COURSE SOIL 100 Introduction to Soil Science

Introduction

Dokuchaev postulated in 1886 that the soil is always and everywhere a function of parent rock,
the climate, the vegetation, the age of the terrain, and the terrain topography

Overall, the soil-forming factor equation has become a popular concept. The five soil forming
factor can be expressed in an equation:

S = (parent material, climate, micro and macro organisms, topography, time and human
beings) .

The soil-forming factors also influence the development of soil classification systems, although
differently in various countries.

There are three major classification system (taxonomic system) namely the FAO system, the
Russian system and the American system. The system currently used in Kenya is the FAO and
American system

1.1 Introduction – Functions of soils

Soil functions

Soil can be defined differently by different profession as :

- A three phase system consisting of solids, liquids and gases
- An anchor and a medium for plants to grow
- Thin layer of the earth’s crust supporting plant and animal life
- Unconsolidated regolith

However, the commonly acceptable scientific definition of soil is:

Soil is an unconsolidated mineral matter on the surface of the earth that has been subjected to
and influenced by genetic and environmental factors of: parent material, climate (including
moisture and temperature effects (b) micro and macro organisms, (c) topography, all interacting
over time) and producing a product that differs from the material from which it is derived in
many physical chemical and biological properties and characteristics.

The composition of soils include:

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 (a) Mineral matter
(b) Organic matter
(c) Water
(d) Air

These components on any landscape are in constant flux / change and have a great influence on
plant growth.

1.1.1 Mineral matter

These comprise the inorganic portion that is variable in size and composition It usually is
comprised of rock fragments and minerals of various kinds. The rock fragments are remnant of
massive rocks from which the regolith have subsequently been have formed by weathering.
These are usually coarse. The minerals are extremely variable in size. Some are as large or as
small fragments that cannot be seen with a naked eye such a colloidal clay particles. Examples
of minerals include quartz, silicate clays iron and aluminium oxides

1.1.2 Organic matter

Soil organic matter is the fraction of the soil that consists of plant or animal tissue
in various stages of breakdown (decomposition). Plant tissues are derived from death and
decomposition of plant parts (roots, stems and after harvests). Animal tissues comprises the
soil microorganisms. Soil microorganisms can be classified as bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi,
algae and protozoa. Each of these groups has characteristics that define them and their
functions in soil. Up to 10 billion bacterial cells inhabit each gram of soil in and around plant
roots, a region known as the rhizosphere.

1.1.3 Water
Though the soil particles often lie close to each other yet some space is always present there.
All such spaces in the soil are collectively called pore space. The pore space comprises a
fairly constant volume in the soil (40-60% of total soil volume) which remains filled with
water and gases in varying proportions. In a “dry” soil, water occupies a very small
proportion of this space. In a “wet” soil, it is water that occupies most of this space. The soil,
in fact, acts as a water reservoir for plants.

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 The numerous forms of water that can be found in the soil are classified as follows:
- Capillary Water.
- Hygroscopic Water.
- Gravitational Water.
- Atmospheric Humidity.
- Chemically Combined Water

a) Gravitational water:
Form of water, which reaches at the soil water table due to the gravitational force after the
rainfall. This form is not available to plants but available by mechanical methods or by tube well
irrigation.
(b) Hygroscopic water:
Thin film of water is tightly held by the soil particles is called hygroscopic water. This water is
also not available to the plants.

(c) Chemically combined water:

The amount of water present in the chemical compounds, which are present in the particles of
soil. This is not available to the plants.
(d) Capillary water:
Water exists between soil particles in small capillary pores is called Capillary water. It is the
most common available form of water for absorption.
(e) Atmospheric humidity:
This is water vapor present in air, which can be absorbed by hanging roots of the epiphytes due
to presence of spongy velamen tissue and hygroscopic hairs

1.1.4 Soil Air

Soil is an organism that breathes in and out. Pores not filled with water are filled with
soil air: a mixture of 79% nitrogen, less than 20.6% oxygen, and generally more than
0.2% carbon dioxide (CO2). The air in soil is in constant exchange with the atmosphere

2.0 Processes of soil formation

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Soil is formed by the process of ‘weathering’ of rocks, that is, disintegration and decomposition
of rocks and mineral at or near the earth’s surface through the actions of natural or mechanical
and chemical agents into smaller grains.

Factors affecting formation of soil may be atmospheric, such as changes in temperatures and
pressure; erosion and transportation by wind, water and glaciers; chemical action such as
crystal growth, oxidation, hydration, carbonation and leaching by water, especially
rainwater, with time. It is It is important to note that soil formation is a very slow process often
taking place millions of years.

Processes affecting formation of soil may be atmospheric, such as changes in temperatures and
pressure; erosion and transportation by wind, water and glaciers; chemical action such as crystal
growth, oxidation, hydration, carbonation and leaching by water, especially rainwater, with time.

So in general, formation of soil takes place through two processes:

1. Physical processes

2. Chemical Processes

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2.1 Physical Processes

Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of rocks occur due to the following physical
processes:

1. Temperature changes: Different minerals of a rock have different coefficients of thermal

expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction of these minerals occur due to temperature
changes. When the stresses induced due to such changes are repeated many times, the
particles get detached from the rocks and the soil formation takes place.

2. Wedging action of ice: Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen in very
cold climates As the volume of ice formed is more than that of water, expansion occurs.
Rocks get broken into pieces when large stresses develop in the cracks due to wedging
action of the ice formed.

3. Spreading of roots of plants: As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and
fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock. The segments of the are forced apart and
disintegration of rocks occurs.

4. Abrasion: As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock, abrasion and
scouring takes place. It results in the formation of soil.

In all processes of physical integration, there is no change in the chemical composition. The soil
formed has the properties of the parent rock. Course grained soils, such as gravel and sand, are
formed by the process of physical disintegration.

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2.2. Chemical Processes
When chemical decomposition or chemical weathering of rocks takes place, original rock
mineral are transformed into new minerals. The soils formed as a result do not have the
properties of the parent rock. The following chemical processes generally occur in nature.
1. Hydration: In hydration, water combines with the rock minerals and results in the
formation of new chemical compounds. The chemical reaction causes a change in volume
and hence decomposition of rock into small particles.
2. Carbonation: It is a type of chemical decomposition in which carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere combines with water to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid reacts
chemically with rocks resulting in their decomposition.
3. Oxidation: Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions combine with mineral in rocks resulting
in the decomposition of rocks. Oxidation of rocks is somewhat similar to rusting of steel.
4. Solution: Some of the rock minerals form a solution with water during dissolution
resulting in the formation of soil.
5. Hydrolysis: It is a chemical process in which water gets dissociated into H+ and
OH– ions. The hydrogen cations replace the metallic ions such as calcium, sodium and
potassium in rock minerals resulting in a new chemical and therefore soil formation.
Chemical decomposition of rocks results in formation of clay minerals. These clay minerals
impart plastic properties of soil. Clayey soils are formed by chemical composition.

2.3 Soil Horizons

A soil horizon is a layer parallel to the soil surface whose physical, chemical and biological
characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath it. Horizons are defined in many cases by
obvious physical features, mainly colour and texture.

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2.3 Physical properties of mineral soils
(a) Soil structure
Soil structure is defined by the way individual particles of sand, silt, and clay are
assembled. Examples of different types of soil structure: a) blocky, b) columnar, c) massive,
d) single grain, e) platy structures

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 (a) Soil texture
Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam or clay) refers to the proportion of sand, silt and
clay sized particles that make up the mineral fraction of the soil. For example, light soil
refers to a soil high in sand relative to clay, while heavy soils are made up largely of clay.
(b) Soil colour
This is the overall appearance of the soil on the land scape. Soil color is influenced by its
mineral composition as well as water and organic contents. For example, soils high in
calcium tend to be white, those high in iron reddish, and those high in humus dark brown to
black. Soil needs only about 5% organic material to appear black when wet. Soil can display
a wide range of colors including brown, red, yellow, black, gray, white, and even blue or
green and vary dramatically across landscapes

(d) Soil bulk density

Bulk density is the oven-dry weight of soil per unit of volume at field moisture capacity or at
another specified moisture content. It typically is expressed as grams per cubic centimeter
(g/cm3). It is an indicator of soil compaction. It is calculated as the dry weight of soil divided by
its volume. This volume includes the volume of soil particles and the volume of pore space
among soil particles. Bulk density is typically expressed in g/cm3;

Bulk density is calculated as follows

Bulk density = Weight of oven dry soil (g)

---------------------------

Volume of oven dry soil (cm3)

(e) Soil particle density

It can be defined as the dry, solid mass of soil particles per unit volume.

Expressed as Particle density = Mass of solids

---------------------------------

Volume of solids

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More simply, it is how much a certain volume of soil weighs when it is squashed together,
without the pore spaces within the soil. Typical particle densities for soils range from 2.60 to
2.75 g/cm3 for mineral particles. If th value of bulk density is not given, an average value of 2.65
g/cm3 is used for calculation purposes. However, they can be as high as 3.0 g/cm3 for very dense
particles and as low as 0.9 g/ cm3 for organic particles. The standard measurement is grams per
cubic centimetre, or g cm-3

(F) Pore space or porosity:

The space between soil particles is the pore space. This pore space contains varying amounts of
water and air. Soil porosity depends on soil texture and structure. Soils with lesser bulk densities
have greater porosities. Good porosity is essential to adequate soil aeration, water drainage and
root penetration.

Pore space is calculated as follows:

% of soil that is soil particles or % solids = bulk density

------------------ x 100
Particle density

Therefore this percentage taken from the total volume (100 percent) will give the percent pore
space, hence the formula:

100 - bulk density

------------------ x 100
Particle density

What is the difference between particle density and bulk density?

Particle density—is the density of solid soil particles only, i.e., measurement does not include
pore space (air space), the average value is 2.65 g cm −3. Bulk density—is the density of a volume
of soil as it exists naturally, it includes pore space, organic matter and soil solids.

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 (g) Soil profile
This is a vertical cross-section of the soil, made of layers running parallel to the surface. These
layers are known as soil horizons.

The soil profile is a vertical section of the soil that depicts all of its horizons. The soil profile
extends from the soil surface to the parent rock material. The regolith includes all of the
weathered material within the profile. The regolith has two components: the solum and the
saprolitite. The soil profile has four distinct layers: 1) O horizon; 2) A horizon; 3) B horizon, or
subsoil; and 4) C horizon, or soil base (Figure below). The O horizon has freshly decomposing
organic matter—humus—at its surface, with decomposed vegetation at its base.

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2.4 Soil Chemical Properties of Mineral Soil

Chemical properties of the soil are important to soil fertility, plant growth and reproduction.
That is why it is important to understand how chemical properties of the soil interact to affect
the soil’s capacity to store and release nutrients, and how soil chemistry can affect soil
structure. Chemical properties of soils include the following aspects: inorganic matters of
soil, organic matters in soil, colloidal properties of soil particles and soil reactions and
buffering action in acidic soils and basic soils. The chemical side of a soil is extremely
important and is key to maintenance of the correct balance of the available nutrients in the
soil. This is largely determined by the organic-matter content and its humus percentage; this
is the ‘store house’ of nutrients on any farm. The extent to which minerals have a dominant
presence or not, affects the release of specific nutrients. Supplementing shortages is
important, but the right balance is even more important. The soil only produces nutrients if
you have the right balance. Chemical and physical properties impact biological properties.
Optimal chemical and physical properties will lead to optimal biological properties and soil
functions i.e. nutrient and water cycling.

Among the chemical soil properties most useful as indicators of soil quality are (i)
mineralogy (ii) organic matter content (iii) cation exchange capacity (iv) salinity and (v) pH
(acidity or alkalinity)

Soil chemical properties include concentrations of specific chemicals (e.g. phosphorus,

nitrogen, carbon, major cations (calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium), sulfur, trace
metals and elements), pH, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, salinity, sodium
adsorption ratio, enzymes and electrical conductivity. These properties affect processes such
as nutrient cycling, biologic activity, soil formation, pollutant fate and erosion.

(i) Ion exchange

Ion exchange is a reversible interchange of one species of ion present in an insoluble solid with
another of like charge present in a solution surrounding the solid. What are ion exchange resins?
Ion exchange is a reversible chemical reaction where dissolved ions are removed from solution
and replaced with other ions of the same or similar electrical charge. Ion exchange is used in
softening or demineralizing of water, purification of chemicals, and separation of substances.

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Ion exchange involves the movement of cations (positively charged elements like calcium,
magnesium, and sodium) and anions (negatively charged elements like chloride, and compounds
like nitrate) through the soils.

The terms ion exchange, deionization and demineralization are often used synonymously to refer
to the same process.

(ii) Soil reaction or Soil pH

Soil pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. It is a measure of the concentration of free
hydrogen ions (H?) and hydroxide ions (OH¯) that are in the soil. The total range of the pH scale
is from 0 to 14. Soil pH is neutral when it is 7 and acid when the pH is less than 7 and alkaline
when it is greater than 7. A neutral pH occurs where the hydrogen (H?) and hydroxide (OH¯)
concentrations are equal (H+= OH¯). Soil pH is directly related to base saturation; as base
saturation increases, so dose pH.

Buffer pH

In addition to soil pH, many soil tests provide a reading called buffer pH (sometimes called lime
index). Soil pH is a measure of hydrogen ion (H?) concentration in the soil solution, which is
called active acidity—an indicator of current soil conditions. However, there are hydrogen ions,
referred to a reserve acidity that are released into the soil solution to replace those neutralized by
the lime.

(iii) Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a measure of a soil’s capacity to hold (or adsorb) positively
charged (cations) nutrients. The major soil cations include: calcium (Ca2?), magnesium (Mg2?),
potassium (K?), sodium (Na?), hydrogen (H?), ammonium (NH4?), and aluminum (Al3?). The
unit of measurement commonly used to express CEC is centimoles of positive charge per
kilogram of soil (cmol/kg) and is equivalent to the units formerly used to express CEC—
milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil (meq/100g). Soils with a greater clay or organic matter
content will have a higher CEC. Examples of CEC values for different soil textures are as
follows in table 5.1.
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 (iv) Electrical Conductivity (EC)
Electrical conductivity (ECe) is a measure of the total soluble salt concentration in a soil (i.e.,
salinity). Sodium chloride is the most common salt and others include bicarbonates, sulfates, and
carbonates of calcium, potassium, and magnesium. A high EC value corresponds with high
amounts of soluble salts, and vice versa. ECe values can be expressed in micromhos/cm
(μmhos/cm), millimhos/ centimeter (mmhos/cm), or decisiemens/meter (dS/m).

(v) Base Saturation

Base saturation refers to the proportion of cation exchange sites in the soil that are occupied by
the various base cations—potassium (K?), calcium (Ca2?), magnesium (Mg2?), and sodium,
(Na?). The percent base saturation is calculated as follows:

(vi) Sodium Adsorption Ratio

Soil sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is expresses the proportion of sodium (Na?) relative to the
proportions of calcium (Ca2?) and magnesium (Mg2?). Soil SAR is calculated from soil-test
extractable levels of sodium, calcium, and magnesium (expressed in milliequivalents/liter,
meq/L). The formula for calculating sodium adsorption ratio is:

(vii) Exchangeable Sodium Percentage

Sodium levels are evaluated based on exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). ESP is the
percentage of soil exchange sites occupied by sodium (Na?) and is calculated by dividing the
concentration of sodium cations by the total cation exchange capacity—ESP = (exchangeable
sodium/CEC) x 100. Units of concentration for ESP are milliequivalents per 100g (meq/100 g).

2.5 Soil Organic Matter

Soil organic matter is a measurement of the amount of plant and animal residue in the soil. It has
several important implications for soil fertility. Organic matter acts as a revolving nutrient bank
account, which releases necessary available nutrients over an extended period to the vines. Soil

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organic matter is a source of both macronutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as
micronutrients including iron, copper, and zinc.

2.6 Macronutrients
Macronutrients that may be tested in soil include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg). Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are
considered “primary” macronutrients, because they are required in higher quantities than sulfur,
calcium and magnesium (“secondary” macronutrients), and because vines develop nitrogen,
phosphorous, and potassium deficiencies more often.

2.7 Micronutrients
Iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), boron (B), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), chlorine (Cl), and
molybdenum (Mo) may also be listed on a soil test report. Micronutrients are required by plants
in small quantities with the availability directly dependent on the soil pH. Where the pH is high,
manganese and zinc are inaccessible to plants since these elements do not remain in solution. In
soils with low pH, boron and zinc shortages may also be expected.

3.0 Biological Properties

An incredible diversity of organism’s make-up the soil food web ranging in size from the tiniest
one-celled bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa, to the more complex nematodes and micro-
arthropods, to the visible earthworms, insects, and small vertebrates. While some soil fauna can
cause diseases in plants, the vast majority of soil fauna and flora are critical to soil quality. They
affect soil structure and, therefore, soil erosion and water availability. They can protect plants
from pests and diseases and are central to decomposition and nutrient cycling. The maintenance
of this living aspect of the soil is essential to the maintenance of a healthy field.

Soil microbiology is the scientific discipline that is concerned with the study of all biological
aspects of the life that exist in the soil environment. Soil microorganisms are plant flora and
fauna including bacteria, actinonomycetes, viruses, fungi, nematode and protozoa that
produce plant growth regulators and metabolites that affect the plant growth and
development. Soil microorganisms are critical in decomposing organic residues and recycling
soil nutrients. They provide nutrients to crops, enhance soil health and crop outputs. Soil

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microorganisms play a significant part in tolerance to plant diseases. Considering the
environmental damage associated with use of chemical fertilization, a research priority on
optimizing plant-soil microbe nutritional interactions is essential for more sustainable
agricultural systems Microorganisms in soil are important because they affect soil structure
and fertility. Both plants and microorganisms obtain their nutrients from soil and change soil
properties by organic litter deposition and metabolic activities, respectively. Microorganisms
have a range of direct effects on plants through e.g. Manipulation of hormone signaling and
protection against pathogens.

Soil Microbiology: Soil microbiology is the study of organisms in soil, their functions, and
how they affect soil properties. Soil microbiology is the scientific discipline that is concerned
with the study of all biological aspects of the life that exist in the soil environment.
Microorganisms in soil are important because they affect soil structure and fertility. Both plants
and microorganisms obtain their nutrients from soil and change soil properties by organic
litter deposition and metabolic activities, respectively. Microorganisms have a range of direct
effects on plants through e.g. manipulation of hormone signaling and protection against
pathogens.

3.1 Importance of Microorganism

• For cycling of C, N and other nutrients.
• Affect the structure and fertility of different soils.
• Responsible for maintaining soil quality and health
• Soil microbes recycle nutrients.
• Soil organisms promote plant growth.
• Soil microbes control pests and diseases.
• Soil microbes create soil structure
• Used for remediation (Pseudomonas sp.)
Microorganisms in the soil are grouped into two:
 Soil fauna (Micro fauna)- Protozoa, nematodes, earthwporms, ants and rodents
 Soil Flora (Micro flora) - Bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes

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Relative proportion/percentage of various soil microorganisms are: Bacteria-aerobic (70%)
anaerobic (13%), actinomycetes (13%), fungi (3%), and (algae, protozoa, viruses) 0.2-0.8%.
Soil microorganisms play key role in the nutrient transformations. One gram of topsoil may
contain a) As many as one billion bacteria. b) Up to 100 million actinomycetes. c) One million
fungi. d) 100 nematodes.

3.2 Soil Flora

(i) Bacteria
Bacteria are the most numerous type of soil organism: every gram of soil contains at least a
million of these tiny one-celled organisms. One of the major benefits bacteria provide for plants
is in making nutrients available to them.

Role of Bacteria in Soil:

Bacteria are important in agricultural soils because they contribute to the carbon cycle by
fixation (photosynthesis) and decomposition. There are many types of bacteria but the focus
here is on those that are important for agriculture, e.g., Rhizobium and actinomycetes.
Biochemical process of bacteria include (a) Nitrogen fixation (Nitrobacter sp.) (b) Degradation
(sulphur degradation and hydrocarbon degradation)

(ii) Fungi

Fungi come in many different species, sizes, and shapes in soil. Some species appear as
threadlike colonies, while others are one-celled yeasts. They are eukaryotic and hence more
closely related to plants and animals than to bacteria. They also have membrane bound
organelles such as mitochondria. Fungi have a cell wall composed of glucans and chitin.

Role of Fungi in Soil:

They are predominate the soil biomass. They release nutrients from soil minerals. Saprotrophic
fungi play a critical role in the global carbon cycle. Help trap nematodes that are harmful to
plants. Produce plant hormones. Mycorrhizae fungi - live in or on plant roots thereby:

a) Increase uptake of water and nutrients by roots.

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b) Produce hormones and antibiotics that help plant growth and prevent diseases.
c) The fungi benefit by taking in the nutrients from the roots they live in.

Saprotrophic fungi play a critical role in the global carbon cycle. Arbuscular (AM) and
ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi form symbioses with the broadest range of host plants.

Many fungi aid plants by breaking down organic matter or by releasing nutrients from soil
minerals. Fungi are generally quick to colonize larger pieces of organic matter and begin the
decomposition process. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (Mycorrhizae) fungi are beneficial soil
organisms that contribute to many aspects of soil health. Mycorrhizal fungi form a symbiotic
association with plant roots. Symbiosis is a close association between different species.
Mycorrhizal fungi are especially effective in helping plants acquire phosphorus, a nutrient that is
highly immobile in the soil.

(iii) Actinomycetes
Actinomycetes are gram-positive aerobic bacteria that belong to the order of Actinomycetes
Known by its substrate and aerial mycelium production. They grow optimally at alkaline pH.

Role of Actinomycetes in Soil:

Actinomycetes inhabit the rhizosphere of agricultural crops, where they increase soil fertility
through recycling of organic matter and solubilizing phosphate. They form associations with
some non-leguminous plants and fix N, which is then available to both the host and other plants
in the near vicinity.

(iv) Algae
The term algae are used to describe a large collection of photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms.
Algae are a very wide and varied group of simple, usually autotrophic organisms. Algae can
make its own nutrients through a process known as photosynthesis. Reproduction in algae occurs
in both asexual and sexual forms. Asexual reproduction occurs by spore formation.

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Role of Algae in Soil
They also play a significant role in the soil where they are used as biofertilizer and soil
stabilizers. Its plays an important role in the maintenance of soil fertility especially in
tropical soils. By joining up soil particles in a manner that eliminates and avoids soil erosion,
the algae help improve the potential for preservation of water in soils over longer periods of
time

4.0 Soil Fauna

(i) Protozoa
These are single-celled, eukaryotic microorganism. When protozoa eat bacteria, they speed up
the cycling of nitrogen, making nitrogen more available to plants. They are larger than
bacteria, varying from a few microns to a few millimeters.
Role of Protozoa in Soil
They play an important role in maintaining microbial/bacterial equilibrium in the soil. Some
protozoa have been recently used as biological control agents against organisms that cause
harmful diseases in plants. Their population in arable soil ranges from 10,000 to 100,000 per
gram of soil and they are abundant in surface soil.
(ii) Nematodes also called roundworms.
The number of named species is about 20,000. Nematodes are bilaterally symmetrical, elongate,
and usually tapered at both ends. Nematodes range in size from microscopic to 7 metres. This
speeds up nutrient recycling. Role of Nematode in Soil: Nematodes enhance soil quality in four
major areas: regulate the populations of other soil organisms, mineralize nutrients into plant-
available forms, provide a food source for other soil organisms and consume disease-causing
organisms. Nematodes are important nutrient mineralizers. When nematodes consume bacteria
or fungi, they release excess ammonium (NH4+). The harmless nematodes eat decaying plants,
soil microbes and other nematodes and release nutrients from the bodies of their prey.
(iii) Earthworms
Earthworms are commonly found in soil, eating a wide variety of organic matter. Earthworms
are some of the most important soil animals; they have the capability to maintain the fertility of
the soil and therefore play a key role in sustainability. They are also known as farmer’s friend,
ploughman of the field, intestines of the earth, ecological engineers, and biological
indicators. Earthworms are functionally very important and diverse and therefore potentially
useful for the management of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Role of Earthworms in Soil:

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Research has showed that worm casts release four times more phosphorus than does surface
soil. Earth worms influence the supply of nutrients through their tissues but largely through their
burrowing activities; they produce aggregates and pores (i.e., biostructures) in the soil and/or on
the soil surface, thus affecting its physical properties, nutrient cycling, and plant growth. Benefits
of Earthworm a) Improved productivity b) Improved soil structure c) Improved drainage d)
Improved nutrient availability
(iv) Moles
Any burrowing, often blind insectivore in the family Talpidae. Most species have short legs and
tail, a pointed head, velvety greyish fur, no external ears, and a strong odour. They range from
3.5 to 8 in. (9 to 20 cm) long. Moles are active day and night, digging surface tunnels in search
of earthworms, grubs, and other invertebrates.
Roles of Moles in Soil: Mole activity is a sign of healthy soils. Because moles prefer loamy,
rich soils that harbor their prey. Due to their tunnels being major sources of soul aeration,
and utilization by other species, moles are considered ecosystem engineers. Moles can be
beneficial for an area's soil. Mole tunnelling results in lawn aeration. Moles are responsible for
controlling grub populations.

5. SOIL COLLODS
Colloids are defined as a two phase state in which one material in very finely divided state (less
that 0.001 mm (1 micrometre) is dispersed through a second phase.

There are two types of colloids:

(i) Inorganic colloids
(ii) Organic colloids
Inorganic colloids are further categorized into 3 namely:
(i) Layer silicate clays
(ii) Iron and Aluminum oxide clays (sesquioxides)
(iii) Allophane associated amorphous clays
While Organic colloids only comprise humus

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5.1 Properties of Soil Colloids
The following are the 8 properties of soil colloids
(1) Size
(2) Surface area
(3) Surface charges
(4) Adsorption
(5) Swelling and Shrinking
(6) Cohesion
(7) Adhesion
(8) Dispersion and Flocculation

(1) Size
The inorganic and organic colloids are extremely small in size, less than 2 micro metres (<0.001
mm) in diameter

(2) Surface area

Because of their small size, all colloids have a larger external surface area per unit of mass

(3) Surface charge

Most organic and inorganic soil colloids carry a negative charge. The magnitude of the charge is
known as zeta potential. The presence and intensity of the particle determines the attraction and
repulsion of particles towards each other thereby influencing both the physical and chemical
properties

(4) Adsorption of cations

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As the colloids possess a negative charge they attract and attach the ions of positive charge on
colloidal surfaces. They attract cations such as H+, AL 3+, Ca 2+, and Mg 2+

(5) Swelling and Shrinkage

Some soil clay colloids belonging to smectite group (such as montmorillonite) swell when wet
and shrink when dry. Soils dominated by kaolinite chlorite, or fine grained micas do not swell or
shrink. Vermiculite group is intermediate in swelling and shrinking characteristics.

(6) Cohesion (Attractive force between similar molecules or materials)

This indicates the tendency of clay particles to stick together. This tendency is due to the
attraction of clay particles for water molecules held between them. When colloidal substances
are wetted, water first adheres to individual clay particles and then bring about cohesion between
the two or more adjacent colloidal particles

(7) Adhesion (Attractive force between different molecules or materials)

This refers to the attraction of colloidal materials to the surface of any other body or substance
with which it comes in contact.

(8) Dispersion and Flocculation

As long as colloidal material remain negatively charged, they repel each other and the
suspension remains stable. If on the other hand they loose the charge, or if the magnitude of the
charge reduces, the particles coalesce and form flocks or loose aggregates and settle down. The
phenomenon of coalescing together and formation of flocks is called Flocculation. The reverse
process of breaking up flocks into individual particles is known as de-flocculation or dispersion.

5.2 Significance of Soil Colloids

• The organic and inorganic contaminants are often transported through colloidal particles
thus providing a remedy to pollution

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• Almost all surface controlled processes including adsorption, reactions, nucleation and
precipitation involve colloids. They provide a surface upon which plant access their
nutrients
• Colloids are made in soils and hence affect not only the chemical transport of otherwise
immobile chemicals but also exert a strong influence on soil hydraulic properties
Summary

Soil colloids are the most active site of the soil which includes organic and inorganic
clay. colloids are small particle-sized minerals, having large external surface area, high
CEC, the internal and external soil colloids surface carried negative and/or positive
charges, and also the individual particle mostly spherical, non-structured, or no
crystalline. Silica is the major structural element contained in many mineral soils. Soil
colloids can be identified one from the other based on their composition, tetrahedral
arrangement, and octahedral sheets of silica and also alumina. Soil colloids are very vital
for nutrient reserving which contributes to most essential plant nutrients not be removed
by the percolating water.

6.0 Essential Plant Nutrients

Essential plant nutrients are elements that plants need for proper growth. Sixteen elements are
considered essential nutrients for plants. These are carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H),
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), iron
(Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl).

Plants absorb carbon and oxygen from the air through their leaves as carbon dioxide (CO2). In
the photosynthesis process, they transform carbon dioxide and water into hydrogen, carbon and
oxygen. All other nutrients are absorbed through their root system.
Plants from the legumes family can use atmospheric nitrogen. They form a symbiotic
relationship with specific bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and then into
ammonium, which the plant can absorb. This process is called ‘nitrogen fixation’.

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Plants need 16 to 17 essential nutrients to grow, which are grouped into three categories based on
how much the plant needs:

(i) Primary nutrients

Also known as macronutrients, these are the nutrients plants need in the largest
amounts. They include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and
potassium.
(ii) Secondary nutrients
These nutrients are needed in moderate amounts and include calcium, magnesium and
sulfur
(iii) Micro- or trace nutrients

These nutrients are needed in tiny amounts, and include boron, chlorine, copper, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, and zinc.
Plants get some nutrients from the soil, water, and air, but others need to be added with
fertilizer. Factors influencing nutrient uptake, soil pH, the balance of nutrients in the soil,
and specific bacteria that mineralize nitrogen and phosphorus all affect how available
nutrients are to plants.

6.1 Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

Plants can show visible signs of nutrient deficiencies or excesses. For example, phosphorus
deficiency can cause stunted growth and dark green leaves, while potassium deficiency can
cause leaf edges to curl and turn brown. Too much of a nutrient can also be harmful, leading
to nutrient toxicity, stunted growth, or plant death.

Table 1. Common average nutrient requirements of crops are in the

following ranges:

Typical
Typical daily Secondary Typical daily daily
Macronutrients uptake nutrients uptake Micronutrients uptake

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 Nitrogen (N) 1.5-4 kg/ha Calcium (Ca) 0.5-1.5 kg/ha Iron (Fe) 20-50 g/ha

Phosphorus (as Magnesium Manganese

P2O5) 0.3-0.7 kg/ha (Mg) 0.2-0.5 kg/ha (Mn) 5-20 g/ha

Potassium (as
K2O) 1.5-5 kg/ha Sulfur (SO42-) 0.2-0.5 kg/ha Zinc (Zn) 5-10 g/ha

Copper (Cu) 2-8 g/ha

6.2 Nutrient Uptake by Plants

Plant roots absorb nutrients from soil through a series of processes, including:

Root interception: The root "bumps into" a nutrient ion as it grows through the soil.

Mass flow: Nutrients in the soil solution flow to the root as water is absorbed.
Diffusion: Nutrients move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Carrier-mediated transport: Nutrients are transported across the plasma membrane by
carriers.

Plants can absorb specific ionic forms of the nutrients, as described in the table below. In that
respect, nitrogen is unique, as it can be absorbed either as an anion (NO3–) or a cation (NH4+).
The two nitrogen forms are very different in their metabolism within the plant and in their effect
on the root system environment. Missing or inadequate supplies of nutrients adversely affect
plant growth, leading to stunted growth, slow growth, chlorosis, or cell death.

Plants absorb nutrients from the soil in the form of ions, which are electrically charged forms of
elements. Here are some examples of the forms in which plants absorb nutrients:

Nitrogen: Plants absorb nitrogen as nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+)

Phosphorus: Plants absorb phosphorus as dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-, HPO42-) and
phosphate (PO43+)
Potassium: Plants absorb potassium as potassium ion (K+)
Calcium: Plants absorb calcium as calcium ion (Ca2+)
Magnesium: Plants absorb magnesium as Mg2+

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Sulfur: Plants absorb sulfur as sulfate (SO4-)
Nickel: Plants absorb nickel as Ni2+ ion

6.3 Nutrient roles and their deficiency / toxicity symptoms in plants

Nitrogen for Green, Leafy Growth

Nitrogen is the growth element that promotes green, leafy growth. As a primary
component of proteins, nitrogen is part of every living cell. Therefore, this element is
usually more responsible for increasing plant growth than any other nutrient. Inside the
plant, nitrogen is converted into amino acids, the building blocks for proteins. Because all
enzymes are proteins, nitrogen is necessary for enzymatic reactions in plants. As part of
the chlorophyll molecule, nitrogen is directly involved in photosynthesis. It helps the
plant produce and use carbohydrates. It is a part of plant DNA. The percentage
concentration of nitrogen in fertilizers is the first number listed on a fertilizer bag or box.

Deficiency

Inadequate nitrogen causes light green or yellowish foliage; slower, stunted growth; and
shedding of older leaves in some plants. The yellowing appears first on the oldest leaves,
then on younger ones as the deficiency becomes more severe. A deficiency can be easily
corrected with nitrogen fertilizers. Overfertilizing with nitrogen can cause excessing
vegetative growth, lodging (falling over), and poor flowering and fruit set in many plants.

Environmental Reactions

Nitrogen is very mobile in the soil, and nitrogen in the form of nitrate has a tendency to
leach away from the root zone. Nitrogen can also be lost to the atmosphere. Certain
fertilizers, particularly urea, are easily converted to volatile forms of nitrogen if they are
watered or incorporated into the soil after application. Soil testing for nitrogen is not
reliable, because it is so mobile in the soil. Timing of nitrogen fertilizer application
should be crop-specific Excessive nitrates in drinking water is an environmental concern

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—another reason to maximize nitrogen utilization by plants and minimize excessive
applications.

Phosphorus

Phosphorus is essential in energy transformations in the plant. Without adequate

phosphorus, carbohydrates manufactured in the leaves could not be transported to the
flower or developing fruit, or stored in roots or bulbs. Phosphorus is usually associated
with flowers, fruiting, and carbohydrate storage in roots, tubers, and bulbs.

Deficiency

Phosphorus deficiency is difficult to detect in most plants because it results in an overall

stunted plant, mimicking other health problems. With severe deficiency, dead areas may
develop on the leaves, fruit, and stems. Older leaves will be affected before younger ones
as phosphorus moves to the growing part of the plant. A purple or reddish color may be
seen on deficient corn plants. Because phosphorus is not mobile in the soil, correcting a
deficiency once the plant is growing is often not practical. Proper phosphorus fertilization
at planting time avoids phosphorus nutritional problems during the season.

Environmental Reactions

Unlike nitrogen, phosphorus is not very mobile in soil. This makes phosphorus an easy
nutrient to analyze in the lab. If it has built up in the soil, don’t add any more. If it is low,
add some.

High phosphorus in the landscape can cause surface water pollution problems. Excess
phosphorus in surface waters promotes excessive growth of algae and other aquatic
vegetation. As this vegetation dies, decomposition takes oxygen out of the water, which
can cause fish kills. This process, called eutrophication, is the result of excessive
phosphorus runoff into lakes and streams, especially where soil erosion is also a problem.
This is the main reason for concern about over fertilization with phosphorus-containing
and organic fertilizers.

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Potassium

Potassium is essential for photosynthesis, as regulation of cell turgidity, respiration, and

water movement in the plant. It also controls the opening and closing of the plant’s
stomata. Adequate potassium fertilization helps plants cope with drought stress, increases
disease resistance, improves winter hardiness, and improves crop quality.

Deficiency
One of the most common potassium deficiency signs is yellowing along the leaf margins
of older leaves. Plants deficient in potassium grow slowly and have poorly developed root
systems and weak stalks. Therefore, lodging is common in potassium-deficient plants.
Usually, by the time a deficiency is observed on annuals, potassium fertilization is of
little value for the current season. Fertilizer potassium is water-soluble, and the plant will
take it up in proportion to that available in the soil. Because potassium is taken up as a
cation, excess potassium may compete with the uptake of other cations, such as
magnesium or calcium.

Potassium is taken up as a cation and is held by the soil’s cation exchange capacity. Soils
with high clay or organic matter have a higher cation exchange capacity and can retain
more potassium. Potassium is relatively easy to test in the lab.

6.4 Secondary Plant Nutrients

Calcium

Calcium stimulates root and leaf development. It forms compounds that are part of cell
walls and strengthens plant structure. Calcium helps reduce plant nitrates by setting in
motion several enzyme systems that neutralize organic acids in the plant. Calcium also
promotes root growth, molybdenum availability, and uptake of other nutrients. It
indirectly promotes yields by reducing the toxicity of aluminum and manganese in the
soil.

Deficiency

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Poor root growth is a common sign of calcium deficiency. In severe cases, the growing
point dies. Calcium-deficient roots often turn black and rot. (Soil nematodes, diseases,
chemical damage and aluminum toxicity can cause similar problems.) Because calcium is
not translocated in the plant like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, young leaves and
the growing points of shoots develop characteristic symptoms. New tissue needs calcium
pectate for cell wall formation. Generally calcium deficiency will cause gelatinous leaf
tips. In peanuts, calcium deficiency is commonly observed as “pops.”

Magnesium

Magnesium is part of the chlorophyll molecule, so it is actively involved in

photosynthesis. This secondary plant nutrient also aids in phosphate metabolism and plant
respiration and sets in motion several enzyme systems.

Deficiency
Deficiencies generally appear first on the lower, older leaves because magnesium is
translocated within the plant. Older leaves show a yellowish, bronze, or reddish color,
while leaf veins remain green. Soils that have been limed with dolomitic limestone (6
percent or more magnesium) rarely have magnesium-deficient plants. Sometimes an
imbalance between calcium, potassium, and magnesium may increase a magnesium
deficiency. Excess potassium fertilization may induce a magnesium deficiency when the
soil contains borderline levels of magnesium.

Sulfur

Sulfur, like nitrogen, is essential in protein formation because it is an essential

component of three amino acids: methionine, cysteine, and cystine. Organic sulfur
compounds are also found in some plants such as garlic, onions, and members of the
cabbage family, contributing to the characteristic odor and taste of these vegetables.

Deficiency

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Because sulfur is an essential component of proteins, deficiency symptoms are similar to
those of nitrogen. Deficient plants show a pale green color, generally appearing first on
younger leaves. Eventually, the entire plant can take on a pale green appearance. Sulfur
deficiencies show up most frequently in sandy soils in the early spring. Reddish colored
soils and clayey soils tend to hold sulfate anions (SO 4 2- ). Sulfate anions leach through
sandier soils just like nitrate anions (NO 3 -). Like nitrogen, sulfur can be mineralized from
soil organic matter. In cool soils, mineralization is slow because microorganism activity
in the soil is slow.

Sulfur deficiencies usually develop shallow-rooted crops during cool weather, such as
corn and winter legumes. It is also deposited in rainfall from natural sources and
pollution estimated at 5 to 10 pounds per acre per year.

6.5 Micronutrients

Micronutrients are just as essential as the primary and secondary nutrients, but are needed
in much smaller amounts. Most micronutrients are essential in the specific enzymatic
reactions in the plants. Concentration of plant-available micronutrients is sufficient in
soils as long as soil pH is maintained, so deficiencies are rare.

Boron

Boron (B) is critical for cell wall structure and function in the plant. Deficiency
symptoms can appear as deformed fruits/flowers or thick, short petioles. Excess boron
can be toxic to plants. Boron should be applied according to soil test recommendations
for specific crops.

Copper

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Copper (Cu) is present in several enzymes and certain plant proteins. No copper
deficiencies have been observed in mineral soils in Nakuru county wheat growing areas.

Iron

Iron (Fe) is necessary for the maintenance of chlorophyll in plants. An iron deficiency
results in chlorotic, yellow tissue between the veins of new leaves. Iron deficiencies are
usually induced by high soil pH (above 7.0), poor root growth due to soil compaction or
disease, excessive phosphorus fertilization, or soil drainage. Fertilization with iron may
be only partially effective in correcting an iron deficiency because other soil properties
cause the condition, not the iron content of the soil itself. Foliar fertilization with iron
will temporarily correct the deficiency.

Manganese

Manganese (Mn) activates many enzymes. Deficiencies of iron and manganese are
similar, and both are usually induced by high soil pH (above 7.0). Manganese toxicity is
more common than deficiencies in acid soils. Maintaining the soil pH between 5.5 and
6.5 will assure adequate manganese availability and avoid toxicity.

Molybdenum

Molybdenum (Mo) is required for the normal assimilation of nitrogen in plants. Visual
molybdenum deficiency symptoms are similar to nitrogen deficiencies. Molybdenum
deficiency is typically observed only in legumes in very acid soils (pH below 5.5).
Liming will usually correct a molybdenum deficiency.

Zinc

Zinc (Zn) is also essential in selected enzymatic reactions. Deficiencies are most common
on pecans/fruit trees and on corn in the start of rains. In maize, green and yellow broad
striping on new leaves in the whorl (an arrangement of three or more plant parts in a
circle around the same point) characterizes zinc deficiency. It is sometimes called white
bud of corn. Deficiencies occur primarily in sandy soils with a pH above 6.5 in the early

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spring or in soils that have recently been limed. Fruit trees and pecans have special zinc
needs. However, the continued, indiscriminate use of zinc fertilizers can result in an
excessive buildup to the point where zinc toxicity could be a problem on legumes, which
are sensitive to high soil zinc levels.

Chlorine

Chlorine (Cl) is known to be an essential nutrient, but deficiencies are difficult to find in
nature because chlorine exists in soils, most fertilizers, rainfall and the atmosphere.

6.6 Factors affecting nutrients availability

Many factors can affect how plants absorb nutrients, including:

Environmental factors

Seasonality, CO2 levels, and temperature can all affect nutrient absorption.

Plant factors
Genetics, variety, root architecture, and stage of growth can all affect nutrient absorption.

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