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 Basic Introduction to
Bioelectromagnetics
Third Edition

James R. Nagel, Cynthia M. Furse,

Douglas A. Christensen, and Carl H. Durney
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Furse, Cynthia, 1963- author. | Christensen, Douglas A., author. |

Durney, Carl H., 1931- author. | Nagel, James Richard, 1980- author.
Title: Basic introduction to bioelectromagnetics / Cynthia Furse, Douglas A.
Christensen, Carl H. Durney, and James Nagel.
Description: Third edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, [2019] |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018015039 (print) | LCCN 2018015791 (ebook) | ISBN
9780429849473 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9780429849466 (ePub) | ISBN
9780429849459 (Mobipocket) | ISBN 9781498780018 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780429455681 (ebook)
Subjects: | MESH: Electromagnetic Phenomena | Biophysical Phenomena
Classification: LCC QP82.2.E43 (ebook) | LCC QP82.2.E43 (print) | NLM QT
34.8 | DDC 612/.01442--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018015039

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 For Dad
For Katie
For Laraine
For Marie
Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

1 Electric and magnetic fields: Basic concepts �������������� 1

1.1 I ntroduction 1
1.2 Electric field concepts 2
1.3 Magnetic field concepts 7
1.4 Sources of electric fields
(Maxwell’s equations)11
1.5 Sources of magnetic fields
(Maxwell’s equations)14
1.6 Electric and magnetic field interactions
with materials17
1.7 Other electromagnetic field definitions 21
1.8 Waveforms used in electromagnetics 21
1.9 Sinusoidal EM functions 23
1.10 Root mean square or effective values 25
1.11 Wave properties in lossless materials 28
1.12 Boundary conditions for lossless
materials30
1.13 Complex numbers in electromagnetics
(the phasor transform)34
1.14 Wave properties in lossy materials 36
1.15 Boundary conditions for lossy materials 41
1.16 Energy absorption 42
1.17 Electromagnetic behavior as a function
of size and wavelength44
1.18 Electromagnetic dosimetry 48

vii
Contents

2 EM behavior when the wavelength is large compared

to the object size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.1 I ntroduction 53
2.2 Low-frequency approximations 54
2.3 Fields induced in objects by incident E
fields in free space56
2.4 E Field patterns for electrode
configurations61
2.4.1 Capacitor-plate electrodes 61
2.4.2 Displacement current 66
2.4.3  In vitro electrode configurations 67
2.5 Electrodes for reception and stimulation
in the body74
2.5.1 Electrodes for reception 76
2.5.1.1 Electrophysiological
assessment 76
2.5.1.2 Intracellular recording:
receiving signals from
the brain and nerves 76
2.5.1.3 Impedance imaging 77
2.5.1.4 Impedance monitoring
for lung water content
and percent body fat 78
2.5.2 Electrodes for stimulation 81
2.5.2.1 Cardiac pacemakers
and defibrillators 81
2.5.2.2 Pulsed electromagnetic
fields 82
2.5.2.3 Direct nerve stimulation 83
2.5.2.4 Ablation 83
2.6 Fields induced in objects by incident B
fields in free space84
2.7 E field patterns for in vitro applied B fields 91
2.8 Measurement of low-frequency electric
and magnetic fields99
2.9 Summary 108

3 EM behavior when the wavelength is about the same

size as the object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.1 Introduction 109
3.2 Waves in lossless media 110

viii
 Contents

3.2.1 Spherical waves 110

3.2.2 Planewaves 114
3.3 Wave reflection and refraction 116
3.3.1 Planewave reflection at metallic
interfaces116
3.3.2 Planewave reflection and
refraction at dielectric interfaces126
3.4 Waves in lossy media 133
3.4.1 Waves in metals 133
3.4.2 Waves in lossy dielectrics 135
3.4.3 Energy absorption in lossy media 136
3.5 Transmission lines and waveguides 139
3.5.1 TEM systems 139
3.5.2 TEM systems for exposing
biological samples147
3.5.3 Waveguides 152
3.5.3.1 TE and TM mode
patterns in rectangular
waveguides 153
3.5.3.2 Mode excitation and
cutoff frequencies 154
3.5.3.3 Waveguide systems
for exposing biological
samples 158
3.6 Resonant systems 158
3.7 Antennas 164
3.8 Diffraction 177
3.8.1 Diffraction from apertures 177
3.8.2 Diffraction from periodic
structures180
3.9 Measurement of mid-frequency electric
and magnetic fields183
3.10 Summary 186

4 EM behavior when the wavelength is much smaller

than the object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.1 Introduction 189
4.2 Ray propagation effects 191
4.2.1 Refraction at dielectric interfaces192
4.2.2 Optical polarization and
reflection from dielectric
interfaces194

ix
Contents

4.2.3 R  ay tracing with mirrors and

lenses197
4.2.4 Imaging with lenses 200
4.2.5 Graded-index lenses 203
4.3 Total internal reflection and fiber optic
waveguides204
4.3.1 Multimode optical fibers 206
4.3.2 Single-mode optical fibers 208
4.4 Propagation of laser beams 208
4.4.1 Linewidths of laser beams 209
4.4.2 The Gaussian spherical profile 210
4.4.3 Propagation characteristics of a
Gaussian beam211
4.4.4 Focusing a Gaussian beam with
a lens213
4.4.5 Applying the Gaussian beam
equations214
4.5 Scattering from particles 216
4.5.1 Rayleigh scattering 217
4.5.2 Mie scattering 218
4.6 Photon interactions with tissues 221
4.6.1 Light scattering in tissues and
photon migration221
4.6.2 Tissue absorption and
spectroscopy222
4.7 X-Rays 225
4.8 Measurement of high-frequency electric
and magnetic fields (light)226
4.9 Summary 227

5 Bioelectromagnetic dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

5.1 I ntroduction 229
5.2 Polarization 232
5.3 Electrical properties of the human body 235
5.4 Human models 236
5.5 Energy absorption (SAR) 238
5.5.1 SARs at low frequencies 239
5.5.2 SAR as a function of frequency 240
5.5.3 Effects of polarization on SAR 243
5.5.4 Effects of object size on SAR 244
5.6 Extrapolating from experimental animal
results to those expected in humans245

x
 Contents

5.7  umerical methods for

N
bioelectromagnetic simulation247
5.7.1 The FDTD method 249
5.7.1.1 Computation of fields
in a human under a
60-Hz power line 250
5.7.1.2 Computation of
SAR from cellular
telephones 252
5.7.2 The impedance method 254
5.7.2.1 Calculation of the E
fields induced near
implants during MRI 255
5.7.2.2 Modeling an implant
in the human body 256
5.7.2.3 Results of the
numerical calculations 257
5.7.3 Finite difference and finite
element methods261
5.7.3.1 The finite difference
method (FDM) 262
5.7.3.2 The finite element
method (FEM) 263
5.8 Electromagnetic guidelines and
regulations264
5.8.1 Allowable frequencies 264
5.8.2 Limits on absorbed power 265
5.8.3 Localized exposure limits 266
5.8.4 Induced current and shock
guidelines267
5.8.5 Power-line and static field limits 268
5.9 Conclusion and summary 269
References 270

6 Electromagnetics in medicine: Today and tomorrow . . 271

6.1 I ntroduction 271
6.2 Fundamental potential and challenges 271
6.3 Hyperthermia for cancer therapy 275
6.3.1 Types of hyperthermia
applicators277
6.3.1.1 Capacitive applicators 277
6.3.1.2 Inductive applicators 278

xi
Contents

6.3.1.3 Radiative applicators 281

6.3.1.4 Invasive applicators 285
6.3.2 Engineering problems
remaining in hyperthermia 286
6.4 Magnetic effects 287
6.4.1 Magnetic resonance imaging 287
6.4.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy291
6.5 Proposed bioelectromagnetic effects 293
6.5.1 Soliton mechanisms 293
6.5.2 Spatial/temporal cellular
integration293
6.5.3 Stochastic resonance 294
6.5.4 Temperature-mediated alteration
of membrane ionic transport 294
6.5.5 Plasmon resonance mechanisms 294
6.5.6 Radon decay product attractors 294
6.5.7 Rectification by cellular
membranes294
6.5.8 Ion resonance 295
6.5.9 Ca++ oscillations 295
6.5.10 Magnetite interactions 295
6.6 Emerging bioelectromagnetic
applications295
6.6.1 Low-frequency applications 295
6.6.2 Medium-frequency applications 297
6.6.3 High-frequency applications 298
6.7 Conclusion 299

Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Appendix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

xii
Preface

While doing research in bioelectromagnetics (the interaction of e­ lectromagnetic

fields with biological systems) for more than 40 years, we have sensed the need
some life scientists have to understand the basic concepts and ­characteristic
behaviors of electromagnetic (EM) fields so they can work effectively with
­physicists and electrical engineers in interdisciplinary research. Because most
EM books are based heavily on vector calculus and partial differential equations,
however, little written information about EM fields is available to satisfy this
need. Many times over the years, life scientists have asked us for references to
EM books appropriate for them, but we could give none. These scientists wanted
to understand how the fields worked and what controlled them, what factors were
important in experimental setups and which were not. They had a great deal of
curiosity in how fields were applied in their specific medical application. Yet they
rarely, if ever, actually computed the fields themselves. These scientists needed a
strong intuitive understanding of electromagnetic fields. We wrote the first edition
of this book in an effort to fulfill that need, as well as to help others who want
to learn about electromagnetics but do not have the mathematical background to
understand typical books on electromagnetics. The second and third editions of
this book continue in that vein. The material is rearranged in many places to give
the reader the details “just in time” to understand the applications. The s­ econd
edition is also augmented by over 40 medical applications of electromagnetics
commonly found in clinical settings as well as a new and expanded Chapter 6
describing emerging methods and understanding about bioelectromagnetics.
These applications are used to illustrate the basic principles in this book and
how they are translated into real devices. For the third edition, we brought color
to the figures, providing an even more graphical view of the fields and how they
are controlled by the biological environment around them. We also updated and
added to the medical applications in Chapter 6.
The purpose of this book is to explain the basic concepts, fundamental principles,
and characteristic behaviors of electric and magnetic fields to those who do not
have a background in vector calculus and partial differential equations. In par-
ticular, it is intended for life scientists collaborating with engineers or physicists

xiii
Preface

in work involving the interaction of electromagnetic fields with biological sys-

tems. It should also be helpful to health physicists, industrial hygienists, and pub-
lic health workers concerned with possible hazards or beneficial applications of
­electromagnetic field exposure and to those concerned with magnetic ­resonance
imaging, implantable medical devices, electrophysiology, optical interactions with
tissue, wireless c­ ommunication devices, and more. Furthermore, this book may
also be useful to traditional electrical engineers and physicists who are l­earning
or have already learned the calculus-based mathematical calculations associated
with traditional electromagnetics but who would like to have a stronger intuitive
grasp of the subject.
In stark contrast to typical EM books that require a background in vector calculus
and partial differential equations, this book requires only a background in algebra
(some acquaintance with trigonometric functions would also be helpful), but it
explains in detail the basic concepts, fundamental principles, and characteristic
behaviors of EM fields using pictures, field maps, and graphs and numerous real-
world applications. The explanations include a minimum of m ­ athematical rela-
tionships, with the emphasis on qualitative behaviors and graphical ­descriptions.
Nevertheless, in spite of the de-emphasis on advanced mathematics, the concepts
of EM field theory are still treated in a comprehensive and a­ ccurate manner,
with probably more intuitive description than would be found in most traditional
­electromagnetics textbooks. The material covers the entire frequency spectrum
from direct current up through optical frequencies. Practical ­explanations are
given to help readers understand real situations involving EM fields. Over 200
illustrations are included to augment qualitative explanations.
The first chapter gives an introduction to the fundamentals of EM field theory
and explains how characteristic behaviors can be effectively grouped in three
categories defined by the wavelength of the EM fields compared to the size of
the objects with which they interact: (1) when the wavelength is much larger than
the size of the objects, (2) when it is about the same, and (3) when the wave-
length is much smaller than the size of the objects. Chapters 2–4, respectively,
explain the characteristic behaviors in each of these three categories and how
they are applied to applications in those frequency bands. Chapter 5 explains
some of the principles of EM fields that are quantified in detailed and complex
environments typical of bioelectromagnetic applications. This calculation of the
doses of the electromagnetic fields is called dosimetry. The book concludes with
Chapter 6, which discusses existing, emerging, and future medical applications
of bioelectromagnetics.

xiv
 Preface

We sincerely hope that this book will be useful (and enjoyable!) for its intended
readers. We welcome comments and suggestions for improving it.

James R. Nagel
Electrical Engineering
University of Utah

Cynthia M. Furse
Professor of Electrical Engineering
University of Utah

Douglas A. Christensen
Professor of Electrical Engineering
Professor of Bioengineering
University of Utah

Carl H. Durney
Professor Emeritus of Electrical Engineering
Professor Emeritus of Bioengineering
University of Utah

xv
Authors

James R. Nagel w  as born in El Sobrante, California, on November 10, 1980. He

received his BS in electrical engineering in 2004, followed by his MS in electrical
engineering in 2006, both from Brigham Young University. He then spent the year
of 2007 working for Lockheed Martin Technical Operations at Vandenberg Air
Force Base, California, before returning to the University of Utah in 2008. James
then completed his PhD, also in electrical engineering, in 2011. During that time,
he taught numerous courses in applied electromagnetics and numerical methods,
earning him the Thomas G. Stockham, Jr Medal for Teaching Excellence in 2012.
James worked on several projects for various startup companies, ranging from
light extraction with infrared LEDs to diffractive color splitting in liquid crystal
displays. In 2015, James finally returned to the University of Utah as a research
associate where he now studies eddy current separation of scrap metals and alloys.

Cynthia M. Furse was born in Stillwater, Maine, on May 7, 1963. She received
her BSEE degree in 1986, her MSEE in 1988, and her PhD in electrical engineer-
ing in 1994, all from the University of Utah. She was an NSF CISE Fellow at the
University of Utah from 1994 to 1997, where she developed computational meth-
ods for determining the absorption of electromagnetic fields in the head from
cellular telephones. She then was an assistant and associate professor of electrical
engineering at Utah State University (USU), where she taught electromagnetics,
wireless communication, antennas, numerical electromagnetics, microwave engi-
neering, and project management. While at USU, she established the Center of
Excellence for Smart Sensors to create and commercialize sensors for evaluating
complex environments such as the human body, underground geophysical phe-
nomenon, and wiring systems in aircraft. She was also the director of the Richard
and Moonyeen Anderson Wireless Teaching and Research Center. Dr. Furse was
the Professor of the Year in the College of Engineering at USU for the year 2000
and the Faculty Employee of the Year 2002. In 2002, she moved to the University
of Utah, where she is now a professor of electrical engineering and the Associate
Vice President for Research. Dr. Furse’s major biological research interests include
telemetry systems for the human body, simulation of fields in the body, and coil

xvii