts/Functions
The following features are provided to support the first step in the three-pronged approach.

HRM functions. Chapter 1 presents eight major HRM functions identified by SHRM with questions that
need to be answered. The book is structured around the eight functions in five parts; see the table of contents
for details. These functions are emphasized in order to show students the depth of knowledge that is required
of a 21st century HR manager.

Pedagogical aids. Each chapter includes Learning Outcomes, Chapter Summary and Key Terms, and Review
Questions. Marginal icons also indicate points at which (1) International Human Resources and (2) Ethics,
Sustainability, and Social Responsibility are discussed in the text.

SHRM’s Required Content, as well as many Secondary and Graduate-only HR Content Areas from the
SHRM Human Resource Curriculum: Guidebook and Templates for Undergraduate and Graduate Programs
(SHRM, 2013), are annotated for easy reference where they appear in each chapter of the text. A margin note
seen here identifies the Curriculum Guide topic being covered, and a reference number links to an appendix
covering the entire SHRM Curriculum Guide. Nearly all of the Primary Content Areas and Subtopics identified
in the SHRM Curriculum Guidebook are introduced within the text.

27
Applications
The following features are provided to support the second step in the three-pronged approach.

Opening Vignettes illustrate how a real-life Human Resources manager currently employed by the state of
Arkansas works within the various HRM functions in her daily activities.

Organizational examples of HRM concepts and functions appear throughout the book.

Work Applications incorporate open-ended questions which require students to explain how the HRM
concepts apply to their own work experience. Student experience can be present, past, summer, full-time,
part-time employment, or volunteer work.

Applying the Concept features ask the student to determine the most appropriate HRM concept to be used in
a specific short example.

Ethical Dilemma features give students examples of real-world situations in which they need to make a choice
using the concepts and skills from the chapter.

Cases at the end of each chapter illustrate how specific organizations use the HRM functions. Critical
thinking questions challenge the students to identify and apply the chapter concepts which are illustrated in
each case. Several longer and more comprehensive cases are also available to the instructor on the website,
either for testing material or to allow students to apply what they have learned over a significant part of the
course.

28
Skill Development
The following features are provided to support the third step in the three-pronged approach.

Self-Assessments help students to gain personal knowledge of how they will complete the HRM functions in
the real world. All information for completing and scoring is contained within the text.

Communication Skills at the end of each chapter include questions for class discussion, presentations, and/or
written assignments to develop critical thinking communication skills; they are based on HR Content Areas.

Behavior Modeling showing step-by-step actions to follow when implementing HRM functions, such as how
to conduct a job interview, performance appraisals, and coaching and disciplining, are presented throughout
the text.

Skill Development Exercises develop skills that can be used in students’ personal and professional lives. Many
of the competitor exercises tend to be discussion-oriented exercises that don’t actually develop a skill that can
be used immediately on the job.

29
Other documents randomly have
different content
already in the poems of Donne, the inventor or imitator of some odic
stanzas mentioned in the previous paragraph; it is in his poem The
Dissolution (Poets, iv. 38) consisting of twenty-two rhyming verses of
two to seven measures on the model
a3 b4 c5 d ~3 b4 a c5 d ~3 e4 e5 f3 f5 e5 g4 g5 h3 h4 i i5 k3 l2 l k5 k7.

A similar form is found in Milton’s poems On Time (ii. 411) and At a

Solemn Music (ii. 412). Other examples taken from later poets are
quoted in Metrik, ii, § 523. M. Arnold’s poems The Voice (second
half) (p. 36) and Stagirius (p. 38) likewise fall under this head.
To the combined influence of the earlier somewhat lengthy
unstrophical odes on the one hand, and of the shorter, strophical
ones also composed of anisometrical verses on the other, we have
possibly to trace the particular odic form which was used by Cowley
when he translated, or rather paraphrased, the Odes of Pindar.
Owing to Cowley’s popularity, this form came much into fashion
afterwards through his numerous imitators, and it is much in vogue
even at the present day.
The characteristic features of Cowley’s free renderings and imitations
of Pindar’s odes are, in the first place, that he dealt very freely with
the matter of his Greek original, giving only the general sense with
arbitrary omissions and additions; and, in the second place, he paid
no attention to the characteristic strophic structure of the original,
which is a system of stanzas recurring in the same order till the end
of the poem, and consisting of two stanzas of identical form, the
strophe and antistrophe, followed by a third, the epode, entirely
differing from the two others in structure. In this respect Cowley did
not even attempt to imitate the original poems, the metres of which
were very imperfectly understood till long after his time.
Hence there is a very great difference between the originals and the
English translations of Cowley, a difference which is clear even to the
eye from the inequality of the number of stanzas and the number of
verses in them.
§ 304. The first Nemean ode, e.g. consists of four equal parts, each
one being formed of a strophe and antistrophe of seven lines, and of
a four-lined epode; twelve stanzas in all. Cowley’s translation, on the
other hand, has only nine stanzas, each of an entirely different
structure, their schemes being as follows:

I. a a 5 b b4 c 3 c d 6 d 4 e e 3 e f 4 f 5 g 4 g 5 , 15 l.
II. a a4 b 3 b 4 b 5 c 4 c 3 c 5 d 4 d 5 e e 4 f 3 f 3 e5 , 15 l.
a5 b3 b4 a a5 c3 c4 d e e3 d f ~4 f ~6 g4 g5
III. 16 l.
g7 ,
IV. a5 a b b4 b c c c 5 d 3 d 5 e e 4 e 6 , 13 l.
V. a a b b c 5 c 4 c 5 d 4 e d 5 e f f4 g 5 g 6 , 15 l.
VI. a a 5 b 4 b 5 c 6 d 5 d 4 c e f 5 f 4 f 5 g 4 g e h5 h 7 , 17 l.
VII. a5 a3 b 5 b 4 b 5 c 3 c 6 d 4 e 3 e 6 d 5 f f g 4 g 7 , 15 l.
VIII. a2 a b5 b3 c4 c6 d5 d e4 e3 f f4 g6 g h4 h6, 16 l.
IX. a4 a5 b 4 b c 6 c d 4 d 5 d e 3 e 6 , 11 l.

Cowley’s own original stanzas and those of his numerous imitators

are of a similar irregular and arbitrary structure; cf. Cowley’s ode
Brutus (Poets, v. 303), which has the following stanzaic forms:

I. a 4 a b 5 b 4 c c 5 c 4 c 5 d 6 d d5 d 4 d 5 d 6 , 14 l.
a b a a b 5 b 4 c c d d 5 d 3 d e 4 e5 f 3 g 3 g 4
II. 17 l.
f6 ,
III. a3 a5 b4 b6 c5 c d4 d d e e5 f f4 g ~5 g ~6, 15 l.
a a a 5 b 3 b 4 a5 a a 4 b 5 c 4 c d 5 d 4 e 6 e 5 f 4
IV. 17 l.
f6 ,
a b 5 b 4 a6 c 2 c 5 c 4 a c 5 c 6 d d e 4 e 5 f 3 f g
V. 23 l.
g5 h h4 i i5 i4,,

Waller’s ode Upon modern Critics (Poets, v. 650) has the following
stanzaic forms:
 a b b 4 a c 5 c d 4 d 5 d 4 e f 5 f f4 e 5 f 4 g g h 5
I. 23 l.
i3 i h 4 k5 k6 ,
a a4 b 3 b c c d 4 d 5 e f f g 4 g 5 e3 h i 4 i 5 h k
II. 23 l.
k4 ,
a a b b c 4 c 5 d d e e f f 4 e3 f e g4 h5 h g i4
III. 21 l.
i6 ,,
a b b a4 c c5 d3 d4 e5 d4 d f5 f4 g g5 h4 h5 i
IV. 19 l.
i5 ,,
a a b b c 4 d 5 c 3 d e 5 e 6 f 5 f 4 g 5 g h h4 i 3
V. 18 l.
i6 ,,
a 4 b 3 a b a c c d4 d 6 e e 4 f f g 5 g 4 g h 5 h i 4
VI. 20 l.
i6 ,,

All the stanzas are of unequal length and consist of the most various
verses (of three, four, mostly five, even six and seven measures) and
arrangements of rhymes. Parallel rhymes are very common; but
sometimes we have crossed, enclosing, and other kinds of rhyme, as
e.g. the system of the Italian terzina. A characteristic feature is that
at the end of the stanza very often three parallel rhymes occur, and
that, as a rule, the stanza winds up with a somewhat longer line of
six or seven measures, as in the Spenserian and the Epithalamium
stanza; but sometimes we also find a short final verse.
To these Irregular Pindaric Odes, besides, belong Dryden’s
celebrated odes Threnodia Augustalis and Alexander’s Feast, the
latter having a more lyrical form, with a short choral strophe after
each main stanza; and Pope’s Ode on St. Cecilia’s Day. A long list of
references to similar poems from Cowley to Tennyson is given in
Metrik, ii, §§ 516–22; amongst these different forms the rhymeless
odic stanzas occurring in Dr. Sayers (Dramatic Sketches), Southey
(e.g. Thalaba) and Shelley (Queen Mab) are noticeable.
§ 305. To these Irregular Pindaric Odes strong opposition was raised
by the dramatist Congreve, who in a special Discourse on the
Pindaric Ode (Poets, vii. 509) proved that Pindar’s odes were by no
means formed on the model of such an arbitrary strophic structure
as that of the so-called Pindaric Odes which had hitherto been
popular in English poetry. To refute this false view he explained and
emphasized their actual structure (see § 303), which he imitated
himself in his Pindaric Ode addressed to the Queen, written soon
after May 20, 1706, and composed in anisometrical rhyming verses.
He was mistaken, however, in thinking that he was the first to make
this attempt in English. Nearly a hundred years before him, Ben
Jonson had imitated Pindar’s odic form on exactly the same
principles; in his Ode Pindaric to the memory of Sir Lucius Carey and
Sir H. Morison (Poets, iv. 585) we have the strophe (turn),
antistrophe (counter-turnnd the epode (stand), recurring four times
(cf. Metrik, ii, § 525). Ben Jonson, however, found no followers; so
that his attempt had remained unknown even to Congreve. The
regular Pindaric Odes by this poet, on the other hand, called forth a
great many imitations of a similar kind and structure. For this reason
the first three stanzas of Congreve’s Pindaric Ode (Poets, vii. 570)
may be quoted here as an example, the scheme of the strophe and
antistrophe being a a5 b3 c c4 b5 b6, that of the epode a b a b4 c5 d4
c 3 d 4 e4 e f g3 g 4 f 5 :

The Strophe.
Daughter of memory, immortal muse,
Calliope; what poet wilt thou choose,
Of Anna’s name to sing?
To whom wilt thou thy fire impart,
Thy lyre, thy voice, and tuneful art;
Whom raise sublime on thy aethereal wing,
And consecrate with dews of thy Castalian spring?
The Antistrophe.
 Without thy aid, the most aspiring mind
Must flag beneath, to narrow flights confin’d,
Stiving to rise in vain:
Nor e’er can hope with equal lays
To celebrate bright virtue’s praise.
Thy aid obtain’d, ev’n I, the humblest swain,
May climb Pierian heights, and quit the lowly plain.
The Epode.
High in the starry orb is hung,
And next Alcides’ guardian arm,
That harp to which thy Orpheus sung
Who woods, and rocks, and winds could charm;
That harp which on Cyllene’s shady hill,
When first the vocal shell was found,
With more than mortal skill
Inventor Hermes taught to sound:
Hermes on bright Latona’s son,
By sweet persuasion won,
The wondrous work bestow’d;
Latona’s son, to thine
Indulgent, gave the gift divine;
A god the gift, a god th’ invention show’d.
The most celebrated among the later Pindaric Odes formed on
similar principles are Gray’s odes The Progress of Poesy (Poets, x.
218) and The Bard (ib. 220). References to other odes are given in
Metrik, ii, § 527.
In dramatic poetry M. Arnold attempted to imitate the structure of
the different parts of the Chorus of Greek tragedy in his fragment
Antigone (p. 211), and more strictly in his tragedyMerope (p. 350).
It would lead us too far, however, to give a detailed description of
the strophic forms occurring there.
With regard to other lyrical pieces in masques and operas (also of an
unequal-membered strophic structure) and with regard to cantata-
stanzas and other stanzas differing among themselves, in other
poems which cannot be further discussed here, we must refer the
reader to §§ 528–31 of our larger work.

CHAPTER IX
THE SONNET

§ 306. Origin of the English Sonnet. In early Provençal and

French poetry certain lyric poems are found which were called Son,
sometimes Sonet, although they had neither a fixed extent, nor a
regulated form. But the Sonnet[197] in its exact structure was
introduced into French, Spanish, and English poetry from Italian, and
as a rule on the model, or at least under the influence, of Petrarch’s
sonnets. In English literature, however, the sonnet in part had a
more independent development than it had in other countries, and
followed its Italian model at first only in the number and nature of
the verses used in it. Generally speaking, the Italian and the English
sonnet can be defined as a short poem, complete in itself, consisting
of fourteen five-foot (or eleven-syllabled) iambic lines, in which a
single theme, a thought or series of thoughts, is treated and brought
to a conclusion. In the rhyme-arrangement and the structure of the
poem, however, the English sonnet, as a rule, deviates greatly from
its Italian model, and the examples in which its strict form is
followed are comparatively rare.
§ 307. The Italian Sonnet consists of two parts distinguished from
each other by difference of rhymes, each of the parts having its own
continuous system of rhymes. The first part is formed of two
quatrains (basi), i.e. stanzas of four lines; the second of two terzetti
(volte), stanzas of three lines. The two quatrains have only two, the
terzetti two or three rhymes.
The usual rhyme-arrangement in the quatrains is a b b a a b b a,
more rarely a b b a b a a b (rima chiusa). There are, however, also
sonnets with alternate rhymes, a b a b a b a b or a b a b b a b a
(rima alternata); but the combination of the two kinds of rhyme, a b
a b b a a b or a b b a a b a b (rima mista), was unusual. In the
second part, consisting of six lines, the order of rhymes is not so
definitely fixed. When only two rhymes are used, which the old
metrists, as Quadrio (1695–1756), the Italian critic and historian of
literature, regarded as the only legitimate method, the usual
sequence is c d c d c d (crossed rhymes, rima alternata). This form
occurs 112 times in those of Petrarch’s[198] sonnets which have only
two rhymes in the last part, their number being 124; in the
remaining twelve sonnets the rhyme-system is either c d d c d c or
c d d d c c. In the second part of Petrarch’s sonnets three rhymes
are commoner than two. In most cases we have the formula c d e c
d e, which occurs in 123 sonnets, while the scheme c d e d c e is
met with only in 78 sonnets. The three chief forms, then, of
Petrarch’s sonnet may be given with Tomlinson[199] as built on the
following models:
a b b a a b b a c d e c d e , a b b a a b b a c d c d c d,
a b b a a b b a c d e d c e.
In the seventy-second and seventy-fourth sonnet we have the
unusual schemes c d e e d c and c d e d e c. The worst form,
according to the Italian critics, was that which ended in a rhyming
couplet. This kind of ending, as we shall see later on, is one of the
chief characteristics of the specifically English form of the sonnet.
The original and oldest form of the sonnet, however, as recent
inquiries seem to show, was that with crossed rhymes both in the
quatrains and in the terzetti, on the scheme a b a b a b a b c d c d
c d. But this variety had no direct influence on the true English form,
in which a system of crossed rhymes took a different arrangement.
An essential point, then, in the Italian sonnet is the bipartition, the
division of it into two chief parts; and this rule is so strictly observed
that a carrying on of the sense, or the admission of enjambement
between the two main parts, connecting the eighth and ninth verse
of the poem by a run-on line, would be looked upon as a gross
offence against the true structure and meaning of this poetic form.
Nor would a run-on line be allowed between the first and the second
stanza; indeed some poets, who follow the strict form of the sonnet,
do not even admit enjambement between the first and the second
terzetto, although for the second main part of the poem this has
never become a fixed rule.
The logical import of the structure of the sonnet, as understood by
the earlier theorists, especially Quadrio, is this: The first quatrain
makes a statement; the second proves it; the first terzetto has to
confirm it, and the second draws the conclusion of the whole.
§ 308. The structure of this originally Italian poetic form may be
illustrated by the following sonnet, equally correct in form and
poetical in substance, in which Theodore Watts-Dunton sets forth
the essence of this form of poetry itself:
The Sonnet’s Voice.
A metrical lesson by the sea-shore.
 Yon silvery billows breaking on the beach
Fall back in foam beneath the star-shine clear,
The while my rhymes are murmuring in your ear
A restless lore like that the billows teach;
For on these sonnet-waves my soul would reach
From its own depths, and rest within you, dear,
As, through the billowy voices yearning here,
Great nature strives to find a human speech.

A sonnet is a wave of melody:

From heaving waters of the impassioned soul
A billow of tidal music one and whole
Flows in the ‘octave’; then, returning free,
Its ebbing surges in the ‘sestet’ roll
Back to the deeps of Life’s tumultuous sea.

Although the run-on line between the terzetti is perhaps open to a

slight objection, the rhyme-arrangement is absolutely correct, the
inadmissible rhyming couplet at the end of the poem being of course
avoided. Other sonnets on the sonnet written in English, German, or
French, are quoted in Metrik, ii, § 534
§ 309. The first English sonnet-writers, Wyatt and Surrey, departed
considerably from this strict Italian form, although they both
translated sonnets written by Petrarch into English. Their chief
deviation from this model is that, while retaining the two quatrains,
they break up the second chief part of the sonnet, viz. the terzetti,
into a third quatrain (with separate rhymes) and a rhyming couplet.
Surrey went still further in the alteration of the original sonnet by
changing the arrangement and the number of rhymes in the
quatrains also, whereas Wyatt, as a rule, in this respect only
exceptionally deviated from the structure of the Italian sonnet. The
greater part of Wyatt’s sonnets (as well as Donne’s, cf. Metrik, ii, §
541) have therefore the scheme abba abba cddc ee, whereas other
forms, as e.g. abba abba cd cd ee occur only occasionally (cf. Metrik,
ii, § 535).
This order of rhymes, on the other hand, was frequently used by Sir
Philip Sidney, who on the whole followed the Italian model, and
sometimes employed even more accurate Italian forms, avoiding the
final rhyming couplet (cf. ib. § 538). He also invented certain
extended and curtailed sonnets which are discussed in Metrik, ii, §§
539, 540
§ 310. Of greater importance is Surrey’s transformation of the
Italian sonnet, according to the formula abab cdcd efefgg. This
variety of the sonnet—which, we may note in passing, Surrey also
extended into a special poetic form consisting of several such
quatrains together with a final rhyming couplet (cf. Metrik, ii, § 537)
—was very much in favour in the sixteenth and at the beginning of
the seventeenth century. Samuel Daniel, and above all Shakespeare,
wrote their sonnets mainly[200] in this form, sometimes combining a
series of them in a closely connected cycle. As a specimen of this
most important form we quote the eighteenth of Shakespeare’s
sonnets:
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimm’d;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimm’d;
But thy eternal summer shall not fade
Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st;
Nor shall Death brag thou wander’st in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
Commonly the concluding couplet contains an independent thought
which gives a conclusion to the poem. In certain cases, however, the
thought of the previous stanza is carried on in the closing couplet by
means of a run-on line, as is the case in Nos. 71, 72, 108, 154, &c.
Sometimes, of course, a run-on line connects different portions of
the sonnet also, as e.g. Nos. 114, 129, 154, &c. The rhymes, as a
rule, are masculine, but not exclusively so.
§ 311. Meanwhile, another interesting form had been introduced,
perhaps by the Scottish poet, Alex. Montgomerie,[201] which was
subsequently chiefly used by Spenser. When about seventeen
Spenser had translated the sonnets of the French poet, Du Bellay, in
blank verse, and thereby created the rhymeless form of the sonnet,
which, however, although not unknown in French poetry, was not
further cultivated. About twenty years later he re-wrote the same
sonnets in the form introduced by Surrey. Some years after he wrote
a series of sonnets, called Amoretti, in that peculiar and very fine
form which, although perhaps invented by Montgomerie, now bears
Spenser’s name. The three quatrains in this form of the sonnet are
connected by concatenatio, the final verse of each quatrain rhyming
with the first line of the next, while the closing couplet stands
separate. The scheme of this form, then, a b a b b c b c c d c d e e;
it found, however, but few imitators (cf. Metrik, ii, §§ 542, 543, 559,
note 1).
The various forms of Drummond of Hawthornden’s sonnets had also
no influence on the further development of this kind of poetry and
therefore need not be discussed here. It may suffice to say that he
partly imitated the strict Italian form, partly modified it; and that he
also used earlier English transformations and invented some new
forms (cf. Metrik, ii, §§ 547, 548)
§ 312. A new and important period in the history of sonnet writing,
although it was only of short duration, began with Milton. Not a
single one of his eighteen English and five Italian sonnets is
composed on the model of those by Surrey and Shakespeare or in
any other genuine English form. He invariably used the Italian
rhyme-arrangement a b b a a b b a in the quatrains, combined with
the strict Italian order in the terzetti: c d c d c d, c d d c d c, c d e c
d e, c d c e e d, c d e d c e; only in one English and in three Italian
sonnets we find the less correct Italian form with the final rhyming
couplet on the schemes c d d c e e, c d c d e e.
One chief rule, however, of the Italian sonnet, viz. the logical
separation of the two main parts by a break in the sense, is
observed by Milton only in about half the number of his sonnets; and
the above-mentioned relationship of the single parts of the sonnet to
each other according to the strict Italian rule (cf. pp. 372–3 and
Metrik, ii, § 533, pp. 839–40) is hardly ever met with in Milton. He
therefore imitated the Italian sonnet only in its form, and paid no
regard to the relationship of its single parts or to the distribution of
the contents through the quatrains and terzets. In this respect he
kept to the monostrophic structure of the specifically English form of
the sonnet, consisting, as a rule, of one continuous train of thought.
Milton also introduced into English poetry the playful variety of the
so-called tail-sonnet on the Italian model (Sonetti codati), a sonnet,
extended by six anisometrical verses, with the scheme a b b a a b b
a c d e d e c5 c3 f f5 f3 g g5 (cf. Metrik, ii, § 549), which, however,
did not attract many imitators (Milton, ii. 481–2).
After Milton sonnet-writing was discontinued for about a century.
The poets of the Restoration period and of the first half of the
eighteenth century (Cowley, Waller, Dryden, Pope, Gay, Akenside,
Young, Thomson, Goldsmith, Johnson, and others) did not write a
single sonnet, and seem to have despised this form of poetry (cf.
Metrik, ii, § 550)
§ 313. When sonnet-writing was revived in the second half of the
eighteenth century by T. Edwards, who composed some fifty
sonnets, by Gray, by Benjamin Stillingfleet, T. Warton, and others of
less importance, as well as by Charlotte Smith, Helen M. Williams,
Anna Seward, the male poets preferred the strict Italian form, while
the poetesses, with the exception of Miss Seward, adopted that of
Surrey and Shakespeare (cf. Metrik, ii, § 551).
Not long afterwards another very popular and prolific sonnet-writer,
William Lisle Bowles, followed in some of his sonnets the strict
Italian model (cf. Metrik, ii, § 552), but also wrote sonnets (towards
the end of the eighteenth century) on a scheme that had previously
been used by Drummond, viz. a b b a c d d c e f f e g g, this
formula representing a transition form from the Italian to Surrey’s
sonnet, with enclosing rhymes in the quatrains instead of crossed
rhymes (cf. Metrik, ii, § 546, p. 860).
Bowles’s example induced S. T. Coleridge to write his sonnets, which
in part combined in the quatrains enclosing and crossed rhyme (a b
b a c d c d e f e f g g or a b a b c d d c e f f e f e; cf. Metrik, ii, §
553).
Similar, even more arbitrary forms and rhyme-arrangements, the
terzetti being sometimes placed at the beginning (e.g. No. 13, a a b
c c b d e d e f e f e) of the poem, occur in Southey’s sonnets, which,
fine as they sometimes are in thought, have in their form hardly any
resemblance to the original Italian model except that they contain
fourteen lines. They had, however, like those of Drummond, no
further influence, and therefore need not be discussed here (cf.
Metrik, ii, § 554)
§ 314. A powerful impulse was given to sonnet-writing by
Wordsworth, who wrote about 500 sonnets, and who, not least on
account of his copiousness, has been called the English Petrarch. He,
indeed, followed his Italian model more closely than his
predecessors with regard to the form and the relationship of the
different parts to each other.
The usual scheme of his quatrains is a b b a, a b b a, but there is
also a form with a third rhyme a b b a, a c c a, which frequently
occurs. The rhyme-arrangement of the terzetti is exceedingly
various, and there are also a great many sub-species with regard to
the structure of the first part. Very often the first quatrain has
enclosing rhymes and the second crossed rhymes, or vice versa;
these being either formed by two or three rhymes. As the main
types of the Wordsworth sonnet the following, which, however,
admit of many variations in the terzetti, may be mentioned: a b b
a b a b a c d e c e d (ii. 303), a b b a a b a b c d e e d c (viii.
57), a b a b b a a b c d c d c d (vi. 113), a b a b a b b a c d d c
d c (viii. 29), a b b a a c a c d e e d e d (vii. 82), a b b a c a c a d
e d e e d (viii. 109) or a b b a c a c a d e d e f f (viii. 77), &c., a b a
b b c c b d e f e f d (vii. 29). There are of this type also forms in
which the terzetti have the structure d d f e e f (vii. 334), or d e f d
e f (viii. 68), &c., and a b a b a c a c d e d e d e (viii. 28). Cf.
Metrik, ii, § 555.
Very often Wordsworth’s sonnets differ from those of the Italian
poets and agree with the Miltonic type in that the two chief parts are
not separated from each other by a pause[202]; and even if there is
no run-on line the train of thought is continuous. For this reason his
sonnets give us rather the impression of a picture or of a description
than of a reflective poem following the Italian requirements,
according to which the sonnet should consist of: assertion (quatrain
i), proof (quatrain ii), confirmation (terzet i), conclusion (terzet ii)
(cf. p. 373). The following sonnet by Wordsworth, strictly on the
Italian model in its rhyme-arrangement, may serve as an example:
 With Ships the sea was sprinkled far and nigh,
Like stars in heaven, and joyously it showed;
Some lying fast at anchor in the road,
Some veering up and down, one knew not why.
A goodly Vessel did I then espy
Come like a giant from a haven broad;
And lustily along the bay she strode,
Her tackling rich, and of apparel high.
This Ship was nought to me, nor I to her,
Yet I pursued her with a Lover’s look;
This ship to all the rest did I prefer:
When will she turn, and whither? She will brook
No tarrying; where She comes the winds must stir:
On went She, and due north her journey took.
Sonnets, however, like the following, entitled A Parsonage in
Oxfordshire (vi. 292), give to a still greater extent the impression of
monostrophic poems on account of the want of distinct separation
between the component parts:
Where holy ground begins, unhallowed ends,
Is marked by no distinguishable line;
The turf unites, the pathways intertwine;
And, wheresoe’er the stealing footstep tends,
Garden, and that Domain where kindreds, friends,
And neighbours rest together, here confound
Their several features, mingled like the sound
Of many waters, or as evening blends
With shady night. Soft airs, from shrub and flower,
Waft fragrant greetings to each silent grave;
And while those lofty poplars gently wave
Their tops, between them comes and goes a sky
Bright as the glimpses of eternity,
To saints accorded in their mortal hour.
The strophic character of many sonnets is still more visible both in
Wordsworth and some earlier poets (as e.g. Sidney or Shakespeare)
when several consecutive sonnets on the same subject are so closely
connected as to begin with the words But or Nor, as e.g. in
Wordsworth’s Ecclesiastical Sonnets (XI, XV, XVIII, XXIII); or when
sonnets (cf. the same collection, No. XXXII) end like the Spenserian
stanza in an Alexandrine. This peculiarity, which, of course, does not
conform to the strict and harmonious structure of the sonnet, and is
found as early as in a sonnet by Burns (p. 119), sometimes occurs in
later poets also.[203] Wordsworth has had an undoubtedly great
influence on the further development of sonnet-writing, which is still
extensively practised both in England and America.
§ 315. None of the numerous sonnet-writers of the nineteenth
century, however, brought about a new epoch in this kind of poetry.
They, as a rule, confined themselves to either one or other of the
four chief forms noted above, viz.:
1. The specifically English form of Surrey and Shakespeare, used
e.g. by Keats, S. T. Coleridge, Mrs. Hemans, C. Tennyson Turner,
Mrs. Browning, M. Arnold (pp. 37, 38) (cf. Metrik, ii, § 566).
2. The Wordsworth sonnet, approaching to the Italian sonnet in its
form or rather variety of forms; it occurs in S. T. Coleridge, Hartley
Coleridge, Sara Coleridge, Byron, Mrs. Hemans, Lamb, Tennyson, D.
G. Rossetti, M. Arnold (pp. 1–8) (cf. ib. §§ 561–2).
3. The Miltonic form, correct in its rhymes but not in the relationship
of its different parts to one another, used by Keats, Byron, Aubrey de
Vere, Lord Houghton, Mrs. Browning, Rossetti, Swinburne, and
others (cf. ib. § 563).
4. The strict Italian form, as we find it in Keats, Byron, Leigh Hunt,
Aubrey de Vere, Tennyson, Browning, Mrs. Browning, Austin Dobson,
Rossetti, Swinburne, M. Arnold (pp. 179–85), and most poets of the
modern school (cf. ib. §§ 564–5).
 CHAPTER X
OTHER ITALIAN AND FRENCH POETICAL FORMS OF A FIXED
CHARACTER

§ 316. The madrigal, an Italian form (It. mandriale, madrigale,

from mandra flock), is a pastoral song, a rural idyl. The Italian
madrigals of Petrarch, &c., are short, isometrical poems of eleven-
syllable verses, consisting of two or three terzetti with different
rhymes and two or four other rhyming verses, mostly couplets: a b
c a b c d d, a b a b c b c c , a b b a c c d d , a b b c d d e e , a b
b a c c c d d, a b a c b c d e d e, a b b c d d e e f f, a b b c d
d e f f g g.
The English madrigals found in Sidney and especially in Drummond
resemble the Italian madrigals only in subject; in their form they
differ widely from their models, as they consist of from fifteen to five
lines and have the structure of canzone-stanzas of three- and five-
foot verses. The stanzas run on an average from eight to twelve
lines. As a specimen the twelfth madrigal of Drummond (Poets, iv.
644), according to the formula a3 a5 b3 a5 b3 b5 c5 c3 d d5, may be
quoted here:
Trees happier far than I,
Which have the grace to heave your heads so high,
And overlook those plains:
Grow till your branches kiss that lofty sky,
Which her sweet self contains.
There make her know mine endless love and pains,
And how these tears which from mine eyes do fall,
Help you to rise so tall:
Tell her, as once I for her sake lov’d breath,
So for her sake I now court lingering death.
Other madrigals have the following schemes (the first occurring
twice in Sidney and once in Drummond, while the rest are found in
Drummond only):
fifteen lines, a3 a5 b3 c5 c3 b5 b3 d5 d3 e e5 d3 e f f5; fourteen lines, a
a3 a5 b3 c5 b3 c d5 e e3 d f5 d3 f5; thirteen lines, a a3 b5 c c3 b5 c3 d
d5 e3 f e f5; twelve lines,a2 b5 b3 a5 c d3 d c5 c e3 f f5; eleven lines,
a3 b c a5 b d3 d e e f f5; ten lines, a b3 b a5 a c b3 c d d5; nine lines,
a3 a5 b c b3 c c d d5; eight lines, a3 a5 b b c3 c d d5; seven lines, a b
a3 c c5 a3 b5; six lines, a b b a c3 c5; five lines, a b b3 a b5. For
specimens of these and other madrigals in Drummond cf. Metrik, ii,
§ 508
§ 317. Some poems in Drummond’s and Sidney’s works entitled
epigrams consist, as a rule, of two or more five-foot verses, rhyming
in couplets. In Sidney there are also short poems resembling these
in subject, but consisting of one-rhymed Alexandrines. We have also
one in R. Browning (iii. 146) of seven one-rhymed Septenary verses;
several others occur in D. G. Rossetti (ii. 137–40) of eight lines on
the schemes a a4 b b4 a a4 b b4 styled Chimes (cf. Metrik, ii, §§ 570,
571.)
§ 318. The terza-rima. Of much greater importance is another
Italian form, viz. a continuous stanza of eleven-syllable verses, the
terza-rima, the metre in which Dante wrote his Divina Commedia. It
first appears in English poetry in Chaucer’s Complaint to his Lady,
second and third part,[204] but may be said to have been introduced
into English literature by Wyatt, who wrote satires and penitential
psalms in this form (Ald. ed. pp. 186–7, 209–34), and by Surrey in
his Description of the restless state of a Lover (Ald. ed. p. 1). The
rhyme-system of the terza-rima is a b a b c b c d c, &c. That is to
say, the first and third lines of the first triplet rhyme together, while
the middle line has a different rhyme which recurs in the first and
third line of the second triplet; and in the same manner the first and
third lines of each successive triplet rhyme with the middle line of
the preceding one, so as to form a continuous chain of three-line
stanzas of iambic five-foot verses till the end of the poem, which is
formed by a single line added to the last stanza and rhyming with its
second line.
The first stanzas of Surrey’s poem may be quoted here:
The sun hath twice brought forth his tender green,
Twice clad the earth in lively lustiness;
Once have the winds the trees despoiled clean,
And once again begins their cruelness;
Since I have hid under my breast the harm
That never shall recover healthfulness.
The winter’s hurt recovers with the warm;
The parched green restored is with shade;
What warmth, alas! may serve for to disarm
The frozen heart, that mine in flame hath made?
What cold again is able to restore
My fresh green years, &c., &c.
The terza-rima has not the compact structure of the sonnet, as in
each of its stanzas a rhyme is wanting which is only supplied in the
following stanza. For this reason it seems to be especially adapted
for epic or reflective poetry.
Comparatively few examples of this form are met with in English
poetry, as e.g. in Sidney, S. Daniel, Drummond, Milton, and Shelley
(cf. Metrik, ii, § 572).
In Sidney and R. Browning (iii. 102) we also find a variety of the
terza-rima consisting of four-foot verses, and in Browning some
others formed of four-stressed verses (iv. 288).
Some similar rhyme-systems of three lines, occurring in Sidney and
Drummond, are of less importance (cf. ib., § 573)
§ 319. Certain other varieties of the terza-rima, although found in
recent poets, need only be briefly noticed here.
One of four lines on the model a a b a5 b b c b5 c c d c5, &c.,
occurs in Swinburne, Poems, ii. 32, 34, 239; another on the scheme
a a b a5, c c b c5, d d e d5, &c., ib. i. 13; a third one, following the
formula a b c3 b2, a b c3 b2, a b c3 b2, called Triads, ib. ii. 159 (cf.
Metrik, ii, § 564).
Five-lined forms, similar to the terza-rima, occur in Sidney, e.g.
abcdd, efghh, iklmm, the rhymeless lines being connected by
sectional rhyme, the stanzas themselves likewise by sectional rhyme;
another on the model a5 b3 c5 c3 B5, B5 d3 e5 e3 D5, D5 f3 g5 g3 F5;
and a third on the scheme a3 a5 b c3 b5, c3 c5 d e3 d5, e3 e5 f g3 f5,
&c. A related form, a b a b c4, c d c d e4, ... y z y z z4, is found in
Mrs. Browning (iv. 44). For specimen cf. Metrik, ii, § 575.
A terza-rima system of six lines may be better mentioned in this
section than together with the sub-varieties of the sextain, as was
done in Metrik, ii, §578; they pretty often occur in Sidney, e.g.
Pansies, ix (Grosart, i. 202), on the schemes a b a b c b, c d c d e d,
e f e f g f, v w v w x w, ... x y x y z y y.
In Spenser’s Pastoral Aeglogue on Sidney (pp. 506–7) a rhyme-
system according to a b c a b c5, d b e d f e5, g f h g i h5, k i l k m
l5, &c. is met with; in Mrs. Browning (iii. 236) a much simpler
system, constructed of five-foot lines on the formula a b a b a b c d
c d c d e f e f e f, &c., is used.
A system of ten lines, consisting of five-foot verses (a b a b b c a e d
D, D e d e e f d f g G, G h g h h i g i k K, &c., ending in a stanza of
four lines, X y x y) occurs in Sidney, pp. 218–20 (221–4, xxxi); cf.
Metrik, ii, § 580
§ 320. Still less popular was another Italian poetical form, the
sextain, originally invented by the Provençal poet, Arnaut Daniel,
and for the first time reproduced in English poetry by Sidney in his
Arcadia.
The sextain consists of eleven-syllabled or rather five-foot verses
and has six stanzas of six lines each, and an envoy of three lines in
addition. Each of the six stanzas, considered individually, is
rhymeless, and so is the envoy. But the end-words of the lines of
each stanza from the second to the sixth are identical with those of
the lines in the preceding stanza, but in a different order, viz. six,
one, five, two, four, three. In the envoy, the six end-words of the
first stanza recur, in the same order, alternately in the middle and at
the end of the line. Hence the whole system of rhymes (or rather of
recurrence of end-words) is as follows: a b c d e f . f a e b d c . c f d
a b e . e c b f a d . d e a c f b . b d f e c a + (a) b (c) d (e) f.
The first two stanzas of Sidney’s Agelastus Sestine, pp. 438–9 (426–
7, lxxiv), together with the envoy and with the end-words of the
other stanzas, may serve to make this clear:

Since wayling is a bud of causefull sorrow,

Since sorrow is the follower of evill fortune,
Since no evill fortune equals publike damage;
Now Prince’s losse hath made our damage publike
Sorrow, pay we to thee the rights of Nature,
And inward griefe seale up with outward wayling.

Why should we spare our voice from endlesse wayling

Who iustly make our hearts the seate of sorrow,
In such a case, where it appears that Nature
Doth adde her force unto the sting of Fortune!
Choosing, alas, this our theatre publike,
Where they would leave trophees of cruell damage.

The other stanzas have the corresponding rhyme-words in this

order:
III IV V VI
damage Nature publike fortune
wayling damage nature publike
publike Fortune sorrow wayling
sorrowe wayling damage nature
fortune sorrowe wayling damage
Nature publike fortune sorrow
The envoy is:
Since sorrow, then, concludeth all our fortune,
With all our deaths shew we this damage publique:
His nature feares to dye, who lives still wayling.
This strict form of the sextain, which in Sidney, pp. 216–17 (219–21,
xxx), occurs even with a twofold rhyming system, but, of course,
with only one envoy, has, as far as we know, only once been
imitated in modern poetry, viz. by E. W. Gosse (New Poems). Cf.
Metrik, ii, § 576
§ 321. Besides this original form of the sextain several other
varieties are met with in English poetry. Thus Spenser, in the eighth
eclogue of his Shepherd’s Calendar (pp. 471–2), has a sextain of a
somewhat different structure, the rhymeless end-words being
arranged in this order: a b c d e f. f a b c d e. e f a b c d. d e f a b c.
c d e f a b. b c d e f a + (a) b (c) d (e) f. Here the final word of the
last verse of the first stanza, it is true, is also used as final word in
the first verse of the second stanza, but the order of the final words
of the other verses of the first stanza remains unchanged in the
second. The same relation of the end-words exists between st. ii to
st. iii, between st. iii to st. iv, &c., and lastly between st. vi and the
envoy; the envoy, again, has the end-words of the first stanza; those
which have their place in the interior of the verse occur at the end of
the third measure.
Some other sub-varieties of the sextain have rhyming final words in
each stanza.
In Sidney’s Arcadia, p. 443 (430–1, lxxvi), e.g. one sextain has the
following end-words: light, treasure, might, pleasure, direction,
affection. These end-words recur in the following stanzas in the
order of the regular sextain; hence st. ii has affection, light,
direction, treasure, pleasure, might, &c. In this variety, also, the
rhyme-words of the envoy occur at a fixed place, viz. at the end of
the second measure. Drummond wrote two sextains of the same
elegant form.
In Swinburne also (Poems, ii. 46) we have a sextain of rhymed
stanzas, the first stanza rhyming day, night, way, light,may, delight.
All these recur in the following stanzas in a similar order, though not
so strictly observed as in the sextain by Spenser, mentioned above
(cf. Metrik, ii, § 577).
One example (probably unique in English poetry) of what is known
as the Double Sextain is found in Swinburne’s The Complaint of Lisa
(Poems, ii. 60–8), a poem in which he has given one of the most
brilliant specimens of his skill in rhyming. It consists of twelve
twelve-lined stanzas and a six-lined envoy. The first two stanzas
rhyme a b c A B d C e f E D F, F a f D A C b e c E d B; the envoy on
the scheme
(F) E (e) f (C) A (c) d (b) a (D) B;
where the corresponding capital and small letters denote different
words rhyming with each other. Cf. Metrik, ii, § 581
§ 322. Side by side with these well-known poems of fixed form,
mostly constructed on Italian models, there are some others
influenced by French poetry which have been introduced into English
for the most part by contemporary modern poets, as e.g. Swinburne,
Austin Dobson, Robert Bridges, D.G. Rossetti, A. Lang, and E.W.
Gosse[205]. These are the virelay, roundel, rondeau, triolet, villanelle,
ballade, and chant royal. The virelay seems to have been in vogue
in earlier English poetry. Chaucer, e.g. in his Legende of good
Women, v. 423, says of himself that he had written balades,
roundels, and virelayes. But only isolated specimens of it have been
preserved; in more recent times it has not been imitated at all.
According to Lubarsch[206] the virelay consists of verses of unequal
length, joined by concatenatio so as to form stanzas of nine lines on
the scheme: a a b a a b a a b, b b c b b c b b c, c c d c c d c c d, &c.
Apart from this, however, there were undoubtedly other forms in
existence (cf. Bartsch, Chrestomathie de l’ancien français, p. 413).
Morris, in the Aldine edition of Chaucer’s Works, vol. vi, p. 305, gives
a virelay of two-foot iambic verses in six-lined stanzas on the model
a a a b a a a b, b b b c b b b c c c c d c c c d, &c.
(quoted Metrik, i, § 155)
§ 323. The roundel, used by Eustache Deschamps, Charles
d’Orléans, and others, was introduced into English poetry, it seems,
by Chaucer. But there are only a few roundels of his in existence;
one of these occurs in The Assembly of Fowles (ll. 681–8); if the
verses of the burden are repeated, as printed in the Globe Edition,
pp. 638–9, it has thirteen lines (a b b a b a b a b b a b b, the thick
types showing the refrain-verses):

Now welcom, somer, with thy sonne softe,

That hast this wintres weders overshake
And driven awey the longe nyghtes blake;

Seynt Valentyn, that art ful by on lofte,

Thus syngen smale foules for thy sake:
Now welcom, somer, with thy sonne softe,
That hast this wintres weders overshake.

Wel han they cause for to gladen ofte,

Sith ech of hem recovered hath his make;
Ful blisful mowe they ben when they awake.
Now welcom, somer, with thy sonne softe,
That hast this wintres weders overshake
And driven awey the longe nyghtes blake.

Three other roundels of Chaucer on the scheme last mentioned have

been published lately by Skeat in Chaucer’s Minor Poems, pp. 386–7;
some other Middle English roundels were written by Hoccleve and
Lydgate.
In French the roundel was not always confined to one particular
metre, nor did it always consist of a fixed number of verses; the
same may be said of the English roundels.
The essential condition of this form, as used by the French poets,
was that two, three, or four verses forming a refrain must recur
three times at fixed positions in a tripartite isometrical poem
consisting mostly of thirteen or fourteen four- or five-foot verses. A
common form of the French roundel consisted of fourteen
octosyllabic verses on the model
a b b a a b a b a b b a a b.
Conforming to this scheme is a roundel by Lydgate[207]:
Rejoice ye reames of England and of Fraunce!
A braunche that sprange oute of the floure de lys,
Blode of seint Edward and [of] seint Lowys,
God hath this day sent in governaunce.

God of nature hath yoven him suffisaunce

Likly to atteyne to grete honure and pris.
Rejoice ye reames of England and of Fraunce!
A braunche hath sprung oute of the floure de lys.

O hevenly blossome, o budde of all plesaunce,

God graunt the grace for to ben als wise
As was thi fader, by circumspect advise,
Stable in vertue withoute variaunce.
Rejoice ye reames of England and of Fraunce,
A braunche hath sprung oute of the floure de lys.

Another roundel of four-foot verses, by Lydgate (Ritson, i. 129),

corresponds to a b a b a b a b a b a b a b (cf. Metrik, i, § 180);
some other roundels, of a looser structure, consisting, seemingly, of
ten lines, are quoted in the same place (cf. Metrik, ii, § 583).
A Modern English roundel of fourteen lines, constructed of three-foot
verses, by Austin Dobson, has the scheme a b a b b a a b a b a b a
b (quoted ib. § 583). The French roundel of thirteen lines may be
looked upon as a preliminary form to the rondeau, which was
developed from the roundel at the end of the fifteenth and the
beginning of the sixteenth century.
§ 324. The rondeau is a poem consisting of thirteen lines of eight
or ten syllables, or four or five measures. It has three stanzas of
five, three, and five lines, rhyming on the scheme a a b b a a a b a
a b b a. It has, moreover, a refrain which is formed by the first
words of the first line, and recurs twice, viz. after the eighth and
thirteenth verses, with which it is syntactically connected. Strictly
speaking it therefore has fifteen lines, corresponding to the scheme
a a b b a a a b + r a a b b a + r. The rondeau was much cultivated
by the French poet, Clément Marot. It was introduced into English by
Wyatt, from whom the rondeau Complaint for True Love unrequited
(p. 23) may be quoted here:
What ’vaileth truth, or by it to take pain?
To strive by steadfastness for to attain
How to be just, and flee from doubleness?
Since all alike, where ruleth craftiness,
Rewarded is both crafty, false, and plain.
 Soonest he speeds that most can lie and feign:
True meaning heart is had in high disdain,
Against deceit and cloaked doubleness,
What ’vaileth truth?

Deceived is he by false and crafty train,

That means no guile, and faithful doth remain
Within the trap, without help or redress:
But for to love, lo, such a stern mistress,
Where cruelty dwells, alas, it were in vain.
What ’vaileth truth?

This is the proper form of the rondeau. Other forms deviating from it
are modelled on the schemes:
a a b b a b b a + r b b a a b + r (Wyatt, p. 24),
aabba+r ccb+r aabba+r (ib. p. 26),
abbaab+r abba+r (D. G. Rossetti, i. 179).
Austin Dobson, Robert Bridges, and Theo. Marzials strictly follow the
form quoted above.
Another form of the rondeau entirely deviating from the above is
found in Swinburne, A Century of Roundels,[208] where he combines
verses of the most varied length and rhythm on the scheme A B A +
b B A B A B A + b where b denotes part of a verse, rhyming with
the second, but repeated from the beginning of the first verse and
consisting of one or several words (cf. Metrik, ii, §§ 584, 585)
§ 325. The triolet and the villanelle are unusual forms occurring only
in modern poets, e.g. Dobson and Gosse.
The triolet, found as early as in Adenet-le-Roi at the beginning of
the thirteenth century, is a short poem of eight mostly octosyllabic
verses, rhyming according to the formula a b a a a b a b, the first
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