Network and Cybersecurity 10-Marks Answers

1a. Relationship between Security Services and Mechanisms

Security Services provide the goals of secure communications: Confidentiality, Integrity,

Security Mechanisms are techniques to implement these services: Encryption, Digital Signatures,
MACs, Access Control Lists.

Relationship: Mechanisms are the practical means to achieve services.

Example: To achieve Confidentiality (service), Encryption (mechanism) like AES is used.

Service Mechanism

Confidentiality Encryption

Integrity Hash Functions

Authentication Digital Signature

Non-Repudiation Public Key Signature

Access Control Firewalls, ACLs

1b. ECB and CBC Modes of Block Cipher

ECB (Electronic Codebook Mode):

 Each block encrypted independently.

 Fast but insecure for large data.

 Identical plaintext blocks = identical ciphertext blocks.

CBC (Cipher Block Chaining Mode):

 Each block XORed with previous ciphertext before encryption.

 More secure, but sequential dependency.

Feature ECB CBC

Block Dependency No Yes

Parallel Encryption Yes No

Security Lower Higher

Conclusion: CBC is more secure, suitable for large and sensitive data.

1c. Non-repudiation and Authentication

Non-repudiation: Prevents denial of sending a message (e.g., digital signature).

Example:

 Alice signs a message with her private key.

 Bob verifies it using Alice's public key.

 Confirms identity (authentication) and proof of sending (non-repudiation).

Conclusion: Digital signatures achieve both.

1d. Challenge-Response Based Authentication Tokens

Process:

1. Server sends a random challenge.

2. Client encrypts or hashes it with a secret.

3. Server verifies the response.

Example:

 Smart cards, OTP systems.

Advantages:

 Resists replay attacks.

 Passwords not directly transmitted.

Conclusion: A dynamic and secure way to authenticate users.

1e. Buffer Overflow Attack

Definition: When more data is written to a buffer than it can hold, overwriting adjacent memory.

Consequences:

 Program crash.

 Arbitrary code execution.

 System control takeover.

Example:

char buffer[10];

gets(buffer);

Prevention:

 Input validation.
  Stack canaries.

 ASLR.

Conclusion: Critical vulnerability; secure coding practices are necessary.

2a. RSA Key Generation and Encryption Example

Steps:

1. Select two primes p and q.

2. Calculate N = p*q.

3. Calculate \u03d5(N) = (p-1)(q-1).

4. Choose public key e (coprime with \u03d5(N)).

5. Calculate private key d: (d * e) % \u03d5(N) = 1.

Given: (E=7, N=187)

 p=11, q=17 (since 11*17=187)

 \u03d5(N) = (11-1)(17-1) = 1016 = 160

 Find d: d * 7 \u2261 1 (mod 160) => d=23

Encryption: M=10 C = (M^E) mod N = (10^7) mod 187 = 143

Answer:

 \u03d5(N) = 160

 Private key d = 23

 Ciphertext = 143

2b. DES (Data Encryption Standard)

1. Block and Key Size:

o Block Size: 64 bits.

o Key Size: 56 bits (plus 8 parity bits).

2. Need for Expansion Permutation:

o Expands 32-bit half-block to 48 bits for mixing with subkey.

3. Role of S-box:

o Provides non-linearity.

o Takes 6 bits input, gives 4 bits output.

4. Weak and Semi-Weak Keys:

o Semi-weak keys: Two keys encrypt plaintext to same ciphertext.

5. Possible Attacks:

o Brute Force (exhaustive key search).

o Differential Cryptanalysis.

o Linear Cryptanalysis.

Conclusion: Although old, DES laid the foundation for modern encryption standards.

3a. Goals served using Message Digest (Example: MD5)

Goals:

 Data Integrity.

 Authentication (with MACs).

MD5:

 Produces a 128-bit hash value.

 Even a small change in input drastically changes output (avalanche effect).

Use:

 Verify file integrity.

 Password storage (hashed passwords).

Conclusion: Message digests protect against tampering.

3b. DDOS Attack (Distributed Denial of Service)

Definition: Multiple compromised systems attack a target, overwhelming it with traffic.

Steps:

1. Hacker infects systems (zombies).

2. Zombies simultaneously flood the victim.

Impact:

 Server crash.

 Service unavailability.

Example:

 Attack on GitHub (2018).

Conclusion: DDOS attacks are serious threats to online services.

Why Required:

 Validate the authenticity of entities online.

Role of Digital Signatures:

 Certificates are signed by trusted Certificate Authorities (CAs).

 Provide authentication and data integrity.

Example Algorithm: RSA Digital Signature

 Hash the message.

 Encrypt hash with sender's private key.

 Receiver decrypts and verifies the hash.

Conclusion: Digital signatures are central to secure e-commerce and communications.

4b. PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) in Email Security

Confidentiality:

 Encrypts email content with symmetric key.

 Symmetric key encrypted with recipient's public key.

Authentication:

 Sender signs the message with private key.

Working:

 Combines symmetric and asymmetric encryption for speed and security.

Conclusion: PGP secures email confidentiality and authenticity effectively.

5a. Euler's Phi Function Rules and Examples

Rules:

 If p is prime, \u03c6(p) = p-1.

 If N = p^k, \u03c6(N) = p^k - p^(k-1).

 If N = p*q (primes), \u03c6(N) = (p-1)(q-1).

Examples:

 \u03c6(11) = 10

 \u03c6(49) = 49 - 7 = 42
  \u03c6(240) = 240*(1-1/2)(1-1/3)(1-1/5) = 64

5b. Kerberos and Single Sign-On (SSO)

Kerberos:

 A network authentication protocol using tickets.

Working:

 Client authenticates once to Authentication Server (AS).

 Gets Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT).

 TGT used to access multiple services without re-login.

Why Called SSO:

 Single login provides access to multiple services.

Conclusion: Kerberos improves security and user convenience.

6a. SSL Protocol Functions and Handshake Phases

SSL Protocols:

 Handshake Protocol: Establishes session.

 Record Protocol: Data transmission.

 Alert Protocol: Error handling.

 Change Cipher Spec Protocol: Change encryption keys.

SSL Handshake Phases:

1. ClientHello: Client sends supported cipher suites.

2. ServerHello: Server selects cipher suite.

3. Certificate Exchange: Server sends certificate.

4. Key Exchange: Client and server exchange keys.

5. Finished Messages: Secure communication begins.

Conclusion: SSL ensures secure communications over the internet.

End of Document